Czasopisma naukowe Wydziału Prawa University of Bialystok
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Pontifical College – Law and Politics
No full textArtykuł poniższy ma na celu poprzez analizę literackich i prawniczych tekstów źródłowych pokazanie głównych ról, jakie odegrali w okresie republiki rzymskiej członkowie kolegium kapłańskiego pontyfików. Ich funkcje sakralne, takie jak prowadzenie kalendarza dies fasti i nefasti czy wydawanie dekretów w sprawach dotyczących ekspiacji w przypadku pojawienia się niekorzystnych znaków lub błędów rytualnych podczas sprawowania funkcji publicznych przez urzędników, niejednokrotnie przeplatały się z polityką. Takie błędy, jak wierzyli Rzymianie, mogły spowodować na przykład klęskę w walce. Wskazuję też na procedurę postępowania w przypadku wystąpienia błędu rytualnego. Pontyfikowie brali też udział w wyborze i inauguracji kapłanów, także z innych kolegiów. Odgrywali oni również istotną rolę w procedurze adrogacji – wiele informacji na temat ich zadań zachowało się w mowie Cycerona De domo sua. Niezmiernie istotną funkcją kolegium pontyfików była interpretacja prawa – nie tylko sakralnego, lecz także prywatnego. Poruszam ponadto kwestię ius Papirianum – zbioru prawa, którego opublikowanie przypisywane bywa pierwszemu republikańskiemu zwierzchnikowi kolegium pontyfików.
Najwięcej informacji o działalności kolegium pontyfików znaleźć można w tekstach literackich, głównie w Ab Urbe condita Tytusa Liwiusza. Prawnicze teksty dotyczące pontyfików zachowały się w Digestach, najbardziej znany jest chyba fragment Enchiridionu Pomponiusa. Jurysta podkreślił ich rolę w interpretacji prawa oraz legis actiones. O kolegium wspomniał także Gaius w Instytucjach.Through the analysis of literary and legal source texts, the following article aims to show the main roles played by members of the priestly college of pontiffs during the Roman Republic. Their sacred functions, such as managing the dies fasti and nefasti calendar, or issuing decrees on matters relating to expiation in the event of unfavourable signs or ritual errors appearing during the performance of public functions by magistrates, were often intertwined with politics. As the Romans believed, such errors could result in a defeat in a battle. Additionally, the article indicates the procedure to be followed in the event of a ritual error. Pontiffs also took part in the election and inauguration of priests, including those from other colleges. Moreover, they played an important role in the adrogatio procedure – a lot of information about their tasks is preserved in Cicero’s De domo sua speech. The interpretation of the law – not just sacred but the private one too, was an extremely important function of the college of pontiffs. I also raise the issue of ius Papirianum – a collection of legal regulations the publication of which is sometimes attributed to the first Republican head of the college of pontiffs.
Most information about the activities of the college of pontiffs can be found in literary texts, mainly in Titus Livius’ Ab Urbe condita. The legal texts concerning the pontiffs are preserved in the Digest, the most famous being probably a fragment of Pomponius’ Enchiridion. The jurist emphasised their role in the interpretation of the law and legis actiones. The college was also mentioned by Gaius in his Institutes
From the History of Contracts for the Benefit of a Third Party – The Entity Entitled to Demand Performance
No full textUmowa o świadczenie na rzecz osoby trzeciej jest jedną z podstawowych konstrukcji prawa cywilnego, jaka ukształtowała się w drodze wielowiekowej ewolucji, u której początku stała przeciwna jej rzymska zasada alteri stipulari nemo potest (nikt nie może zawrzeć umowy na rzecz osoby trzeciej). Dla zrozumienia konstrukcji dogmatycznej umowy na rzecz osoby trzeciej konieczna jest znajomość jej historycznej ewolucji, bowiem ogromna większość kwestii współcześnie spornych wynika z toczących się przez wieki dyskusji dotyczących uznania tej instytucji i szczegółów jej konstrukcji. Jedną z takich kwestii było to, kto nabywa roszczenie do dłużnika o spełnienie uzgodnionego świadczenia. Dopiero w XIX wieku ostatecznie przesądzono to, że owo roszczenie nabywa osoba trzecia i to bezpośrednio z umowy bez potrzeby akceptu tej umowy, jej ratyfikacji, przystąpienia do niej lub przelewu wierzytelności z tej umowy. Powstaje jednak pytanie, czy to roszczenie przysługuje tylko osobie trzeciej, czy także zastrzegającemu wierzycielowi, czy może ono przysługiwać tylko temu wierzycielowi i czy wtedy, kiedy przysługuje ono wierzycielowi, ma on prawo żądać świadczenia na własną rzecz.
