Repository of Croatian Defence Academy "Dr. Franjo Tuđman"
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Application of artificial intelligence for target detection and tracking on unmanned aerial systems
No full textOvaj se rad bavi analizom suvremenih algoritama za detekciju i praćenje objekata u slikama i
videozapisima, s posebnim naglaskom na njihovu primjenu u zračnim besposadnim sustavima
(ZBS, eng. Unmanned Aerial Systems – UAS). Cilj je prikazati prednosti i nedostatke najvažnijih
pristupa temeljenih na dubokom učenju (eng. Deep Learning), koji omogućuju učinkovitu obradu
podataka u stvarnom vremenu, što je od ključnog značaja za autonomno upravljanje i navigaciju
zračnih besposadnih sustava. Analizirane su metode kao što su Faster R-CNN (Faster Region
Based Convolutional Neural Network) i YOLO (You Only Look Once) za detekciju objekata, te
algoritmi za praćenje poput MOSSE (Minimum Output Sum of Squared Error) i SORT (Simple
Online and Realtime Tracking).
Rezultati pokazuju da jednofazni algoritmi poput YOLO omogućuju brzu i dovoljno preciznu
detekciju pogodnu za primjenu u realnom vremenu na platformama s ograničenim računalnim
resursima, kakvi su tipični za zračne besposadne sustave. Korelacijski filtri poput MOSSE
algoritma pokazali su se izuzetno učinkoviti za jednostavno i brzo praćenje objekata tijekom leta,
čime omogućuju stabilno praćenje ciljeva unatoč promjenama u osvjetljenju i pozadini. U sklopu
rada implementirani su i testirani odabrani algoritmi za detekciju i praćenje ciljeva korištenjem
programskog okruženja Visual Studio Code, uz prethodnu instalaciju svih potrebnih alata i
biblioteka za strojno učenje i računalni vid (eng. Computer Vision). Također su korišteni i online
alati, poput RoboFlow-a, koji su značajno olakšali proces anotiranja slika i pripremu skupova
podataka za treniranje modela. Primjena ovih tehnologija u zračnim besposadnim sustavima otvara
širok spektar mogućnosti, uključujući nadzor iz zraka, traženje i spašavanje, inspekciju
infrastrukture te mnoge druge domene gdje je autonomna analiza slike ključna za sigurnost i
učinkovitost sustava. Korištenjem umjetne inteligencije omogućuje se zračnim besposadnim
sustavima da autonomno prepoznaju, klasificiraju i prate različite objekte u složenim i dinamičnim
okruženjima, čime se smanjuje potreba za stalnim ljudskim nadzorom. Osim toga, napredni
algoritmi omogućuju prilagodbu sustava promjenjivim uvjetima leta, što povećava pouzdanost i
učinkovitost misija, posebno u zahtjevnim scenarijima kao što su nadzor velikih područja, praćenje
pokretnih ciljeva ili pomoć u hitnim intervencijama.This paper analyzes modern algorithms for object detection and tracking in images and videos,
with a special emphasis on their application in unmanned aerial systems (UAS). The objective is
to present the advantages and disadvantages of the most important approaches based on deep
learning, which enable efficient real-time data processing, a key requirement for autonomous
control and navigation of unmanned aerial systems.
Methods such as Faster R-CNN (Faster Region-Based Convolutional Neural Network) and YOLO
(You Only Look Once) for object detection, as well as tracking algorithms such as MOSSE
(Minimum Output Sum of Squared Error) and SORT (Simple Online and Realtime Tracking), have
been analyzed. The results show that single-stage algorithms such as YOLO provide fast and
sufficiently accurate detection suitable for real-time applications on platforms with limited
computational resources, which is typical for unmanned aerial systems. Correlation filters such as
the MOSSE algorithm have proven to be highly effective for simple and rapid object tracking
during flight, enabling stable target tracking despite changes in lighting and background.
