41 research outputs found
Embodied Carbon in Buildings: Measurement, Management, and Mitigation
No full textEmbodied carbon is, to some extent, an odd beast. Its importance is evident and the beneficial consequences of its reduction undeniable. We know that the built envi- ronment is a major source of our carbon excesses, yet most policies focus only on part of the picture by capping operational energy consumption, for the use of buildings. We also know that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has warned that carbon reductions are needed now, not in 30 years’ time. Lowering the immediate emissions related to current building construction and demolition, the embodied carbon, is an obvious way to do so. In recent years, research on embodied carbon has therefore increased.Many fields of research develop steadily over the years, led by a small and coherent community of experts. Others quietly die, as the world moves on. Yet, for a very few topics, a moment comes when the world suddenly wakes up to their importance, and interest and attention start to snowball. This is such a moment for the subject of this book, the greenhouse gas emissions resulting from the construc- tion of buildings. Within this snowballing, of industry consultancies producing tools, of manufacturers benchmarking their products, of academics working together on major projects and even of the rumblings of political and regulatory change, there is, however, a real danger that the knowledge will become so dispersed that any real progress will be lost. Instead of forming a coherent body of work to inform policy and evoke real change in how we construct our built environment, we run the real risk of finding ourselves in a meaningless avalanche of disconnected ideas. This book, therefore, sets out to perform a vital task – to extract coherence, not chaos, from this outpouring of intellectual endeavour.Following the Paris Agreement, many nations have revamped their carbon plans, climate change drafts and carbon reduction targets. However, most governments remain stuck on the same single track of promoting operational energy efficiency in buildings, seemingly reluctant to acknowledge that this ignores an essential part of the picture. More energy-efficient buildings may reduce energy use and carbon emissions in the long term, but without a parallel focus on embodied energy and carbon, the real savings that could be made right now are lost, often instead resulting in an increase in short-term impact. Without a holistic understanding of the data, a sincere estimate of the uncertainties and an appreciation of the impact of human behaviour – both of occupiers and of constructors – this is a gamble with the future of our environment.We hope, therefore, that we have succeeded in representing, within this one volume, a persuasive argument for the importance of including embodied emissions in all aspects of construction. The argument is constructed over the first three sections through the main areas of debate over the measurement of embodied carbon, the key concepts of its management and a comprehensive overview of the mitigation strategies being proposed and enacted. The final section acknowledges that there are geographical differences in both context and approach, providing an overview of the state of knowledge and practice across regions of the world.Correct understanding of estimates is an essential starting point in the embodied carbon debate. If we cannot agree on our numbers, the conversation is prevented from moving forward. The first section, therefore, includes three chapters dedicated to uncertainty analysis, each of which offers novel and diverse points of view on the topic. The section also features chapters on the embodied carbon of different structural materials as well as the inclusion of some uncommon variables in embodied carbon assessments, such as surface albedo.The management section is perhaps the most diverse in the book and the one with the greater interdisciplinary outlook. It features chapters looking at early design tools, others aimed at bridging the current gap between research and practice and some looking at the significance of life cycle stages often neglected in embodied carbon assessments as well as the identification of carbon hotspots.The third section on mitigation is the natural conclusion of the ‘embodied carbon journey’ offered in the book. In other words, now that we know how to quantify embodied carbon and that we have also learned how to manage it, how can we actually reduce it? The section features a diverse set of chapters, looking at novel opportunities offered by the principles of a circular economy, sustainable technologies and optimisation strategies at both material and building levels.Views from different regions of the world conclude the book, and we are very proud of the broad coverage we managed to achieve. This section includes contri- bution from Australia, a world leader in embodied carbon, Africa, North and South America, Europe and China. We strongly believe all chapters offer a stimulating learning opportunity for all those interested.We hope that this book will succeed in its aims: to educate and enthuse both practitioners and scholars, to provide a comprehensive starting point for the novel researcher in the field and to act as an essential reference source for everyone working on this topic. Most of all, we hope to have created a document that collates, connects and makes sense of the current state of knowledge and that identifies clearly the questions still to be answered.We believe that bringing together key researchers in this area has already started the process of creating a virtual global community highlighting and validating theirdifferent views while acknowledging the similarity of the challenges we are facing. We hope that both readers of and contributors to this book will return to their work with renewed spirit and positivity, in the recognition that together we form a strong, passionate community working together to create real change towards a low-carbon future
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Circular Economy Research in the Built Environment: A Theoretical Contribution
No full textCircular economy is quickly gaining momentum across numerous research fields. The founding principles of circular economies lie in a different perspective on, and management of, resources under the idea that an ever-growing economic development and profitability can happen without an ever-growing pressure on the environment. As such, the built environment has a lot to contribute, being the sector with the greatest environmental impacts. However, the few existing cases of current research in the built environment from a circular economy perspective seem to have just replaced the 3R principle (reduce, reuse, recycle) with the new ‘buzz-word’. In this paper, we argue that a significantly different research approach is necessary if the circular economy is to keep up to its promise of being a new paradigm for sustainability. We therefore propose a framework to formulate building research from within a circular economy perspective. The framework is built around six pillars and acknowledges the key role of interdisciplinary research and that of both bottom-up and top-down initiatives to facilitate the transition to ‘circular’ buildings. Although theoretical in nature, the framework has been tested against current discourse about buildings and circular economies and it has proven a valuable tool to cluster existing initiatives and highlight missing interdisciplinary links. As such it can provide a valuable starting point to contribute to the theoretical foundations of building research from within the new paradigm of circular economies and also shape future research directions
Treatment complications and long-term outcomes of total body irradiation in patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a single institute experience
No full textBACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to evaluate treatment-related toxicity and clinical outcomes of total body irradiation (TBI) in patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL).