Kolejny problem dotyczy tego, czy strony powinny wyraźnie w umowie ustalić, komu i ewentualnie na jakich warunkach przysługuje to roszczenie i czy można konstruować tu domniemanie, że roszczenie przysługuje osobie trzeciej lub wierzycielowi albo im obojgu. Problemy te podejmuję w rozwoju historycznym od prawa rzymskiego, w którym umowa na rzecz osoby trzeciej uprawniała tę osobę tylko w zupełnie wyjątkowych przypadkach, przez wszystkie kolejne epoki rozwoju prawa prywatnego, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem pandektystyki i propozycji zgłaszanych w toku prackomisji kodyfikacyjnych niemieckiego kodeksu cywilnego oraz wykładni art. 92 par. 1 kodeksu zobowiązań.A contract for the benefit of a third party is one of the fundamental constructions of the civil law, which has been shaped through centuries of evolution, at the beginning of which there was the opposing Roman principle of alteri stipulari nemo potest (no one can stipulate for another). In order to fully understand the dogmatic construction of that contract, it is necessary to know its historical evolution, because the vast majority of the currently controversial issues stem from centuries‑long debates over the recognition of this institution and the specifics of its structures. One such issue was determining who acquires the claim against the debtor for the fulfilment of the agreed performance. It was not until the 19th century that it was definitively established that this claim was acquired by the third party directly from the contract, without the need for acceptance of the contract, its ratification, accession to it, or the transfer of the claim arising from it. However, the question arises whether this claim is available solely to the third party, to the stipulating creditor as well, whether it can only be available to that creditor and whether, if it is available to the creditor, he has the right to demand performance in his own favour.
A further issue concerns whether the parties should explicitly specify who is entitled to the claim and, if applicable, under what conditions. Additionally, the question arises whether a presumption can be established that the claim belongs to the third party, the creditor, or both. I address these issues in their historical development, starting from the Roman law, where contracts for the benefit of a third party granted rights to that third party only in very exceptional cases, through all subsequent epochs of the private law development, with particular emphasis on the German Pandectist School and the proposals made during the work of the codification commissions for the German Civil Code, as well as the interpretation of Article 92 § 1 of the Polish Code of Obligations
The Polish Woman Experiencing Homelessness
No full textIt might seem that tackling the issue of persons experiencing homelessness in a 21st century, economically well-developed country such as Poland, seems to be of little importance. However, statistics, reports, and academic research results show that the issue of homelessness is neither becoming less prevalent, nor is it marginal. Moreover, the issue is still there, only its face is changing. The subject-matter literature clearly shows that anyone can become homeless, regardless of their social status. The right to housing is indicated among the basic human rights that secure comprehensive development. The difficult housing situation means that more and more people, especially young people, are faced with the difficulty of providing themselvesa roof over their heads.
Despite the fact that the legislator in Poland takes into account the principles that allow for securing the basic rights of people in the homelessness crisis, due to the complexity of the phenomenon itself, there are still areas that do not fully secure the needs of the homeless. The homelessness of women, who are culturally perceived as bearers of life and the keepers of the hearth and home, is particularly poignant. The situation of women experiencing homelessness stands in stark contrast to those perceptions. The aim of these considerations is to outline the problems of the people experiencing homelessness, to indicate the specificity of women’s homelessness in order to notice the differences in their situation, their rights, and the effective systemic solutions in thisarea.It might seem that tackling the issue of persons experiencing homelessness in a 21st century, economically well-developed country such as Poland, seems to be of little importance. However, statistics, reports, and academic research results show that the issue of homelessness is neither becoming less prevalent, nor is it marginal. Moreover, the issue is still there, only its face is changing. The subject-matter literature clearly shows that anyone can become homeless, regardless of their social status. The right to housing is indicated among the basic human rights that secure comprehensive development. The difficult housing situation means that more and more people, especially young people, are faced with the difficulty of providing themselvesa roof over their heads.
