Czasopisma naukowe Wydziału Prawa University of Bialystok
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The Legal Entity Identifier and Legacy Systems: Harmonisation, Interoperability, and Balance in Digital Governance
No full textThis article examines the Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) as a cornerstone of contemporary digitalised governance. Originally introduced in response to the 2008 financial crisis to address systemic opacity in financial markets, the LEI has since evolved into a global public-good infrastructure that enables interoperability, transparency, and accountability across jurisdictions and sectors. This study investigates the extent to which the LEI can be effectively implemented in Poland and the European Union, and what legal, institutional, and economic barriers constrain its universal adoption. The research employs a multi-method design, combining doctrinal and comparative analysis with empirical evidence from European supervisory projects (the EIOPA, ESMA, ECB, and EBA) and a Polish case study conducted under an NCN project on tax administration. Findings confirm that the LEI strengthens systemic risk monitoring, audit quality, and SME participation in global trade, but also reveal persistent barriers, including renewal costs, administrative burdens, and fragmented domestic identifiers. The analysis identifies four pillars of reform – universality, interoperability, continuity, and public co-financing – necessary to embed the LEI within governance systems. Comparative lessons from the United States and Japan demonstrate that statutory identifiers can extend beyond finance and support innovation while oversight is maintained. The article concludes that only by recognising the LEI as a structural component of digitalised governance can its transformative potential for transparent, resilient, and inclusive public administration be fully realised
Unseen Influence: Computational Propaganda, Free Elections, and the Reluctance to Seek Judicial Remedies in Poland. Evidence from AI-Assisted Case Law Analysis
No full textThe Polish electoral system adheres to the principle of free and fair elections. This principle has a defined content, and its backbone remains access to truthful information and the free shaping of opinions about a candidate or an issue put to a referendum. However, the enormous increase in computational power and the associated development of artificial intelligence have caused electoral competition to become highly aggressive; it no longer avoids false information, messages appealing to negative emotions, or calls for violence. Very Large Online Platforms’ predictable abdication of their role as moderators of public debate leads to the question: How can or should public authorities protect integrity and freedom of participation from abuse in the era of digital constitutionalism? Should we rely on a litigation system where the initiative comes solely from the participant in the electoral process, or should we also include the regulatory power of the electoral administration? What picture of electoral campaigns is provided by Polish jurisprudence concerning electoral dispute
Necessity as a Legitimization of the Actions of State Bodies in Switzerland
No full textIn Switzerland extraordinary powers exercised on the basis of the constitution, and, if necessary, without a constitutional basis, have taken the form of the law of necessity (Notrecht), which is the equivalent of the state of emergency in other countries. The constitutions of the Swiss Confederation (from 1874 and the currently applicable constitution of 1999) are unknown to the institution of the state of emergency in the form that occurs in other European countries. This is mainly due to the fact that in the nineteenth-century Switzerland, the state of siege, which originated from the period of the French Revolution, was not adopted. The threats related to the outbreak of World War I and II contributed to the development of the concept of necessity, which is to legitimise the actions of state bodies (especially the Federal Council) in conditions that justify the introduction of a state of emergency in other countries. On two occasions (in 1914 and 1939) the Federal Council received authorisation from the Federal Assembly to take all the necessary measures, including legislative measures, in order to ensure state security (Vollmachtenregime).
Criticism of this state of affairs contributed to the improvement of the design of urgent legislation, which enables the parliament to take rapid legislative action if necessary. Urgent legislation was already known in the original version of the constitution of 1874, but it was not until 1949 that it was given the form that was adopted in the constitution of 1999. The Federal Council was also authorised in the current constitution to issueemergency regulations.W Szwajcarii uprawnienia nadzwyczajne organów państwowych realizowane na podstawie konstytucji, a w razie potrzeby bez podstawy konstytucyjnej, przyjmują postać prawa konieczności (Notrecht), które stanowi odpowiednik stanu nadzwyczajnego w innych państwach. Konstytucjom Konfederacji Szwajcarskiej (z 1874 roku i obecnie obowiązującej konstytucji z 1999 roku) nieznana jest bowiem instytucja stanu nadzwyczajnego w takim kształcie, jaka występuje w innych państwach europejskich. Wynika to głównie z faktu, że w dziewiętnastowiecznej Szwajcarii nie przyjął się stan oblężenia, wywodzący się z okresu rewolucji francuskiej. Zagrożenia związane z wybuchem pierwszej i drugiej wojny światowej przyczyniły się do wypracowania koncepcji konieczności, która ma legitymizować działania organów państwowych (zwłaszcza Rady Federalnej) w warunkach uzasadniających w innych państwach wprowadzenie stanu nadzwyczajnego. Dwukrotnie (w 1914 i 1939 roku) Rada Federalna otrzymała od Zgromadzenia Federalnego upoważnienie do podejmowania wszelkich koniecznych środków, również o charakterze ustawodawczym, w celu zapewnienia bezpieczeństwa państwa (Vollmachtenregime).
