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Obrazovna ponuda univerziteta za trece doba
No full textUniversities for the third age, although they are not the only providers of education intended for older population, represent an important pillar of education for this special target group. After more than three decades of the establishment of the first university for the third age in Serbia, the dynamics regularities of the adult education system development also operate in this part of its subsystem. In accordance with social changes, the number of institutions classified as universities for the third age, the offer of their programs, as well as the geographical distribution of these institutions, and thus the availability of their educational offer to the older population, are changing. The purpose of this work is to determine the characteristics of the educational offer of universities for the third age: distribution on the territory of the Republic of Serbia, program orientation, organizational forms of realization of educational activities and ways in which they are adapted to the target population. In terms of methodology, the research relies on a qualitative research paradigm, within which a multiple case study was applied as a research model, and content analysis was used as a method, more precisely, content analysis of the websites of the university’s
educational offer for the third age, along with their narrative analysis. The research results indicate insufficient and unequal distribution of universities for older persons, limited range of educational content within the traditional, general education (liberal) oriented educational offer (mainly artistic
and recreational programs, as well as programs for learning a foreign language and overcoming ICT challenges) offered to older persons in different parts of Serbia, and traditional forms of teaching (mainly courses and less frequently individual teaching). For now, older participants are not offered the possibility of online classes, which would compensate geographically uneven
institutional offer. The educational offer is mainly adapted to the needs of the older population through smaller financial resources required for participation in the program, in some cases the possibility of paying in instalments, as well as the realization of some programs in the morning hours. The results of the research open up issues of elitist character of the universities for the third
age, how to stimulate the increase in the number of universities for the third age, their further program and organizational diversification, as well as ways in which potential barriers to the participation of older persons could be removed, that is, greater adjustment of the characteristics of the educational offer to the needs of the older population.Univerziteti za treće doba, iako nisu jedini provajderi obrazovanja namenjenog starijoj populaciji, predstavljaju značajni stub obrazovanja ove osobene ciljne grupe. Posle više od tri decenije osnivanja prvog univerziteta za treće doba u Srbiji, zakonomernosti dinamike razvoja sistema obrazovanja odraslih deluju i u ovom delu njegovog podsistema. Shodno društvenim promenama, menja se broj institucija koje se svrstavaju u kategoriju univerziteta za treće doba, ponuda njihovih programa, kao i geografska rasprostranjenost ovih institucija, a time i dostupnost njihove obrazovne ponude starijoj populaciji. Namera ovoga rada je da utvrdi karakteristike obrazovne ponude univerziteta za treće doba: njihovu distribuciju na teritoriji Republike Srbije, programsku orijentaciju, organizacione oblike realizacije obrazovne aktivnosti i načine na koje su prilagođeni ciljanoj populaciji. U metodološkom pogledu, istraživanje se oslanja na kvalitativnu istraživačku paradigmu, u okviru koje je primenjena multipla studija slučaja kao model istraživanja, a kao metoda korišćena je analiza sadržaja, tačnije, analiza sadržaja veb sajtova obrazovne ponude univerziteta za treće doba, kao i analizu njihovog narativa. Rezultati istraživanja ukazuju na nedovoljnu i nejednaku distribuciju univerziteta za treće doba, ograničeni raspon obrazovnog sadržaja u okviru tradicionalne, opšteobrazovno (liberalno) orijentisane obrazovne ponude
(uglavnom umetnički i rekreativni programi, kao i programi učenja stranog jezika i savlađivanja IKT izazova) koji se nudi starima u različitim delovima Srbije, kao i na tradicionalne oblike realizacije nastave (uglavnom kursevi i ređe individualna nastava). Za sada se starijim participantima ne nude
mogućnosti onlajn nastave, čime bi se kompenzovala geografski nejednaka institucionalna ponuda. Obrazovna ponuda je uglavnom prilagođena potrebama starije populacije kroz manja finansijska sredstva potrebna za participaciju u programu, u nekim slučajevima i mogućnost plaćanja na rate, kao i realizaciju nekih programa u prepodnevnim časovima. Rezultati istraživanja otvaraju pitanja elitističkog karaktera univerzitera za treće doba, načina stimulisanja povećanja broja univerziteta za treće doba, njihove dalje programske i organizacione diverzifikacije, kao i načina na koje bi se mogle otkloniti potencijalne barijere za participaciju starih, odnosno, većeg