Despite the fact that the legislator in Poland takes into account the principles that allow for securing the basic rights of people in the homelessness crisis, due to the complexity of the phenomenon itself, there are still areas that do not fully secure the needs of the homeless. The homelessness of women, who are culturally perceived as bearers of life and the keepers of the hearth and home, is particularly poignant. The situation of women experiencing homelessness stands in stark contrast to those perceptions. The aim of these considerations is to outline the problems of the people experiencing homelessness, to indicate the specificity of women’s homelessness in order to notice the differences in their situation, their rights, and the effective systemic solutions in thisarea
Obowiązek wierności małżeńskiej w kontekście nowych technologii
No full textThis article discusses the issue of understanding the obligation of marital fi delity in the context of the development of new technologies that enable the establishment of extramarital relationships online, as well as creating wide opportunities for sexual satisfaction outside marriage, also using artificial intelligence and robots specially created for this purpose. The provision of the Polish Family and Guardianship Code, according to which spouses are obliged to be faithful to each other, is of a general
nature and does not list examples of violations of this obligation. However, the case law specifies that the obligation of fidelity also includes the obligation to maintain mutual loyalty and honesty. The author analyses whether extramarital forms of relationship in which there is no physical contact may constitute a violation of the obligation of fidelity and thus constitute a premise in divorce proceedings justifying the attribution of the fault of the breakdown of a marriage to the spouse maintaining such relationships
Informing the Patient about Palliative Care: Legal Considerations
No full textThe obligation of a doctor to provide information about a patient’s health is a frequently discussed topic in Polish literature on medical law. To date, publications have focused on the topics of providing information about the diagnosis or about possible treatment options and discussing test results, and rarely discuss the termination of causal treatment, giving information instead on specialized symptomatic management and palliative care for patients with a chronic disease or a disease with an unfavourable prognosis. Providing honest and reliable information in this area increases patients’ awareness of their current health status, and thus allows them to make appropriate decisions related to the abandonment of futile therapy, and also reduces the distress associated with a fear of a lack of specialized medical care and physical, social and spiritual suffering. This article presents legal considerations for informing patients about specialist palliative care
Aspekty prawne oceny jakości życia pacjentów w schyłkowym okresie choroby – analiza porównawcza Polski i Ukrainy
No full textPalliative care is intended to provide patients with the highest possible level of quality of life in the final phase of a disease. The aim of this work is to present the issue of quality assessment in palliative medicine, necessary due to the specificity of services and their short duration due to the exceptional fragility of patients. Polish regulations are compared with the actual conditions in Ukraine, and the current problem of palliative care in terms of the quality of services provided in Ukraine is outlined. The article presents the concept of the patient’s quality of life in the light of the law introduced in Poland in 2023. As a result of the narrative review, the issues of quality of life in palliative care and methods for its measurement and assessment are discussed and compared. The analysis shows that although quality-of-life studies in palliative care are the basis for a subjective, not an objective, assessment of the patient’s condition, they allow for obtaining information on both the symptoms of the disease and the assessment of treatment, and additionally, and extremely importantly, for the assessment of the psychological, social and spiritual dimensions of patients receiving palliative care
The Participation of Private Clinics in the Italian National Health System
No full textIn the Italian healthcare system, private facilities can supplement public ones in delivering services within the framework of the Italian National Health System, provided they meet specific conditions and obtain the necessary authorisations. This set of requirements is known as the ‘four As’ system, comprising authorisation for the construction of the facility, authorisation to provide healthcare services, accreditation, and contractual agreements. A crucial element in this regulatory framework is the system of tariffs for the remuneration of healthcare services, which are periodically established by the Ministry of Health through a complex procedure. This model of ‘administered competition’ aims to protect both citizens’ health and fair competition among healthcare providers. Proper integration of private facilities into the National Health System is intended to enhance the efficiency of service delivery. The purpose of this paper is to examine the current regulatory framework governing the participation of private clinics in the Italian National Health System and to identify any critical issues