Krytyka tego stanu rzeczy przyczyniła się do ulepszenia konstrukcji ustawodawstwa pilnego, dzięki któremu parlament może podejmować w razie potrzeby szybkie działania legislacyjne. Ustawodawstwo pilne znane było już w pierwotnej wersji konstytucji z 1874 roku, niemniej dopiero w roku 1949 nadano mu postać, która została przejęta w konstytucji z 1999 roku. Rada Federalna została ponadto upoważniona w obecnie obowiązującej konstytucji do wydawania rozporządzeń nadzwyczajnych
Compensation for Medical Injury Based on the Principle of Equity. Remarks on the Former Article 419 of the Polish Civil Code
No full textThe article addresses the issue of compensation for medical damages arising from the treatment of patients based on the principle of equity. It focuses on the period of the application of the Act on State Liability for Damages Caused by State Officials, and later, Article 419 of the Polish Civil Code. Over a period of approximately 50 years (from 1956 to 2004), the Polish ordinary legislation, alongside the judicial practice, allowed for the broad application of the principle of equity in compensating damages caused by the exercise of the public authority.
The period of the Polish People’s Republic was characterised by a unified approach to indemnifying damages suffered by citizens. It was irrelevant whether the damage was caused by the state officials’ actions in the domain or in the imperium sphere. This approach allowed, by classifying healthcare professionals as state officials, for a wider application of the principle of equity in compensating damages arising from medical treatment than is the case today.
Using a historical-legal method and doctrinal analysis, supported by the case law analysis, the article examines the significance and scope of the application of the principle of equity in the indemnification of medical damages. The aim of the article is to highlight the importance of Article 419 of the Polish Civil Code and the consequences of its repeal for judicial practice in the area of compensation for damages caused during medical treatment.Artykuł podejmuje problematykę kompensacji szkód medycznych powstałych w wyniku leczenia pacjenta na podstawie zasady słuszności. Koncertuje się na okresie obowiązywania ustawy o odpowiedzialności państwa za szkody wyrządzone przez funkcjonariuszy państwowych oraz następnie art. 419 k.c. W latach 1956–2004 polskie ustawodawstwo zwykłe, a z nim praktyka orzecznicza umożliwiały potencjalne zastosowanie zasady słuszności do naprawienia szkód wyrządzonych przy wykonywaniu władzy publicznej. Okres Polskiej Rzeczpospolitej Ludowej charakteryzował się na tym obszarze jednolitym podejściem do indemnizacji szkód doznanych przez obywateli. Nieistotne było, czy dana szkoda wyrządzona została w związku z działaniem funkcjonariuszy państwa w obszarze dominium czy imperium. Pozwoliło to – na skutek zaliczenia przedstawicieli służby zdrowia do kategorii funkcjonariuszy państwa – na szersze niż współcześnie zastosowanie zasady słuszności do naprawienia szkód wyrządzonych w związku z leczeniem. Stosując w artykule metodę historycznoprawną oraz dogmatycznoprawną, wsparte analizą orzecznictwa sądowego, poddano analizie znaczenie i zakres zastosowania zasady słuszności w indemnizacji szkód medycznych. Celem artykułu jest ukazanie znaczenia art. 419 k.c., a następnie skutku jego uchylenia dla praktyki sądowej w obszarze naprawienia szkód wyrządzonych przy leczeniu
Review:: Ірына Кітурка, Дзяржаўная мытная служба Вялікага княства літоўскага ў другой палове XVIII стагоддзя (1764–1795 гады), Гродна 2023, с. 359 [Iryna Kiturka, State Customs Service of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Second Half of the 18th Century (1764–1795), Hrodna 2023, pp. 359]
No full textCelem niniejszych rozważań jest refleksja krytyczna nad temat monografii Iryny Kityrki. Za przedmiot swoich badań autorka wybrała funkcjonowanie służby celnej w Wielkim Księstwie Litewskim za panowania Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego. Na podstawie analizy pracy można wnioskować, że historia celnictwa w okresie nowożytnym w Rzeczypospolitej pozostaje zagadnieniem wciąż mało znanym. Dlatego prezentowana rozprawa, będąca uwieńczeniem kilkunastoletnich badań autorki, stanowi próbę kompleksowego ujęcia powyższej problematyki.
Praca oparta zarówno na analizie aktualnego stanu badań, jak i stosunkowo bogatej podstawie źródłowej. Główny trzon stanowią materiały źródłowe przechowywane w Litewskim Państwowym Archiwum Historycznym w Wilnie, w zespole litewskiej Komisji Skarbowej.