prilagođavanja karakteristika obrazovne ponude potrebama starije populacije.11th International Congress of Gerontology, 12-13 October 2022, Palace Serbia, Belgrade, Serbi
Parenting models as potential drivers of cultural Europeanisation? Insights from the Serbian diaspora in the Netherlands
No full textIn 2012, Serbia became a candidate for EU accession. As well as intensive EU integration development, the country is undergoing a parallel process of legal and cultural Europeanisation. However, discussion of the cultural EU integration of Serbia and the possibilities of adopting European-based values, standards and a shared common identity has been neglected in scholarly studies. The aim of this study is to question whether the capital of migrants has the potential to be used as a tactical tool of Europeanisation. In order to determine this, the paper first reviews theoretical data on "extended youth"-the prolonging of a juvenile lifestyle instead of a timely transition into adulthood is common practice in Serbia. Second, the paper interprets the 2020 ethnographic material on the parenting of children among Serbian migrants living in the Netherlands. The Dutch practice of raising independent and responsible children, prevalent as well in many other EU countries, is adopted by Serbian parents in the Netherlands. Third, it proposes transnational projects that would include members of diaspora, representative EU institutions and national strategists, the young and local communities in Serbia to speed up cultural, and consequently legal, Europeanisation. Although the Serbian government recognises the need for cooperation with diaspora for steadfast Serbian EU integration, the potential of migrants' capital has not been sufficiently used nor its plausible contributions studied. Therefore, this paper draws attention to transnational cultural diffusion as part of Europeanisation. It also offers several propositions for preliminary framework for the participation of Serbian diaspora in the development of Serbia
Exploring the Structure of Irrational Beliefs: A Multi-Study Evidence
No full textIrrational beliefs, characterižed by a lack of empirical evidence or contradiction with scientific principles, encompass a broad spectrum of beliefs, typically classified into conspiratorial, pseudoscientific, and paranormal domains. Previous research has shown substantial interrelations among these domains. In this research, across four studies, we explore the latent structure of irrational beliefs and investigate whether they can be ascribed to one underlying factor. We collected data from diverse samples (N1 = 506, N2
= 506, N3 = 220, N4 = 921) with each study including at least one measure representing each of the three presumed domains: paranormal (Superstitiousness and Extrasensory perception beliefs), pseudoscientific (Magical health beliefs and Attitudes towards traditional, complementary and alternative medicine), and conspiracist (General conspiracist beliefs and Medical conspiracist beliefs). Despite using brief versions of all
instruments, their internal consistency was higher than .75, while correlations among irrational beliefs were consistently positive and ranged from r = .14 (between General conspiracist beliefs and Superstitiousness in Study 3) to r = .70 (between Medical conspiracist beliefs and Magical health beliefs in Study 1). We used exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with maximum likelihood extraction to test the latent structure of irrational beliefs. By employing parallel analysis, scree plot analysis, and Kaiser's criterion to determine the optimal number of factors, we retained a single latent factor in each study, whose explained variance ranged from 39% (Study 4) to 52% (Study 1). While each of the measures had significant loadings on this factor, conspiracist and pseudoscientific beliefs consistently exhibited higher loadings ranging from .57 to .94 than paranormal beliefs, which ranged from .37 to .55. These results indicate that various irrational beliefs, despite their distinct content, are best understood as manifestations of a general tendency to hold beliefs that lack a rational basis or empirical support.Međunarodni znanstveno-stručni skup 26. Dani psihologije u Zadru, Zadru 23. – 25. Мај 2024
Analysis of the Contribution of New Age Movement to the Reproduction of Capitalism
No full textThe central countries of the world capitalist system can be
considered as zones of consumerist postmodern capitalism. Productive
capitalism, understood as mass production of consumer goods present in
peripheral and in part semi-peripheral countries, is the reason for the current
state of and the conditions in the central countries. The average consumer
within postmodern capitalism lacks, to a certain extent, an identity that is
strongly rooted in belonging to traditional religious, national, gender and class
groups. Moreover, people often define themselves through eclectic
consumption which occasionally leads to a fluid and fragmented identity.
Hence, it can be assumed that the more common uprootedness and identity
fluidity of the average person in central countries serve the reproduction of
capitalism, since individuals usually define themselves through consumption
and in that way consistently elevate high levels of aggregate demand.
