1,434 research outputs found
Second harmonic generation at fatigue cracks by low-frequency Lamb waves: experimental and numerical studies
No full textAbstract not availableYi Yang, Ching-Tai Ng, Andrei Kotousov, Hoon Sohn, Hyung Jin Li
In conversation with... Francis D.K. Ching
No full text[EN] Interview with Francis DK Ching. Frank Ching is a renowned author of over a dozen books addressing architectural forms and their analysis through drawing.He is a widely recognized author of books addressing architectural and design graphicsHe has taught at several universities in the United States as well as in Japan and Hong Kong. He is currently holds the Professor Emeritus at the University of Washington.He has received awards from prestigious organizations such as the American Institute of Architects and the Cooper-Hewitt National Design Awards.More recently, in 2013, he received the gold medal of the UID, in Matera , where we had the pleasure of meeting Frank Ching in person and invited him to this interview, which has now been published.At Matera, surrounded by his students, the professor drew the Sassi, illustrating in front of our eyes, what he has been doing for decades: using Drawing as a cognitive and creative tool. His way to approach arquitectural drawing has been a benchmark for many generations of graphic arts teachers. Currently he is still regularly sharing new drawings on his personal web page from which we can continually learn and enjoy.[ES] Entrevista con Francis D. K. Ching. Frank Ching es un reconocido autor de más de una docena de libros relativos a la enseñanza de la arquitectura y su análisis a través del dibujo. Fue docente en diversas Universidades en Estados Unidos desde 1972, así como en Japón (1990) y Hong Kong (1993). Actualmente posee el título de Profesor Emérito en la Universidad de Washington.Fue galardonado con premios de prestigiosas entidades como el American Institute of Architects o los Cooper-Hewitt National Design Awards. Más recientemente, en el 2013, recibió la medalla de oro del UID, en Matera, donde tuvimos el placer de conocerlo personalmente e invitarlo a esta entrevista ahora publicada.En Matera, rodeado de sus estudiantes, el Profesor, dibujaba los sassi, concretando delante de nuestros ojos, lo que desde décadas lleva haciendo: la divulgación del dibujo como herramienta cognitiva y creativa. Sus conceptos para abordar el dibujo arquitectónico, han sido una referencia para distintas generaciones de docentes del dibujo de arquitectura y actualmente sigue compartiendo regularmente en su página web personal, nuevos dibujos que nosotros continuamos asimilando y disfrutandoBarros Costa, H.; Hidalgo Delgado, F. (2015). Conversando con... Frank D.K. Ching. EGA. Revista de Expresión Gráfica Arquitectónica. 20(25):20-31. https://doi.org/10.4995/ega.2015.3708SWORD2031202
Estudos sobre a propagação de Gleichenella pectinata (Willd.) Ching (pteridófita - gleicheniaceae)
No full textDissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Centro de Ciências Biológicas. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia VegetalAs pteridófitas representam um importante grupo vegetal da flora brasileira. Espécies são encontradas em diferentes regiões, desde cerrado, dunas, matas ou rochas. Algumas pteridófitas mostram-se pioneiras e eficientes na regeneração de fragmentos de florestas degradadas. O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar métodos para a propagação de Gleichenella pectinata (Willd.) Ching (Pteridófita - Gleicheniaceae) a partir de esporos e vegetativamente. O comportamento dominante desta espécie em ambientes degradados indica seu potencial na contenção de processos erosivos em áreas florestais degradadas. Para a obtenção de esporos, as frondes férteis foram coletadas nas adjacências da UCAD, (Unidade de Conservação Ambiental Desterro) Florianópolis-SC. Para estudar o efeito de pH na germinação de Gleichenella pectinata, os esporos foram removidos e separados dos esporângios por filtragem em papel entretela e armazenados a 7 1 oC. Esporos foram esterilizados superficialmente em solução de hipoclorito de sódio comercial (2% de cloro ativo) a 10% (v/v) durante 15 min. Para os testes de germinação aproximadamente 10 mg de esporos foram semeados em