Praca wypełnia lukę w zakresie historii społecznej i gospodarczej, historii administracji w Rzeczypospolitej w XVIII wieku. Traktuje bowiem o kształtach nowożytnej administracji celnej, reorganizacji systemu punktów celnych, źródłach prawa celnego, taryfach i opłatach celnych, odprawie celnej, także wysokości wpływów skarbowych z ceł oraz dokumentacji prowadzonej przez urzędy celne. Zaletą monografii są liczne polemiki autorki dotyczące oceny poszczególnych wydarzeń przez innych historyków. Autorka poza tym lokuje swoją narracje w szerszym kontekście historycznym.
Niniejsza recenzja porusza zagadnienia wymagające rozwinięcia, na przykład charakteru ówczesnej polityki celnej, polityki gospodarczej w okresie stanisławowskim, w tym osiemnastowiecznej myśli ekonomicznej.
Z powyższych względów omawiana monografia ma charakter nowatorski, wpisujący się w nurt badań nad budową aparatu administracyjnego oraz reformami gospodarczymi w latach 1765–1795.This article is devoted to the detailed examination and evaluation of Iryna Kiturka’s book. As a subject of her research the author has chosen customs service of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania during the reign of the last king Stanisław August Poniatowski. The previous analysis of the book convinces us that this theme is still underdeveloped. That’s why this book (as a result of many years of the author’s scientific work) is an attempt of complex approach to deal with this problem.
The research is based on an analysis of the current works on this subject as well as on a comparatively diverse source base. The last one is mainly presented by the documents from the Lithuanian State National Archives in Vilnius and by the fund of the Lithuanian Treasury Commission in particular.
The research covers different aspects of the social and economic history, the history of administration in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 18th century. It deals with the process of shaping of customs administration in Modern Times, the customs points system reorganisation, the customs law sources, the customs tariffs and pays, the customs clearance and the amount of revenues from these tariffs as well as with the documentation provided by the customs offices. Among the benefits of the monograph one should mention numerous examples of polemics with other historians concerning estimation of different events. The author tries to study the subject in a more complex and broader historical context.
In this review we also tried to touch upon the issues that require further studies such as the nature of customs and economic policies in the time of Stanisław August in the context of the development of economic thoughts in the 18th century.
So, proceeding from the above, it should be stated that the book under review is innovated and becomes a part of the research trend upon the study of the administrative apparatus and economic reforms in the years of 1765–1795
Legal Theory as a Bridge Between the Sociology of Law, Legal History and Comparative Law: Some Methodological Reflections Following the International Workshop on “Legal Survivals and Global Legal Pluralism” (International Institute for the Sociology of Law, Oñati, Spain, 8–9 May 2025)
No full textThe recent International Workshop on “Legal Survivals and Global Legal Pluralism”, held at the International Institute for the Sociology of Law (IISL) on 8–9 May 2025, brought new insights into the development of the theory of legal survivals. A legal survival is a legal form which was functional towards an earlier context of political, economic, ideological, and socio-cultural relations, but which nonetheless survived the more or less abrupt change of that context, in particular a change having the nature of a socio-economic and/or political transformation, transition or revolution. The paper briefly presents the concept, theory and methodology of legal survivals, based on the existing literature (section 2), it provides an analytical overview of the papers presented at the workshop (section 3), and it discusses – in a synthetic manner – the recurrent methodological questions addressed during the workshop (section 4).The recent International Workshop on “Legal Survivals and Global Legal Pluralism”, held at the International Institute for the Sociology of Law (IISL) on 8–9 May 2025, brought new insights into the development of the theory of legal survivals. A legal survival is a legal form which was functional towards an earlier context of political, economic, ideological, and socio-cultural relations, but which nonetheless survived the more or less abrupt change of that context, in particular a change having the nature of a socio-economic and/or political transformation, transition or revolution. The paper briefly presents the concept, theory and methodology of legal survivals, based on the existing literature (section 2), it provides an analytical overview of the papers presented at the workshop (section 3), and it discusses – in a synthetic manner – the recurrent methodological questions addressed during the workshop (section 4)
The Principle of the Rule of Law From Article 2 of the Treaty on European Union as a Value of the European Union and Its Components as Requirements Imposed on Member States, on the Example of a Judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union Regarding Portuguese Judges, Rendered on the Basis of a Preliminary Ruling Referred by a National Court
No full textThe rule of law principle is mentioned in article 2 of Treaty of European Union. This provision states, that it is one of fundamental principles of European Union. The text below is an attempt to answer the question of way of interpretation of this principle and its definition on the ground of judicial decisions of the Court of Justice of the European Union. Judgment of 27 February 2018 in case C‑64/16 Associação Sindical dos Juízes Portugueses v. Tribunal de Contas is starting point for broader reflection on principle of the rule of law in verdicts of the Court of Justice of the European Union
Crypto-asset Market Regulation and Sustainable Development Goals