Traditional religious systems that require individuals to partially detach
themselves ascetically on their spiritual journey and rely less on the content of
this world can have goals that are opposed to capitalism's tendency for infinite
accumulation. On the other hand, it can be argued that the New Age
movement represents a capitalist market of diverse religious ideas where each
consumer has the right to buy the form of spirituality they prefer. This paper
will consider New Age to be a spiritual movement which complements the
logic of capitalist consumption. Therefore, the main goal of this paper will be
to outline the history of the New Age movement and analyze its potential
functions in the reproduction of the world capitalist economy.Second World Conference for Religious Dialogue and Cooperation Religion and Politics: Is Secularization
a Myth or Reality? Center for Intercultural Studies and Research, Faculty of Philosophy in Skopje 22.06.2024, Saopštenje štampano u izvod
Beyond the Edge of Exhaustion: Redefining the Concept of School Burnout Syndrome Through Qualitative Reexamination of Secondary School Students' Experiences
No full textSchool burnout syndrome is typically defined through exhaustion from academic demands, cynicism toward school, and feelings of inadequacy as a student, identically as occupational burnout syndrome. This approach neglects the context of education, while equating it with formal employment, overlooking differences between the status of a student and a worker. Therefore, this study aimed at better understanding diverse aspects of school burnout and its contextual risk factors in order to provide a more comprehensive conceptualization of this phenomenon. Methodologically relying on the grounded theory approach and conceptually on Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, we conducted and analyzed 25 semi-structured individual interviews with Serbian secondary school students that exhibited high scores on the School Burnout Inventory. Five interconnected main themes emerged: Loss of meaning, Intense emotional reactions and states, Perceived incompetence triggered by comparison with classmates, Guilt-induced withdrawal, and Impaired physical health. External factors included Unsupportive and pressuring family and Disengaged teachers. Finally, alongside advocating for preventative measures, such as educational policy and practice changes, we offer a novel theoretical conceptualization of school burnout syndrome. We also argue that the emergence of school burnout syndrome is not an individual’s collapse stemming from inner limitations, but a symptom of systemic deficiencies within the educational system
Digital Literacy through Games: A Participatory Assessment Study of the Impact of a Minecraft-Based Learning Resource for Computer Science lessons
No full textContribution
The European key competences framework distinguishes digital literacy among the eight key competences in education (EU, 2006), which is why policy makers and practitioners in Europe and beyond put a great effort in introducing changes that will support the development of these skills (Punie et al, 2017). Digital literacy consists of “knowledge, skills, values and awareness that are required when using ICT and digital media to perform tasks, solve problems, communicate, manage information, collaborate, create and share content, build knowledge effectively, efficiently, appropriately, critically, creatively, autonomously, flexibly, ethically, reflectively for work, leisure, participation, learning, socializing, consuming, and empowerment” (Ferrari, 2012). This competence is required for a full participation in the contemporary society, and it is getting more and more important as requests for using digital resources are expending rapidly in many jobs and other activities, which was especially notable during the pandemic (Kovács Cerović et al, 2021).
Recent Eurostat (2021) data show that about 50% of individuals in the European area have basic overall digital skills, ranging from 25% in Albania to 80% in Scandinavian countries. The latest IEA International Computer and Information Literacy report showed that 1 in 5 students worldwide did not have a functional working knowledge of computers at the end of lower secondary education, with wider differences observed within countries than between countries (Fraillon et al., 2021).
The urging need to ensure a stimulative learning environment for supporting the development of students’ digital literacy prompts teachers to come up with innovative teaching solutions. One such solution comes from a general upper secondary school in Serbia and was awarded with the European Training Foundation Innovative teaching and learning award in 2022 under the “Creating New learning” initiative. A Computer science teacher together with her students have created a game-based learning resource, called “The Escape room”, that corresponds to lower secondary Computer Science curriculum. The resource covers the seven topics of digital literacy: 1. Search the Internet; 2. Reliability of information on the internet and copyright, 3. Online identity; 4. Safety on the Internet; 5. Safe use of digital devices; 6. E-mail and working with shared documents; 7. Open data. The game is set on the Minecraft platform and uses the principles of the escape room game where a player goes through the room, explores a topic by reading information points, and has to answer questions to exit the room and move to the next one.