frascos contendo 20 mL de meio mineral proposto por Mohr e Dyer, suplementado com Benlate® (25 mg.L-1), cujos pHs foram ajustados para: 4,0; 4,5; 5,0; 5,5; 6,0 e 6,7 (controle). Os testes de germinação foram conduzidos em sala de crescimento a 25 ± 2 °C, irradiância de aproximadamente 30 mol m-2 s-1 e fotoperíodo de 16 horas. Para a obtenção de estacas foliares e segmentos de rizomas, o material foi coletado no mesmo local. Os efeitos de reguladores de crescimento: ácido indol butírico (AIB), ácido giberélico (GA3), cinetina e 6-benzil-adenina (BAP), foram analisados na propagação vegetativa, através de estacas foliares e rizomas. Para induzir o enraizamento de estacas foliares utilizou-se ácido indol-3-butírico (AIB), nas concentrações: 250, 500, 1000, 1500 e 2000 mg Kg-1, em talco neutro. Para induzir o crescimento de folhas e raízes em rizomas, utilizaram-se GA3, BAP e cinetina nas concentrações de 0, 25, 50, 75 e 100 mg. L-1. A produção de gametófitos cordiformes, que possuem maiores probabilidades de desenvolvimento e produção de esporófitos, foi estatisticamente semelhante entre os pHs 4,0 e 5,5, mas menor nos pHs 6,0 e 6,7. O uso de reguladores de crescimento em métodos de propagação vegetativa de rizomas e estacas foliares, foi ineficiente para a produção de esporófitos de G. pectinata. Ferns are an important plant group of the Brazilian flora. Species are found in different regions, since open pasture, dunes, bushes or rocks. Some ferns are pioneers and efficient in the regeneration of degraded forest. The aim of this study was to analyze methods for the propagation of Gleichenella pectinata (Willd.) Ching (Pteridophyta - Gleicheniaceae) from spores and vegetatively. The dominant behavior of the species on degraded environments indicates its potential to contain erosive processes in degraded forest areas. To obtain spores, fertile fronds were collected in the adjacencies of UCAD (Unidade de Conservação Ambiental Desterro), Florianópolis, SC. To study the effect of pH on the germination of Gleichenella pectinata, the spores were removed and separated from sporangia by filtering through lens paper and stored in glass jars under refrigeration at 7 ± 1ºC. Spores were surface sterilized in a 10% (v/v) commercial bleach solution (2% of active chlorine) for 15 min. For the germination tests, about 10 mg of spores were sown in conical flasks containing 20 ml of autoclaved liquid medium as proposed by Mohr and Dyer supplemented with Benlate® (25 mg. L-1) and the pHS were adjusted to 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0 and 6.7 (control). The germination tests were carried out in growth room at 25 ± 2 ºC, irradiance of approximately 30 mol m-2s-1, under a 16 h photoperiod. To obtain the leaf cuttings and the rhizome segments, the material was collect in the same local. The effects of the growth regulators: indol butiric acid (IBA), giberellic acid (GA3), kinetin and 6-benzil-adenine (BAP) were analyzed on the vegetative propagation through leaf cuttings and rhizomes. For the induction of rooting in the leaf cuttings, IBA was applied in the concentrations of: 250, 500, 1000, 1500 and 2000 mg Kg-1 in talcum powder. For the growth induction of leafs and roots in rhizome segments, GA3, BAP and Kinetin were applied in the concentrations of: 0, 25, 50 , 75 e 100 mg L-1.The production of heartshape gametophytes, which offer more development expectative and sporophyte formation, was statistically similar between pHs 4.0 and 5.5,but was inferior in the pHs 6.0 and 6.7. The use of growth regulators in vegetative propagation methods was inefficient for the production of G. pectinata sporophytes
Estudo do potencial germinativo, do desenvolvimento gametofítico e do potencial de reprodução vegetativa de Gleichenella pectinata (Willd.) Ching (Pteridophyta - Gleicheniaceae)