As part of the work, selected algorithms for object detection and tracking were implemented and
tested using the Visual Studio Code development environment, following the installation of all
necessary tools and libraries for machine learning and computer vision. Online tools such as
RoboFlow were also used, significantly simplifying the image annotation process and dataset
preparation for model training.
The application of these technologies in unmanned aerial systems opens up a wide range of
possibilities, including aerial surveillance, search and rescue, infrastructure inspection, and many
other fields where autonomous image analysis is crucial for system safety and efficiency. By
employing artificial intelligence, unmanned aerial systems can autonomously detect, classify, and
track various objects in complex and dynamic environments, reducing the need for constant human
supervision. Additionally, advanced algorithms enable the system to adapt to changing flight
conditions, increasing the reliability and efficiency of missions, particularly in demanding
scenarios such as large-area monitoring, moving target tracking, or emergency response
operations
Optoelectronic targeting systems in modern combat vehicles
No full textRad opisuje razvoj ciljničkih sustava od samih početaka upotrebe tenkova, do pojave prvih
ciljničkih sprava neovisno stabiliziranih od kupole i glavnog topa, te prvih sustava za upravljanje
vatrom. Suvremenim tenkovima uvelike je poboljšana preciznost gađanja uvođenjem naprednijih
optičkih ciljnika, stabilizacije, laserskih daljinomjera i digitalnih balističkih računala, što je postalo
standard suvremenih borbenih vozila. Uz termoviziju, automatsko praćenje meta, integraciju
umjetne inteligencije i brojne druge inovacije, uvode se i sustavi situacijske svjesnosti radi
omogućavanja potpune percepcije bojišnice u realnom vremenu. Tehnologije poput panoramskih
periskopa, infracrvenih senzora i sustava aktivne zaštite integrirane su u moderna oklopna vozila,
s glavnim ciljem povećanja mogućnosti preživljavanja, vatrene moći i preciznosti, osobito u
urbanim i asimetričnim sukobima. Budućnost ciljničkih sustava usmjerena je prema umjetnoj
inteligenciji, virtualnoj stvarnosti i potpunoj mrežnoj integraciji unutar sustava za upravljanje
bojišnicom.The paper outlines the development of targeting systems from the earliest use of tanks to the
emergence of the first independently stabilized sights, separated from the turret and main gun, and
the introduction of early fire control systems. In modern tanks, firing accuracy has been
significantly improved through the implementation of advanced optical sights, stabilization, laser
rangefinders, and digital ballistic computers – now standard features in contemporary combat
vehicles. In addition to thermal imaging, automatic target tracking, and artificial intelligence
integration, situational awareness systems have also been introduced to provide full real-time
battlefield perception. Technologies such as panoramic periscopes, infrared sensors, and active
protection systems are integrated into modern armored vehicles with the primary goal of enhancing
survivability, firepower, and accuracy, particularly in urban and asymmetric conflicts. The future
of targeting systems is oriented toward artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and full network
integration within battlefield management systems
Project management in the defense system
No full textOvaj diplomski rad bavit će se projektima unutar obrambenog sustava. Projekti su složeni proces
te se gotovo uvijek razlikuju. Ovisno o sektoru u kojem se rade projekti imaju različite ciljeve,
ograničenja, resurse, itd.. Unutar obrambenog sektora razlikujemo tri tipa projekta (A,B,C) koji se
razlikuju po složenosti i važnosti. Kako bi projekt protekao bez ikakvih problema i postigao svoje
ciljeve on mora imati provedbeni plan, te nekoga tko je odgovaran za taj projekt (voditelj projekta).