Previous studies dealing with game-based teaching resources haven’t provided conclusive evidence on whether they are beneficial to learning. A thorough review suggests that game-based resources support motivation for learning (Divjak & Tomić, 2011), however a recent meta-analysis revealed varying findings on their impacts on learning gains, with both positive and negative effects observed, and outcomes being influenced by factors like ease of use or cognitive workload (Zhonggen, 2021). In addition, a study investigating the impact of the experience of enjoyment while playing a game on learning gains found no connection between the two (Iten & Petko, 2016).
The current study was supported by the European Training Foundation initiative “Creating New Learning” and looked into the effects of the Escape room practice. The study took place in two elementary schools and involved three Computer science teachers – the one who developed the practice and two teachers who tried out the practices with their students, as well as researchers who led the study. Considering the ambiguity of previous findings, the study had two goals: 1. to assess whether the Escape room practice improves the motivation for learning, and 2. to assess whether the Escape room practice contributes to learning gains.
Method
The study used mix methods and was participatory (Bergold & Thomas, 2012), meaning that all decisions were made jointly by the teachers and the researchers, and that the teachers participated in interpretation of findings. The study relied on a quasi-experimental design (Todorović, 2008) which enabled a reliable assessment of the practice effects through comparison of experimental and control group results. The participating students were in grades 5 to 8. At the beginning of the study, all students undertook a digital literacy test. To make the experimental and control group similar in terms of their initial digital literacy, allocation of the classes was based on the classes’ average digital literacy scores. In each of the four grades, half of the (whole) classes were assigned to control group and other half to experimental group. Across the four grades, there were 18 classes in the experimental group with a total of 217 students, and 18 control group classes with a total of 201 students. Over the course of five weeks, the experimental group classes had their Computer science lessons conducted with the Escape room, while the control group classes had their lessons the usual way which included frontal teaching, discussions, students’ presentation, and problem-based learning - depending on the grade and a lesson. Data was collected from 360 students whose parents gave consent. To assess effects on motivation for learning, after each lesson students filled out a short questionnaire assessing their intrinsic motivation. The questionnaire had seven items (e.g., “I think this activity was quite enjoyable”) followed by a 10-point scale and was based on the Self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2020). This data was analysed using paired-samples t-test. Group effects were estimated on both school level and the whole sample level, thus checking for the moderating effect of a teacher. To assess the effects of the practice on learning outcomes, after the five weeks all students undertook another digital literacy test. Data from this instrument were analysed by using repeated measures analysis of variance and inspecting time X group interactions. The moderating effect of the teacher was also investigated. To make interpretation of quantitative results more reliable and to gather additional insight, the study also included a qualitative method. Additional data were collected through interviews with the two teachers and two focus group discussions with students. These data were analysed on the basis of the thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2012).
Expected Outcomes
The results showed that the practices contributed to boosting motivation, while it didn’t have impact on learning. However, the practice’s effects on the intrinsic motivation measure were moderated by the grade and the teacher, indicating the importance of contextual factors in the implementation of the practice. In school A, students from the experimental group from grades 6 to 8 reported higher motivation than the control group students (p.05). The practice didn’t show effects on learning outcomes measured by the digital literacy test in school A (p between .159 and .922). However, in school B, where students experienced technical difficulties while using the game, the control group had better achievement on the posttest measure than their experimental group counterparts (p<.05). This finding stressed the importance of ensuring the proper technical conditions prior to implementing the practice. Students’ and teachers’ insights revealed enablers and barriers to the practice implementation and supported fine nuancing of the quantitative findings, thus enlightening the mechanisms through which the practice impacted learning, which is applicable to other ICT based teaching resources as well