No full textDissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Centro de Ciências Biológicas. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Vegetal.As pteridófitas representam um importante grupo vegetal da flora brasileira. Espécies são encontradas em diferentes regiões, desde cerrado, dunas, matas ou rochas. Algumas pteridófitas mostram-se pioneiras e eficientes na regeneração de fragmentos de floresta degradadas. Este trabalho tem a finalidade de estudar o potencial germinativo dos esporos e do desenvolvimento gametofítico de Gleichenella pectinata (Willd) Ching, o potencial de brotamento de rizomas e estacas caulinares, bem como analisar a morfo-anatomia dos gametófitos durante seu desenvolvimento e verificar o efeito de diferentes níveis de luz e temperatura no processo germinativo da espécie. As frondes férteis foram coletadas na Unidade de Conservação Ambiental Desterro (UCAD), Florianópolis-SC. Esporos foram separados dos esporângios por filtragem em papel entretela e armazenados a 7 1 oC. Observaram-se três padrões de desenvolvimento inicial gametofítico: clorócitos ricos em cloroplastos, gametófitos filamentosos com rizóide não desenvolvido e gametófitos com três a cinco células protaliais com rizóides desenvolvidos. Esporos foram esterilizados superficialmente em solução de hipoclorito de sódio comercial a 10% (v/v) durante 15 min, filtrados através de papel de filtro esterilizado e lavados diversas vezes com água destilada autoclavada. Foram semeados em frascos contendo 20 mL de meio mineral proposto por Mohr e modificado por Dyer, suplementado por Benomyl a 0,01%. Todos os procedimentos foram conduzidos em capela de fluxo laminar. Os testes de germinação foram realizados em sala de cultivo a 25 2 oC (30 mol m-2s-1), câmara de germinação a 30 2 oC (19 mol m-2s- 1) sob fotoperíodo de 16 horas, e diferentes níveis de luz (62, 42, 22 e 5% da luz natural). A germinação dos esporos iniciou-se após quatro dias de cultivo. Aos 14 dias os gametófitos eram formados por um ou mais clorócitos ricos em cloroplastos. Aos 21 dias os gametófitos possuíam de três a cinco células protonemais. Aos 34 dias alguns gametófitos permaneciam filamentosos e outros se apresentaram como um protalo laminar espatulado. Aos 48 dias os gametófitos tornaram-se cordiformes. Somente gametófitos com rizóides desenvolvidos atingiram a fase cordiforme. A maior porcentagem de gametófitos com rizóides, foi observada após 331 dias de armazenamento (18,16 ± 3,54%) para a coleta realizada em 06/11/2004 e a menor (1,53 ± 1,02 %) para a coleta realizada em 29/05/2004 cujos esporos foram armazenados por 49 dias. Não houve diferença estatisticamente significativa entre os resultados dos testes de germinação com e sem adição de Benlate ao meio mineral. O meio mineral solidificado com agar não foi mais eficiente que o meio líquido na produção de ametófitos com rizóides. As porcentagens de gametófitos com rizóides foram maiores a 25 ºC e menores a 30 °C. As maiores porcentagens de gametófitos com rizóides ocorreram sob 22 e 5% de luz natural nos testes realizados em novembro (2004) e outubro (2005). O uso de reguladores de crescimento em métodos de propagação vegetativa foi ineficiente para a produção de mudas de G. pectinata. Ferns are an important group in the Brazilian flora. They are found at different regions, including open pastureland, dunes, bushes and rocks. Some ferns are pioneers and very efficient in the regeneration of degraded forest fragments. The aim of this study was to analyze the potential of spore germination and gametophyte development of Gleichenella pectinata (Willd) Ching, as well as the morpho-anatomy of gametophytes during their development and to study the effects of different light levels and temperature on their germination. Fertile fronds were collected at the "Unidade de Conservação Ambiental Desterro" (UCAD), Florianópolis-SC. The spores were removed and separated from debris by filtering through lens paper and stored in glass jars under refrigeration at 7 1 ºC. Spores were surface sterilized using a 10% (v/v) solution of commercial bleach (2% of active chlorine) for a period of 15 min and then filtered through sterile filter paper, being washed several times with sterile distilled water. Spores were sown in bottles containing 20 mL mineral medium as proposed by Mohr, modified by Dyer and supplemented with Benomyl 0.01%. All the procedures were carried out in a laminar hood. The germination tests were carried out in growth room at 25 2 oC (30 mol m-2s-1), in growth chamber at 30 2 oC (19 mol m-2s-1) under a 16 hour photoperiod and under the following light levels: 62, 42, 22 and 5% of natural light. Three patterns of