Dodatno otežavanje planskog procesa i provedbe projekta stvara usklađivanje sa nacionalnim
strategijama te međunarodnim obavezama koje ima država koja provodi te projekte, svaka država
ima drugačije nacionalne strategije stoga su i proces i provedba različiti za svaki projekt. Jedni od
najpoznatijih projekata su obrambeni projekti vođeni za vrijeme hladnog rata od strana: SAD i
Rusije.This thesis will focus on projects within the defense system. Projects are complex processes and
always differ from one another. Depending on the sector in which they are conducted, projects
have different goals, constraints, resources, and so on. Within the defense sector, three types of
projects can be distinguished (A, B, C), which vary in terms of complexity and importance. For a
project to run smoothly and achieve its objectives, it must have an implementation plan and the
person responsible for it (a project manager). An additional challenge to the planning and
execution of defense projects is the need to align with national strategies and international
obligations of the state conducting the projects. Since each country has different national
strategies, the process and implementation of projects also differ from case to case. Some of the
most well-known projects are defense initiatives led during the Cold War by the United States and
Russia
Challenges of the Military Profession and Violations of Military Discipline: Sociological, Ethical, and Legal Perspectives
No full textOvaj rad istražuje vojnu stegu u OSRH kroz multidisciplinarni pristup (sociologija, etika,
pravo), analizirajući izazove, čast i društvenu ulogu vojnog poziva. Empirijski podaci (2020.
2024.) otkrivaju vrhunac kršenja 2021. (pandemijska anomija) te smanjenje stegovnih pogrešaka
za 81,8% u 2024. u odnosu na 2023., što potvrđuje učinkovit resocijalizacijski proces.
Komparativna analiza sa Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama, Francuskom i Njemačkom ističe
prednosti i nedostatke hrvatskog modela pravnog uređenja vojne stege. Teorijski okvir (Goffman,
Bourdieu, Kem) objašnjava interakciju strukturalnih, kulturnih i normativnih čimbenika.
Preporuke uključuju kratkoročne intervencije i dugoročne strategije. Znanstveni doprinos je multi
teoretski okvir za reforme, a buduća se istraživanja trebaju usredotočiti na longitudinalne studije i
NATO usporedbe.This research examines military discipline in the Croatian Armed Forces (OSRH) through
a multidisciplinary approach (sociology, ethics, law), analyzing the challenges, honor, and social
role of military service. Empirical data (2020–2024) reveals a peak in disciplinary breaches in
2021 (attributed to pandemic-induced anomie) and an 81.8% reduction in disciplinary errors by
2024 compared to 2023, confirming the effectiveness of resocialization processes. A comparative
analysis with the United States, France, and Germany highlights the strengths and weaknesses of
Croatia’s legal framework for military discipline. The theoretical framework (Goffman, Bourdieu,
Kem) explains the interplay of structural, cultural, and normative factors. Recommendations
include short-term interventions and long-term strategies. The scientific contribution lies in a
multi-theoretical framework for reforms, while future research should focus on longitudinal
studies and NATO comparisons
The impact of the activities of the Wagner Group paramilitary unit on international relations and stability
No full textOvaj diplomski rad analizira djelovanje Wagner grupe, ruske paravojne formacije koja
formalno djeluje kao privatna vojna kompanija, ali u stvarnosti ostvaruje interese ruske države.
Kroz studije slučaja djelovanja Wagnera u Ukrajini, Siriji, Libiji, Srednjoafričkoj Republici i
Sahelu, u radu se istražuje kako ova skupina kombinira vojnu silu, ideološki utjecaj i
ekonomske interese za ostvarivanje ruskih strateških ciljeva. Posebna pažnja posvećena je
prikrivenom djelovanju, financijskoj samoodrživosti i uporabi informacijsko-psiholoških
operacija. Korištenjem kvalitativne i kvantitativne analize, utvrđeno je da Wagner grupa djeluje
kao instrument ruske vanjske politike, omogućujući Moskvi prikrivene intervencije bez
službene odgovornosti. Zaključno, Wagnerov model djelovanja predstavlja ozbiljan izazov
međunarodnom pravu i sigurnosnoj arhitekturi jer prikriva odgovornost za oružane sukobe,
ratne zločine i destabilizaciju država, otvarajući pritom ključna pitanja o pravnoj, političkoj i
moralnoj odgovornosti aktera uključenih u suvremene oblike hibridnog i proxy ratovanja.This thesis analyses the activities of the Wagner Group. This Russian paramilitary formation
formally operates as a private military company, but pursues the interests of the Russian state.