PATIENTS AND METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of all patients with ALL who underwent TBI-based conditioning regimen at our Institution between 2000 and 2012.
RESULTS: A total of 211 patients were included. The median follow-up was 40 months. The 5-year overall survival and disease-free survival were 64.7% and 62.8%, respectively. The 5-year overall survival rate for the 163 children was 67.6% (95% confidence interval=55-77%). Disease status at time of transplant did not improve disease-free survival. Gastrointestinal acute toxicity was the most common early side-effect (19.9%). Acute graft-versus-host disease was reported in 31 patients (14.7%). Main late toxicities were cataract induction (12.8%) and growth, gonadal and endocrine effects (36%).
CONCLUSION: TBI-based conditioning regimen led to a high survival rate with remarkably low radiation-related toxicity, suggesting that TBI provides a feasible therapeutic option in patients with ALL
Embodied Environmental and Social Impacts: A Regionalised Sectoral Method for Low-Carbon Construction Materials in Italy
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Embodied Environmental and Social Impacts: A Regionalised Sectoral Method for Low-Carbon Construction Materials in Italy
by Elisabetta Palumbo 1,* andFrancesco Pomponi 2ORCID
1
Department of Engineering and Applied Science (DISA), University of Bergamo, 24129 Bergamo, Italy
2
York School of Architecture, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(21), 9797; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219797
Submission received: 25 September 2025 / Revised: 26 October 2025 / Accepted: 28 October 2025 / Published: 3 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Topic Construction Project Management and Infrastructure Sustainability)
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Abstract
The decarbonisation of the built environment has increased reliance on Environmental Life Cycle Assessment (E-LCA) to evaluate the impacts of construction materials. However, social aspects—particularly those affecting workers—remain underexplored. This study presents a regionalised approach to support socially and environmentally informed decision-making in the Italian construction sector. For this purpose, we have integrated worker health and safety indicators into the E-LCA of two representative building products assessed across key life cycle stages. These indicators are incorporated into the evaluation of Global Warming Potential (GWP), thus serving as a decision-support tool during the design phase. From a design perspective, the aim is to promote a broader understanding of sustainability—encompassing both environmental and social dimensions—within building projects. Methodologically, the contribution is twofold. First, it addresses the current gap in context-specific data on the critical indicator of worker health and safety in the construction sector, an essential requirement for robust and scientifically recognised S-LCA studies. To this end, the study develops a regionalised scoring system based on publicly available occupational health and safety data from the Italian National Accident Database (INAIL), disaggregated by sector and region. Second, we propose a framework to combine these social indicators with LCA-based environmental impact metrics, which remain central to building-scale E-LCA. It is clear that no single region performs best, while a critical need for multi-criteria decision-making in sustainable design is evident
Study of an alternative gene embedded in the West Nile virus genome
No full textRIASSUNTO
L'analisi bioinformatica del genoma del virus West Nile (WNV) ha individuato 6 schemi di
lettura alternativi,
il più lungo dei quali (444bp), denominato WARF4, è presente
solamente nei ceppi di WNV appartenenti alla linea virale I. Il gene alternativo è
sovrapposto all’estremità 3' del gene NS4B ed in parte alla regione 5’ del gene dell’NS5.
L'utilizzo di WARF4 è stato indirettamente dimostrato mediante l'individuazione di
anticorpi specifici in sieri equini positivi al WNV. Poiché la sequenza di WARF4 è integrata
nel gene della proteina virale NS4B, la nuova proteina è stata rinominata N-NS4B/WARF4.