young gametophytes were observed: rich chloroplasts chlrocites, filamentous gametophytes without a developed rhizoid and from three to five protallial cell filamentous gametophytes with developed rhizoids. After 14 days, gametophytes presented one or more chlrocites rich in chloroplasts. After 21 days, gametophytes presented three to five protallial cells. After 34 days some gametophytes remained filamentous and other presented a spatulated protallus. After 48 days, they presented the heart shape. The greater percentage of gametophytes with rhizoid was observed after 331 days of storage (18.16 ± 3.54%) for spores colleted in 06/11/2004 and the minor (1.53 ± 1.02 %) for spores colleted in 29/05/2004 and stored for 49 days. No statistically significant differences were observed between results with and without the addition of Benlate® to the mineral medium. The agar gelled medium was not more efficient than the liquid medium in the production of gametophytes with rhizoids. The germination percentages were higher at 25 ºC and lower at 30 °C. The highest percentages of gametophytes with rhizoids were observed at 22 and 5% of natural light in November (2004) and October (2005). The use of growth regulators in vegetative propagation methods was not efficient for the production of G. pectinata plantlets
O ÁLBUM ORÁCULOS: CRIANDO QUADRINHOS POÉTICO-FILOSÓFICOS INSPIRADOS NO I CHING
No full textO álbum em quadrinhos Oráculos reuniu 10 histórias em quadrinhos (HQs) curtas criadas pelo quadrinhista Edgar Franco (Ciberpajé) ao longo de 20 anos e publicadas inicialmente em revistas alternativas e fanzines. Essas HQs foram desenvolvidas inspiradas em 2 oráculos, 4 delas tendo como base hexagramas do oráculo milenar chinês I Ching, e 6 delas baseadas em arcanos maiores do Tarô. As HQs publicadas no álbum incluem as características basais do gênero poético-filosófico dos quadrinhos e um processo criativo peculiar. A unicidade de cada uma delas diz respeito à forma com que foram criadas unindo a resposta do Oráculo - após a sua consulta -, a relação de significado percebida pelo autor a partir de sua experiência de vida naquele momento -, e a geração de uma breve narrativa metafórica que conectou o sentido do oráculo com a transformação da realidade ordinária desejada pelo criador. Esse processo criativo diferenciado transforma a criação em um ato para além de catártico, um ato de autotransformação, caracterizando essas HQs como Quadrinhos Expandidos (FRANCO, 2017). Esse artigo conceitua os quadrinhos poético-filosóficos e apresenta os processos criativos das 4 HQs inspiradas no I Ching publicadas em Oráculos.
The comic book Oráculos brought together 10 short comics created by comic artist Edgar Franco (Ciberpajé) over 20 years and initially published in alternative magazines and fanzines. These comics were developed inspired by 2 oracles, 4 of them based on hexagrams of the ancient Chinese oracle I Ching, and 6 of them based on major arcana of the Tarot. The comics published on the album include the basic characteristics of the poetic-philosophical genre of comics and a peculiar creative process. The uniqueness of each of them has to do with the way in which they were created by uniting the Oracle's response - after consulting it -, the relationship of meaning perceived by the author - with his life experience at that moment -, and the generation of a brief metaphorical narrative that connects the meaning of the oracle with the transformation of ordinary reality desired by the creator. This differentiated creative process transforms creation into an act that goes beyond being cathartic, an act of self-transformation, characterizing these comics as Expanded Comics (FRANCO, 2017). This article conceptualizes poetic-philosophical comics and presents the creative processes of the 4 comics inspired by the I Ching published in Oráculos.El álbum de historietas Oráculos reunió 10 historietas breves (comics) creadas por el dibujante de historietas Edgar Franco (Ciberpajé) a lo largo de 20 años y publicadas inicialmente en revistas alternativas y fanzines. Estos cómics fueron desarrollados inspirados en 2 oráculos, 4 de ellos basados en hexagramas del antiguo oráculo chino I Ching, y 6 de ellos basados en arcanos mayores del