Educational Aspirations Of Students And Their Relationship With Socio-Emotional And Demographics Characteristics
No full textOne of developmental tasks for adolescents is to choose an educational path that is the right fit
for them. Sometimes students lack sufficient knowledge or confidence regarding their
competences, which can lead to mismatch between educational aspirations and competences,
followed by potential unfavourable outcomes. Aims of this study are to test how many students
are realistic about their future education, and to describe extracted profiles based on their
demographics and socio-emotional characteristics (SEC). We used data from PISA 2022 which
consisted of 6256 Serbian students. First, we crossed educational aspirations with test
performance. Descriptive analysis showed that 24% of students are low performers (did not
attain minimum proficiency in all three tested domains). Among low performers, 22% expected
to complete high school (Realistic low performers (RLP)), 36% expected to complete tertiary
education (Unrealistic low performers (ULP)), while 42% didn’t respond. 19% of students
stood out as high performers (attained at least minimum proficiency in three domains, and high
proficiency in at least one domain). Among them, 8% aspired to complete high school
(Unrealistic high performers (UHP)), 80% expected to complete tertiary education (Realistic
high performers (RHP)) and 12% didn’t respond. Chi-square, MANOVA, and Bonferroni post
hoc tests were conducted to further understand the difference between RLP, ULP, UHP and
RHP based on demographics and SEC. RLP are more often from vocational schools (χ
2 =
676.08, p < .01), boys (χ
2 = 34.48, p < .01) and from lower economic, social and cultural status
(ESCS) (χ
2 = 343.35, p < .01). They have the lowest scores on perseverance (F(3, 1668) =
16.55; p < .001, ηp
2 = .029), curiosity (F(3, 1668) = 25.41; p < .001, ηp
2 = .043), empathy (F(3,
1668) = 21.34; p < .001, ηp
2 = .037) and assertiveness (F(3, 1668) = 18.49; p < .001, ηp
2 =
.032). ULP are more often from vocational schools and from lower ESCS. They have low
scores on all SEC domains, but are significantly higher on curiosity and assertiveness compared
to RLP. RHP are more often from general schools, girls and from higher ESCS. They have the
highest scores on perseverance, curiosity, empathy and assertiveness. UHP are more often
boys, with mid-level of perseverance, empathy and assertiveness. Compared to RHP they have
lower levels of curiosity. Better understanding of unrealistic students is important for designing
a strategy to help them set high, yet realistic expectations for future education, which is
important for both social mobility and economic prosperity.30. međunarodni naučni skup Empirijska istraživanja u psihologiji
22-24. mart 2024, Filozofski fakultet, Univerzitet u Beogradu, saopštenja štampana u izvod
Moralni status neljudskih delatnika: Primer veštačke inteligencije
No full textThe goal of this research is to analyze various arguments related to the (im)possibility of ascribing the status of moral agents to artificial intelligence. According to traditional ethical theories, any individual capable of distinguishing right from wrong is considered a moral agent. However, the accelerated development of artificial intelligence has opened up the question of whether the status of moral agents is reserved exclusively for the human species or whether we can apply some form of moral agency to modern technologies as well. The currently available answers to this question can be divided into three thematic units: arguments based on emotions, arguments based on autonomy, and arguments based on happiness maximization. After analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of each of the presented points of view, the arguments will be tested on the example of ChatGPT, currently the most widespread form of generative artificial intelligence.Cilj ovog istraživanja je analiza različitih argumenata koji se odnose na (ne)mogućnost da se veštačkoj inteligenciji pripiše status moralnih delatnika. Prema tradicionalnim etičkim teorijama, moralnim delatnikom se smatra svaka individua koja je sposobna da razlikuje ispravne od neispravnih postupaka. Međutim, ubrzani razvoj veštačke inteligencije otvorio je pitanje da li je status moralnih delatnika rezervisan isključivo za ljudsku vrstu ili se neki oblik moralne delatnosti može primenitii na savremene tehnologije. Trenutno dostupni odgovori na ovo pitanje mogu se podeliti u tri tematske celine: argumenti zasnovani na emocijama, argumenti zasnovani na autonomiji i argumenti zasnovani na maksimizaciji sreće. Nakon analize prednostii mana svakog od izloženih stanovišta, argumenti će biti testirani na primeru ChatGPT-ja, trenutno najrasprostranjenijeg oblika generativne veštačke inteligencije
The concept of grounding in contemporary metaphysics