Lo scopo di questo progetto è dimostrare la produzione di N-NS4B/WARF4 in colture
cellulari eucariotiche infettate con il virus West Nile. A tal fine abbiamo prodotto una una
proteina ricombinante che include l'intera sequenza dello schema di lettura alternativo.
Questa proteina è stata utilizzata come immunogeno per la produzione di un anticorpo
monoclonale anti-WARF4, chiamato MAb 3A12. E' stata inoltre prodotta una proteina
ricombinante che comprende la sequenza COOH terminale del gene NS4B da utilizzare
come controllo nei test di validazione dell' anticorpo.
MAb 3A12, è stato dapprima utilizzato in saggi immunoenzimatici che hanno confermato
la sua specificità: in particolare è stata individuata la regione della proteina riconosciuta
dall’anticorpo osservando la sua reattività in western blot con quattro peptidi sintetici che
coprono tutta la sequenza aminoacidica codificata da WARF4.
L’anticorpo MAb 3A12 ha riconosciuto la nuova proteina in cellule VERO infettate con il
WNV appartenente alla linea virale I sia in esperimenti di immunofluorescenza che in
western blot , mentre non ha reagito con cellule infettate con la linea virale II del virus.
I risultati di analisi in western blot eseguite su lisato di cellule VERO infettate a tempi
diversi dimostrano che N-NS4B/WARF4 viene espressa in quantità maggiore nella tarda
fase dell’infezione.
L’espressione “in vivo” della proteina N-NS4B/WARF4 è stata dimostrata indirettamente,
sebbene su un numero limitato di campioni, valutando la sua immunogenicità in individui
infettati con il WNV.
Al momento non ci sono informazioni sperimentali circa il meccanismo di traduzione della
proteina N-NS4B/WARF4, tuttavia si può supporre che la proteina venga prodotta in
seguito ad uno scivolamento del ribosoma in posizione -1 durante la traduzione della
poliproteina virale. Questo meccanismo di traduzione è già stato descritto per il West Nile
ed è promosso da specifiche sequenze dell’RNA (slippery sequences associate a
pseudoknot) rilevate dalle analisi bioinformatiche effettuate sui genomi virali analizzati.
Come suggeriscono anche i dati ottenuti in western blot, in seguito allo scivolamento del
ribosoma in posizione -1 la proteina codificata da WARF4 verrebbe sintetizzata come
variante carbossi-terminale dell’antigene virale NS4B.
Il possibile ruolo della proteina N-NS4B/WARF4 nel corso dell’infezione da WNV resta
tuttora sconosciuto, tuttavia recenti dati di letteratura sembrerebbero suggerire un ruolo
nella regolazione traduzionale del genoma virale.
ABSTRACT
Bioinformatics analysis performed on West Nile virus (WNV) genome revealed the presence of
six alternative open reading frames, one of which, entitled WARF4, is the longest (444 bp) and
exclusively restricted to the viral lineage I.
The alternative gene is overlapping the COOH-terminal region of the NS4B gene and a small N-terminal portion of the NS5 gene. Since WARF4 is embedded in the NS4B gene, we rename
the novel protein N-NS4B/WARF4.
We previously reported that N-NS4B/WARF4 is able to elicit antibodies in WNV infected horses;
however, there was no direct experimental proof of the existence of this novel protein. The
purpose of this study was to demonstrate the in vitro production of WARF4 protein following
WNV infection of mammalian cultured cells.
For this purpose we produced two recombinant proteins : His- WARF4, that was used as
immunogen for the production of a monoclonal antibody (MAb 3A12), and a NS4B carboxy -
terminal portion protein as negative control for the evaluation of the antibody specificity.
MAb 3A12 specificity to alternative protein was confirmed by its reactivity to only one peptide
among four analyzed that cover the full WARF4 amino acids sequence. This antibody detected
the novel protein in WNV lineage I-infected, cultured VERO cells while it did not react with WNV
lineage II infected cells. In addition, WARF4 protein was expressed in the late phase of WNV
lineage I infection.
We indirectly demonstrated the “in vivo” production of N-NS4B/WARF4 by showing its
immunoreactivity with human sera obtained from WNV infected patients.
We have no experimental information on N-NS4B/WARF4 protein translation, but it appears
reasonable to assume that a -1 ribosomal frameshifting mechanism produces the novel protein.
This translation mechanism has already been described for West Nile.
Since the proposed model requires the presence of specific RNA structures such as slippery
sequences associated with pseudknot was carried out bioinformatics analysis that revealed
these structures within the NS4B coding region.
The data obtained in western blot assays suggest that following the ribosomal frameshifting in -
1 frame N-NS4B/WARF4 would be synthesized as carboxy-terminal variant of NS4B antigen.