Tarot. Los cómics publicados en el álbum recogen las características básicas del género poético-filosófico del cómic y un peculiar proceso creativo. La singularidad de cada uno de ellos radica en la forma en que fueron creados al unir la respuesta del Oráculo -después de su consulta-, la relación de sentido percibida por el autor a partir de su experiencia vital en ese momento-, y la generación de una breve narración metafórica. que conectaba el significado del oráculo con la transformación de la realidad ordinaria deseada por el creador. Este proceso creativo diferenciado transforma la creación en un acto que va más allá de ser catártico, un acto de autotransformación, caracterizando estos cómics como Cómics Expandidos (FRANCO, 2017). Este artículo conceptualiza las historietas poético-filosóficas y presenta los procesos creativos de las 4 historietas inspiradas en el I Ching publicadas en Oráculos
Cascaded Wide-Angle Optical Power Splitter
No full text本實驗旨在研製波長1.55μm與0.6328μm兩種光源下之串接式大角度光功率分離器。光功率分離器的波導結構由對稱式Y形分支波導構成，而爲了有效縮減元件尺寸，Y形分支中的彎曲波導部份以簡式同調耦合的結構設計之。製程上採用鋅鎳為共同擴散源製作光波導，觀察此波導量測結果，並無鋰離子外擴散情況，且有助於光場的侷限性。實驗結果顯示兩種光波導的傳輸效率皆高於80%，而最大輸出分支不均勻率皆低於0.5 dB。依據簡式同調耦合的理論，本研究設計之彎曲區段依序為0.5°、1.5°、2.5°、3°、2.5°、1.5°、0.5°，在此結構下可使研製波長1.55μm的元件，其輸出端之波導距離為 119μm，而研製波長0.6328μm的元件，其輸出端之波導距離為53μm。最後本研究利用兩種彎曲結構模擬此光功率分離器，發現採用簡式同調耦合結構的元件其傳輸率皆相對S形結構高出10%，說明本實驗採用的彎曲結構，除了縮減元件的尺寸外，也相對提高了元件的傳輸率。Cascaded wide-angle optical power splitters operating at 1.55μm and 0.6328μm are demonstrated. The splitter is essentially a symmetric Y-junction waveguide. To reduce the device length, the bending structure of the Y-junction is replaced by simplified coherently-coupled waveguide segments. Moreover, zinc and nickel co-diffused lithium niobate (Zn-Ni:LiNbO3) waveguide, free of lithium outdiffusion, is used to improve the confinement of optical field. The measured transmission efficiencies are more than 80% and the maximal imbalances are less than 0.5 dB at both wavelengths. The distances between the closer two output waveguides are 119 μm and 53 μm at 1.55 μm and 0.6328 μm, respectively, when the bending angles of the segments are designed as 0.5°, 1.5°, 2.5°, 3°, 2.5°, 1.5°, and 0.5° according to the simplified coherent coupling (SCC) theory. Moreover, simulation results show that the power transmission efficiency of an SCC splitter is 10% higher than that of an S-bend one.第一章 緒論
1-1研究動機………………………………………………………1
1-2內容簡介………………………………………………………2
1-3章節概述………………………………………………………6
第二章 元件設計與原理
2-1 元件結構計………………………………………………7
2-1-1分支結構……………………………………………7
2-1-2彎曲結構……………………………………………8
2-1-3同調耦合效應……………………………………11
2-1-4簡式同調耦合彎曲光波導…………………………15
2-2光功率分離器之設計…………………………………………17
第三章 元件製程
3-1鋅鎳共同擴散式鈮酸鋰光波導……………………………….19
3-2製程方法……………………………………………………….21
第四章 實驗量測與結果
4-1量測系統……………………………………………26
4-2實驗結果……………………………………………29
4-2-1鋅鎳共同擴散式光波導……………29
4-2-2光功率分離器………………………31
4-2-3簡式同調耦合與S形彎曲光波導之比較35
第五章 結論與未來展望
5-1結論……………………………………………………………36
5-2未來展望………………………………………………………37
參考文獻…………………………………………………………38
中英文名詞對照表....................................4
Indo-European vocabulary in Old Chinese : a new thesis on the emergence of Chinese language and civilization in the late Neolithic age
No full textThis study is a much expanded version of the paper I read at the XXXII International Congress for Asian and North African Studies on August 28, 1986 in Hamburg (Germany). Contents 1. Recent developments in the field of historical linguistics 2. Monosyllabic structure of Chinese words and Indo-European stems 3. Tonal accents of Middle Chinese 4. Preliminaries on the comparison of consonants and vowels 5. Some IE stems corresponding to Chinese words of entering tone 6. Middle Chinese tones and final consonants of IE stems 7. Some IE stems corresponding to Chinese words of rising tone 8. Some IE stems corresponding to Chinese words of vanishing tone 9. Some IE stems corresponding to Chinese words of level tone 10. Reconstruction of Middle Chinese vocalism according to Yün-ching 11. Old Chinese vocalism 12. Vocalic correspondences between Chinese and IE 13. Initials of Old Chinese 14. Initial consonant clusters in Old Chinese as seen from IE-stems 15. Proximity of Chinese to Germanic 16. Relation of Old Chinese to neighboring languages 17. Emergence of Chinese Empire and language in the middle of the third