No full textThe literature has long pointed out the energy consumption of blockchain technology, including in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals. The paper includes, with this aspect in mind, an analysis of existing and proposed crypto-asset regulations, in particular the draft MiCA regulation. This analysis was conducted to answer the research question of how current and proposed regulations on crypto-assets address the issue of energy consumption by blockchain networks. However, the analysis of these regulations should not be limited only to the impact of blockchain technology on electricity consumption and greenhouse gas emissions (Sustainable Development Goals 7 and 13) but also consider other aspects of the crypto-asset impact, i.e. its effect on the implementation of Sustainable Development Goals 8, 8.1., 8.2, 9.3, 8.10, 10.5., 10c. Therefore, it is necessary to ask the research question whether crypto-asset regulations, both in force and those proposed, take these goals into account and are conducive to their realization. The research used the dogmatic-legal method based on analysis of draft and existing legislation, and took into account the literature on the subject. The study found that the analyzed crypto-asset regulations of some European countries, Japan and a number of US states, as well as the draft MiCA regulation as of October 2022 and draft federal regulations in the US, do not address the problem of regulating the energy consumption of blockchain networks used for issuing and trading crypto-assets and thus do not directly affect the reduction of electricity consumption by these networks and thus the reduction of greenhouse gases. On the other hand, they are undoubtedly relevant to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals 8.1., 8.2, 9.3, 8.10, 10.5., 10c. In addition, legal regulation of crypto-assets facilitates blockchain systems that enable more efficient management of energy distribution, particularly green energy, which contributes to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals 7 and 13. It follows that despite the lack of provisions aimed directly at reducing the energy consumption of crypto-asset emissions and trading in the existing and proposed crypto-asset regulations analyzed, these regulations contribute positively to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals. This does not mean, however, that the idea of reducing the energy consumption of blockchain networks through legal regulation, particularly for private networks, should be abandoned – rather, such targeted regulation should be contained within energy law
The Observance of Human Rights and Freedoms during the Covert Obtaining of Information in Criminal Proceedings
No full textThis article focuses on the analysis of problematic aspects of the system of internal control and judicial review over the protection of human rights and freedoms in the context of covert obtaining of information for the needs of criminal justice. Focusing on control measures and striking a balance between justice and human rights, the article dwells upon the effectiveness of supervision mechanisms and the factors affecting their efficiency. Analysis of legislation and case law of various European countries is therefore carried out to assess the effectiveness of control measures. Various factors that determine the effectiveness of control measures are examined. In addition, ways of solving these issues in the legislation of European countries and other jurisdictions are considered. As a result, the main problems and obstacles in ensuring the rights and freedoms of citizens while secretly obtaining information for criminal justice are identified. Furthermore, the effectiveness of mechanisms of internal control and judicial review in criminal proceedings is evaluated. Finally, a course of actions is suggested to maintain the balance of interests between criminal justice and human rights and freedoms.This article focuses on the analysis of problematic aspects of the system of internal control and judicial review over the protection of human rights and freedoms in the context of covert obtaining of information for the needs of criminal justice. Focusing on control measures and striking a balance between justice and human rights, the article dwells upon the effectiveness of supervision mechanisms and the factors affecting their efficiency. Analysis of legislation and case law of various European countries is therefore carried out to assess the effectiveness of control measures. Various factors that determine the effectiveness of control measures are examined. In addition, ways of solving these issues in the legislation of European countries and other jurisdictions are considered. As a result, the main problems and obstacles in ensuring the rights and freedoms of citizens while secretly obtaining information for criminal justice are identified. Furthermore, the effectiveness of mechanisms of internal control and judicial review in criminal proceedings is evaluated. Finally, a course of actions is suggested to maintain the balance of interests between criminal justice and human rights and freedoms
Uwagi na temat potrzeby wprowadzenia natychmiastowego świadczenia alimentacyjnego
No full textThe legal system in Poland aims to guarantee the protection of a child’s non-material and property interests. To this end, guided by the principle of the child’s welfare, the Family and Guardianship Code regulates the institution of child maintenance. The task of this institution is to provide the child with the right conditions for his / her growth and development. Maintenance can take the form of cash or the personal efforts of the parents to raise the child. However, life experience shows that most often, a parent’s maintenance obligation to a child is carried out in the form of transferring money. Nevertheless, the child’s receipt of maintenance payments from a parent involves lengthy court proceedings; this in turn threatens the economic security of the child. For this reason, this article undertakes a consideration of the need to introduce immediate maintenance payments into the Polish legal system; the author refers not only to the existing position of the doctrine, but also to the solutions existing in German law. The entire consideration is based on the presentation of the state de lege lata and the formulation of postulates de lege ferenda