The Right to (Not) Make an Electronic Will: The Case of Nevada
No full textIn 2001, the US state of Nevada became the first in the world to issue regulations directly introducing electronic wills into the legal system. This article provides a brief historical overview of this regulation, as well as the practice of preparing them (or rather the lack thereof) for many years after their introduction. In July 2019, the Uniform Law Commission (Electronic Wills Committee) completed work on the framework for the Uniform Electronic Wills Act, which can be easily adopted by all states. This Act covers the basic regulations necessary for preparing electronic wills, omitting the more controversial and extensive ones found in the Nevada Revised Statutes and leaving states free to choose some of the proposed solutions. The approval of the Uniform Electronic Wills Act and the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated isolation undoubtedly contributed to the increased interest of state legislatures in electronic wills, as well as the acceleration of work on related legislation. The possibility of witnesses participating in the preparation of a will without being personally present but rather using remote attestation using audiovisual communication turned out to be particularly attractive. The list of states explicitly regulating the form of electronic wills has begun to grow, and at the same time, mentions of the first electronic wills being prepared have begun to appear
The April Constitution of Poland of 1935 in Political Narratives and in Science in the Early Years of the People’s Poland
No full textUstawa Konstytucyjna z dnia 23 kwietnia 1935 roku, w literaturze najczęściej określana jako konstytucja kwietniowa, jest jednym z najważniejszych aktów prawnych w ustrojowych dziejach Polski w XX w. Stąd doczekała się już wielu badań. Niemniej jednym z mało znanych aspektów w literaturze prawno‑ historycznej i historycznej jest obraz konstytucji kwietniowej w narracjach politycznych i nauce prawa w pierwszych latach Polski Ludowej. Dlatego celem artykułu jest analiza tych procesów, głównie w oparciu o komunistyczno‑socjalistyczną prasę, dokumenty polityczno programowe, akty prawne oraz publikacje naukowe Polski Ludowej do 1956 roku.
W artykule zwrócono szczególną uwagę na polityczne oraz intelektualne źródła niechęci, a następnie odrzucenie konstytucji kwietniowej przez polskich komunistów. W tym zakresie analizie poddano również stanowisko Komunistycznej Partii Polski oraz Polskiej Partii Robotniczej wobec tego aktu prawnego.
Kolejnymi celami artykułu było zbadanie stosunku polskiej nauki prawa, a zwłaszcza badaczy zajmujących się prawem konstytucyjnym (państwowym), do konstytucji kwietniowej po 1944 r. Dlatego też przeanalizowano publikacje między innymi takich polskich prawników jak Antoni Peretiatkowicz, Stefan Rozmaryn, Andrzej Burda, Wacław Barcikowski, Leon Chajn czy Borys Łapicki. Z kolei stosunek władz do konstytucji kwietniowej analizowano między innymi na podstawie wypowiedzi i publikacji takich polityków jak Władysław Gomułka, Bolesław Bierut czy Stefan Jędrychowski. Ten ostatni był bowiem głównym przedstawicielem władz Polski Ludowej, który w sposób kompleksowy przedstawił stosunek władz nowego państwa polskiego do przedwrześniowych konstytucji polskich.The Constitutional Act of 23 April 1935, commonly referred to in literature as the April Constitution, is one of the most important legal acts in the constitutional history of Poland in the 20th century. Hence, it has already been the subject of numerous studies. Nevertheless, one of the lesser‑known aspects in legal historical and historical literature is the image of the April Constitution in political narratives and legal studies in the early years of the People’s Republic of Poland.
Therefore, the aim of the article is to analyze these processes, primarily based on the communist‑ socialist press, political programmatic documents, legal acts, and scientific publications of the People’s Republic of Poland up to 1956. As part of this, the article pays particular attention to the political and intellectual sources of the initial reluctance and subsequent rejection of the April Constitution by Polish communists. In this context, the article also analyzed the stance of the Communist Party of Poland and the Polish Workers’ Party towards this legal act.