millennium B.C. Appendix * Abbrevations * Bibliography * Rhyme Tables of Early Middle Chinese (600) * Rhyme Tables of Early Mandarin (1300) * Word Index o English o Pinyin In 1786, just over two hundred years ago, comparative historical linguistics was born, when Sir William Jones (1746-1794) discovered the relationship between Old-Indian Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. Since then, the emerging Indo-European philology has thrown much light on the early history of mankind in Eurasia. During the past two hundred years, many suggestions were also made in regard to relationships of Indo-European to other languages such as Semitic, Altaic, Austronesian, Korean etc., but Indo-Europeanists commonly rejected such attempts for want of convincing evidence. As to Chinese, Joseph Edkins was the first to advance the thesis of its proximity to Indo-European. In his work China's Place in Philology. An Attempt to show that the Language of Europe and Asia have a Common Origin (1871) he presented a number of Chinese words similar to those of Indo-European. In his time, Edkins' thesis seemed bold and extravagant. But today, more than a hundred years later, we are in a much better position to carry out a comprehensive and well-founded comparative study. Since the end of the nineteenth century, many Sinologists have been engaged in reconstruction of the mediaeval and archaic readings of Chinese characters. Among them, Karlgren (1889-1978) was the most successful, and in 1940 he published a comprehensive phonological and etymological dictionary entitled Grammata Serica. In the meantime, the Indo-Europeanists Alois Walde (1869-1924) and Julius Pokorny (1887-1970) were devoting themselves to the compilation of a useful etymological dictionary. The result was the Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch by Pokorny (1959) which provides a solid basis for our lexical comparisons. Soon thereafter, some Sinologists made use of the two dictionaries by Karlgren and Pokorny to compare Chinese and Indo-European words. In 1967, an unaffiliated German scholar, Jan Ulenbrook, published an article "Einige Übereinstirnrnungen zwischen dem Chinesischen und dem Indogermanischen", in which he claimed that 57 words are related. Shortly afterwards, Tor Ulving of the University of Goteborg, Sweden, wrote a review of this article framing the title as a question: "Indo-European elements in Chinese?" While working on his thesis on word families in Chinese, Ulving compiled for his own use two dictionaries: "Archaic Chinese - English" and "English - Archaic Chinese", and discovered thereby 238 Chinese words similar to Indo-European roots. In spite of this considerable number of word equivalents, however, Mr. Ulving became discouraged and, as he told me in his letter of April, 1986, has given up his researches in this field. The skepticism, common among Indo-Europeanists in regard to comparative studies with other languages, is largely based on the dogmatic opinion that only morphology is relevant but not vocabulary. Since the typology of Chinese seems to preclude a cognate relation to Indo-European, they are inclined to discard any lexical correspondences as merely accidental or onomatopoetic. Besides, prehistorical contacts and mixtures between these languages seem not conceivable, as the Indo-Europeans are supposed to have originated in Northern Europe or at best in the Central Asian steppe, thousands of miles away from East Asia. Hence, any research into a relationship between Old Chinese and Indo-European languages would be but futile from the outset. Yet there are also opposing views among Indo-Europeanists. Investigations into Germanic languages and the oldest Indo-European language, Hittite, led some of them to a critical revision of the prevailing conception about a Proto-Indo-European. Hermann Hirt (1934) for instance states: "Inflexion of Indo-European languages is due to a relatively late development, and its correct comprehension can be achieved only by proceeding from the time of non-inflexion." And Carl Karstien (1936) holds the opinion that "Chinese corresponds most ideally to the hypothetic prototype of Indo-European." Regarding vocabulary, there are striking similarities in the monosyllabic structure