The possible role of the protein N-NS4B/WARF4 during WNV infection is still unknown,
however recent literature data seem to suggest a possible role in the translational regulation of
the viral genome
Embodied Carbon Measurement, Mitigation and Management Within Europe, Drawing on a Cross-Case Analysis of 60 Building Case Studies
No full textThis chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the state of the art on this subject within Europe. In order to do so, it draws on a cross-case analysis of over 60 European case studies, developed and analysed by the authors as part of the International Energy Agency Annex 57 project.
Embodied impacts have been considered for many years in this part of the world and have now reached a certain level of maturity; recently the publication of European standards EN 15978 and EN 15804 has helped to develop a more harmonised approach, while environmental certification schemes such as BREEAM from the UK and DGNB from Germany are increasingly encouraging European designers to use LCA to measure and reduce the whole-life carbon and energy of buildings. However, there are still a wide range of methodological approaches in use both in academic studies and in industry tools, hampering efforts to draw conclusive recommendations for low-carbon design strategies.
Two issues are of particular importance for the European context. First, as in other areas of the world, there is a focus on minimising the whole-life energy and carbon cost of new buildings. This paper uses the analysis of the Annex 57 case studies to provide a general quantification of embodied carbon and energy in European buildings for different life cycle stages and building components. It then identifies a number of approaches to reducing these impacts and, by comparing with a review of the international literature, discusses which of these identified mitigation strategies are particularly suitable in Europe.
The second issue recognises the unique aspects of this historically urbanised region of the world. Here the high proportion of old and very old buildings means that refurbishment and adaptation projects account for a significant proportion of construction sector impacts. Meanwhile, rising populations are leading to increased pressures for the densification of already-developed brownfield sites. While refurbishment, in preference to demolition and rebuild, has been identified in the academic literature as frequently a lower-carbon strategy, this is seldom an issue taken into account in industry practice. This chapter concludes that this area is one of particular importance on which industry and academia should work together across Europe
Embodied Carbon in Buildings: Measurement, Management, and Mitigation
No full textThis book provides a single-source reference for whole life embodied impacts of buildings. The comprehensive and persuasive text, written by over 50 invited experts from across the world, offers an indispensable resource both to newcomers and to established practitioners in the field. Ultimately it provides a persuasive argument as to why embodied impacts are an essential aspect of sustainable built environments.The book is divided into four sections: measurement, including a strong emphasis on uncertainty analysis, as well as offering practical case studies of individual buildings and a comparison of materials; management, focusing in particular on the perspective of designers and contractors; mitigation, which identifies some specific design strategies as well as challenges; and finally global approaches, six chapters which describe in authoritative detail the ways in which the different regions of the world are tackling the issue
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Embodied Carbon in Buildings: Measurement, Management, and Mitigation
No full textThis book provides a single-source reference for whole life embodied impacts of buildings. The comprehensive and persuasive text, written by over 50 invited experts from across the world, offers an indispensable resource both to newcomers and to established practitioners in the field. Ultimately it provides a persuasive argument as to why embodied impacts are an essential aspect of sustainable built environments.
The book is divided into four sections: measurement, including a strong emphasis on uncertainty analysis, as well as offering practical case studies of individual buildings and a comparison of materials; management, focusing in particular on the perspective of designers and contractors; mitigation, which identifies some specific design strategies as well as challenges; and finally global approaches, six chapters which describe in authoritative detail the ways in which the different regions of the world are tackling the issue
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Uncertainty assessment of comparative design stage embodied carbon assessments: decision making under uncertainty
No full textScrutinising embodied carbon in buildings: The next performance gap made manifest
No full textLife cycle assessment (LCA) is becoming increasingly mainstream as an early-stage design-decision tool for buildings. Still, there are considerable variations in how the method is currently used, leading to limitations in comparing the results and the conclusions that can be drawn. These variations are due to several factors and LCA modellers must make multiple methodological decisions during an assessment. This has resulted, unsurprisingly, in a variety of approaches, and a wide range of outcomes. Academics have produced numerous case studies on particular buildings, aiming towards a detailed understanding of the energy and carbon impacts. However, very few case studies are detailed enough to allow for an in-depth comparison. This article investigates in detail these embodied carbon assessments, considering the data used and the methodological assumptions made. An in-depth analysis shows that there are still considerable variations in how the methodology is applied, leading to substantial limitations in comparing results and drawing conclusions. Results may differ by two orders of magnitude, thus limiting the understanding of how real mitigation might best be achieved. Without immediate action, embodied carbon will become a ‘second wave’ of performance gap in environmental assessments of buildings. Both greater transparency and greater conformity must be embraced by the LCA community and enforced by policymakers and professional bodies