The article’s further objectives also included examining the stance of Polish legal science, particularly researchers specializing in constitutional (state) law, towards the April Constitution after 1944. Therefore, publications by Polish lawyers such as Antoni Peretiatkowicz, Stefan Rozmaryn, Andrzej Burda, Wacław Barcikowski, Leon Chajn, and Borys Łapicki were analyzed. On the other hand, the authorities’ attitude towards the April Constitution was analyzed, among others, based on the statements and publications of politicians such as Władysław Gomułka, Bolesław Bierut, and Stefan Jędrychowski. The latter was indeed the main representative of the authorities of the People’s Republic of Poland, who comprehensively presented the stance of the new Polish state’s authorities towards the pre‑war Polish constitutions
Evolution of European Standards on Freedom of Expression in a Political Context
No full textThis publication analyses European standards on freedom of expression developed, inter alia, by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe and diagnoses the citizen’s right of access to information, based on an institutional and legal method, in the context of the need to strengthen democracy and protect citizens’ rights. The long struggle for press freedom provided the impetus for the struggle for civil rights, which contributed to the development of an active public opinion. In the process of building civil society, standards that touch on the general issue of social media (media), including the need to ensure access to public information, deserve special attention.
The evolution of freedom of expression, its normative ambiguity and its limits, bearing in mind the freedom of expression, but also the dangers of certain messages containing scenes of violence, xenophobia, intolerance, etc., have received most attention in the deliberations. An evolutionary tracing of the functioning of the above standards in the member states of the Council of Europe is beyond the scope of this paper. However, it is worthwhile to make a normative analysis referring to the legislative practice of Poland, where the importance of standards stemming from normative acts of the Council of the European Communities and the European Parliament is emphasised, while the burden of implementation of rules set at the Community level rests primarily on the member states. The analysis of selected ECHR rulings, as well as Poland’s legislative practicedemonstrate the need to monitor any restrictions on these fundamental civil rights related to the sphere of communication, which is a key proficiency of state institutions in the construction of civil society.Przedmiotowa publikacja zawiera analizę europejskich standardów wolności słowa, wypracowanych m.in. przez Komitet Ministrów Rady Europy, i diagnozuje obywatelskie prawo dostępu do informacji w oparciu o metodę instytucjonalno‑ prawną w kontekście potrzeby wzmacniania demokracji i ochrony praw obywatelskich. Długa walka o wolność prasy stanowiła bodziec do walki o prawa obywatelskie, co przyczyniło się do rozwoju aktywnej opinii publicznej. W procesie budowy otwartego społeczeństwa obywatelskiego na szczególną uwagę zasługują standardy, które dotykają ogólnej problematyki środków społecznego przekazu (mediów), w tym dotyczące konieczności zapewnienia dostępu do informacji publicznej.
W rozważaniach największą uwagę poświęcono ewolucji wolności słowa, jej normatywnej wieloznaczności i granicom, z uwzględnieniem swobody wypowiedzi, ale i niebezpieczeństw niektórych przekazów zawierających sceny przemocy, ksenofobię, nietolerancję itd. Ewolucyjne prześledzenie funkcjonowania powyższych standardów w krajach członkowskich Rady Europy przekracza ramy niniejszego opracowania. Warto jednak dokonać analizy normatywnej w odniesieniu do praktyki legislacyjnej Polski, gdzie podkreśla się wagę standardów wynikających z aktów normatywnych Rady Wspólnot Europejskich i Parlamentu Europejskiego, natomiast ciężar urzeczywistnienia reguł ustalonych na poziomie wspólnotowym spoczywa przede wszystkim na państwach członkowskich. Analiza wybranych orzeczeń ETPC, a także praktyka legislacyjna Polski wykazują potrzebę monitorowania wszelkich ograniczeń tych podstawowych praw obywatelskich związanych ze sferą komunikowania, co stanowi o kluczowej sprawczości instytucji państwa w budowie społeczeństwa obywatelskiego