of the basic words. In modern German and English, all the words of everyday speech are monosyllabic and their stereotypical structure is: initial consonant(s) + vowel(s) + final consonant(s). The same word structure is valid for Chinese as well. It is fundamentally different from the disyllabic structure of Altaic words and from the triconsonantal-disyllabic structure of Semitic words. Characteristic of the monosyllabic word structure is, besides, the complexity of the syllable nucleus, which consists of different vowels and vowel clusters in contrast to the monophthongal vocalism of polysyllabic words. Another objection raised to comparisons between Chinese and Indo-European is the existence of tonal accents in Chinese. Since most modern Indo-European languages have only expiratory accents, Chinese is considered to be a highly exotic language. Yet, even in Chinese, the use of tonal accents as a means of lexical differentiation is a result of comparatively recent development in the long history of Chinese language, the earliest monuments of which date back to 1300 B.C. (cf. Chang 1970, p.21). Unknown to Old Chinese, the existence of tonal accents was for the first time mentioned in the 5th century by Shen Yüeh (441-513). In Middle Chinese (Mch.) there were four tone categories: A P'ing-sheng 平 a level tone (which developed into Mandarin tone 1 or 2). B Shang-sheng 上 a rising tone (Mandarin tone 3). C Ch'u-sheng 去 a vanishing, i.e. falling tone (Mandarin tone 4). D Ju-sheng 入 an entering tone with a staccato effect, the word being abruptly stopped by a final consonant -p, -t, -k. (In Early Mandarin the words of this tone lost their final consonant and were distributed among the tones 2, 3 and 4, respectively according to the phonation of initials). In Middle Chinese, words of the entering tone were the only group which still preserved the final stops and therefore a close syllabic structure. So they are most appropriate for convincing comparisons with monosyllabic Indo-European word stems. The final stops -p, -t, -k of the entering tone are nowadays still extant in daily speech of several dialects in South China as well as in Chinese borrowings in Japanese, Vietnamese and Korean. As a speaker of a Taiwan dialect of Minnan origin, I could immediately identify some Indo-European stems with corresponding Chinese words. Besides, the command of Japanese and German was also a great help for this study. In the following lists I have chosen a number of Indo-European stems which are phonetically and semantically equivalent to Chinese words. Correspondences in initial and final consonants refer to the points of articulation, thus we have equations: IE labials = Old Chinese labials, IE dentals = dentals, IE l, r = dentals (cf. p. 31); Ø, i (final and medial) IE velars = velars and laryngeals, and occasionally (the so-called "satem"-forms) IE velars = dental sibilants and affricates. Regarding the manner of articulation, there are no regular correspondences between Indo-European and Chinese consonants like Grimm's law which is valid among Indo-European dialects to a certain extent. But this is not astonishing, since in Old Chinese the alternation of initials in voicing was a conventional means of creating new words from one basic form. The rules of vocalic correpondences among Indo-European dialects are quite complex. Vowels permanently change their qualities from one language to another, and from time to time within one language also, as is well known from the history of English pronunciations. Generally, the vocalism of Old Greek is taken as the standard for Proto-Indo-European. Old Chinese vowels corresponds nearly (cf. p. 30), but the details about the reconstruction of Middle and Old Chinese vocalism will be treated later (pp. 26-30). For the moment, it is necessary to notice in advance that the stem of ablauting Germanic verbs is the form of preterite or noun, rather than that of infinitive as assumed hitherto. Therefore, in some cases I must slightly modify the basic vowel of verbal stems given in Pokorny, in order to get better basis for comparison. As Old Chinese verbs were non-flexional, they might probably have preserved the original vowel the best
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