No full textFilozofski fakultetCilj ovog rada jeste da ukaţe na neophodnost i korisnost pojma utemeljivanja u savremenim metafizičkim raspravama. Da bi se ovo tvrĎenje odbranilo nastojaćemo: (i) da predstavimo osnovne karakteristike pojma utemeljivanja; (ii) da se detaljnije upoznamo s istorijskim razvojem pojma i motivima njegovog uvoĎenja; (iii) da ga odbranimo od prigovora o nerazumljivosti; (iv) da uklonimo prigovore o redundantnosti utemeljivanja; i (v) da ukaţemo na slučaj njegove primene u metafizici nauke. Naš argument u prilog neophodnosti i korisnosti utemeljivanja oslanjaće se na Lengov princip tranzitivnosti koji omogućava da se na transparentan način poveţu naučna sa metafizičkim objašnjenjima. Ishod naših istraţivačkih rezultata sugerisaće da se u oblasti metafizike nauke mogu očekivati dalje plodonosne primene utemeljivanja u rešavanju teorijskih sporova.The aim of this dissertation is to highlight the necessity and usefulness of the concept of grounding in contemporary metaphysical discussions. To defend this claim, I will: (i) present the basic charasteristics of the concept of grounding; (ii) provide a detailed account of the historical development of the concept and the motivation for its introduction; (iii) defend it against objections of unintelligibility; (iv) adress objections regarding the redundancy of grounding; and (v) demonstrate a case of its application in the metaphysics of science. My argument in favor of the necessity and usefulness of grounding will rely on Lange‘s transitivity principle, which allows for a transparent connection between scientific and metaphysical explanations. The upshot of my research results will suggest that further fruitful applications of grounding can be expected in in resolving theoretical disputes in the metaphysics of science
The material solution to the problem of induction: Costs and benefits
No full textU ovom članku ćemo analizirati Nortonovo [John Norton] rešenje,
predloženo u okviru njegove materijalne teorije indukcije, za čuveni problem in-
dukcije. Ukratko, materijalna teorija indukcije tvrdi da se opravdanje induktivnog
zaključivanja sastoji u istini materijalnih premisa koje se koriste u okviru zaklju-
čivanja, a ne u praćenju formalnih pravila indukcije. Takve materijalne premise
nisu univerzalne, već su lokalnog tipa: njima se ne tvrdi univerzalna regularnost,
već samo lokalne regularnosti koji omogućavaju induktivno zaključivanje u okviru
ograničenih domena. Pored ostalih prednosti teorije, Norton tvrdi da nam njegova
teorija pruža rešenja na Hjumov problem indukcije. Hjumov problem je, kako je po-
znato, krajnje poražavajući za formalne teorije indukcije zbog toga što univerzalna
pravila indukcije moraju da budu opravdana cirkularno. U okviru materijalne teo-
rije, sa druge strane, mi ćemo naprosto opravdavati neke materijalne činjenice sa
drugim materijalnim činjenicama, tako izbegavajući cirkularnost. Norton dodatno
tvrdi da ćemo takođe zaobići potencijalni regres opravdanja tako što zauzimamo
nehijerarhijsko gledište o induktivnom znanju. Mi ćemo analizirati predloženo reše-
nje i zastupati stav da ono ima ogromne prednosti nad formalnim teorijama. Ipak,
pokazaćemo da rešenje dolazi sa specifičnim novim problemima u vidu obavezivanja
na prihvatanje dodatnih gledišta, koje i sam Norton ističe: gledišta o strukturi in-
duktivnog znanja, gledišta o formama cirkularnog opravdanja i gledišta o eksterna-
lističkom opravdanju. Analiza ovih dodatnih gledišta u okviru materijalnog rešenja
ne pokazuje da rešenje nije dobro, već služi kao pokazatelj da i najbolja rešenja za
ovaj problem ne mogu da se sastoje samo od teorije induktivnog zaključivanja.In this article, we analyze the solution to the famous problem of induction proposed by Norton within his material theory of induction. The material theory of induction, briefly, states that justification of inductive inference consists of the truth of the material premises used in the inference, rather than formal rules of induction. The material premises have local characters, rather than universal. In other words, they do not state any universal regularity, but only local regularities that enable induction in limited domains. Among the benefits of the theory, Norton argues that it provides us with a solution to Hume’s problem of induction. Namely, while the problem is devastating for formal theories because we need to justify universal rules of induction itself circularly, in the material theory, we simply justify material facts with other material facts thus avoiding circularity. Additionally, Norton claims that we avoid potential regress of justification by adopting a non-hierarchical view of inductive knowledge. I analyze the proposed solution, arguing that it has enormous benefits over formal theories, but that it comes at several specific costs in the form of commitments to additional views: on a structure of inductive knowledge, to the forms of circular justifications, and the type of externalism of justification. The analysis of these costs is not meant as a decisive criticism of Norton’s solution, but as an indication that even the best solution to this problem cannot rely solely on the theory of inductive inference