Through case studies of Wagner operations in Ukraine, Syria, Libya, the Central African
Republic and the Sahel, the paper explores how this group combines military force, ideological
influence and economic interests to achieve Russian strategic goals. Special attention is paid to
covert action, financial self-sustainability and information-psychological operations. Using
qualitative and quantitative analysis, it was determined that the Wagner Group operates as an
instrument of Russian foreign policy, allowing Moscow to intervene informally without official
responsibility. In conclusion, Wagner's model of action represents a serious challenge to
international law and security architecture because it conceals responsibility for armed
conflicts, war crimes and destabilisation of states, while opening key questions about the legal,
political and moral responsibility of actors involved in contemporary forms of hybrid and proxy
warfare
Equipping 120 mm mortar units with unmanned aerial vehicles
No full textOvaj rad analizira i predlaže opremanje postrojbi minobacača 120 mm odnosno Satnije za vatrenu
potporu bespilotnim letjelicama s ciljem poboljšanja učinkovitosti vatrene potpore. Na samom
početku rada obrađuju se temeljne postavke vatrene potpore i njezina važnost u tijeku operacije.
Prikazan je sustav vatrene potpore unutar NATO-a, a samim time i unutar OSRH. To uključuje i
organizacijsku strukturu, ali i funkcionalne elemente. Opisan je značaj Kanala vatrene potpore.
Poseban naglasak je stavljen na zahtjeve za bespilotne letjelice koje one trebaju zadovoljiti kako
bi cijela ideja uvođenja imala smisao. U radu se provodi selekcija predloženih letjelica prema
navedenim zahtjevima. U završnom dijelu rada predlaže se način integracije u smislu
organizacijske strukture.This paper analyzes and proposes the equipping of 120 mm mortar units, specifically the Fire
Support Company, with unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with the aim of improving the
effectiveness of fire support. The initial part of the paper addresses the fundamental principles of
fire support and its importance during military operations. The fire support system within NATO
is presented, along with its implementation within the Croatian Armed Forces (CAF). This
includes both the organizational structure and functional elements. The importance of the Fire
Support Channel is also described. Special emphasis is placed on the requirements that UAVs must
meet in order for their integration to be meaningful and operationally justified. The paper includes
a selection process of proposed UAVs based on the defined requirements. In the final section, a
model for their integration into the existing organizational structure is proposed
Lifelong learning in professional military education
No full textCjeloživotno učenje i cjeloživotno obrazovanje predstavljaju ključne koncepte u razvoju
vojnog osoblja te im omogućavaju neprestano napredovanje i stjecanje potrebnih znanja i
vještina. Ovaj rad objasnit će pojmove cjeloživotnog učenja i obrazovanja i distinkciju između
dva navedena pojma, pri čemu kao glavnu razliku predstavlja to da se cjeloživotno učenje odnosi
na konstantan proces stjecanja znanja, a cjeloživotno obrazovanje na organizirane i
institucionalizirane aktivnosti usmjerene na unaprjeđenje znanja i vještina. Osim toga, rad
također definira četiri temeljna oblika učenja (formalno, neformalno, informalno i
samousmjereno) te navodi njihovu ulogu u profesionalnom vojnom obrazovanju. Formalno
učenje odnosi se na učenje u ustanovama namijenjenim za stjecanje i usavršavanje znanja i
vještina, neformalno omogućuje stjecanje znanja kroz brojne tečajeve i radionice,
samousmjereno učenje naglasak stavlja na pojedinca koji samostalno odlučuje što, kada i kako
će učiti, a informalno se odnosi na cjeloživotno stjecanje znanja. Kraj rada objasnit će svrhu
cjeloživotnog učenja i obrazovanja unutar Oružanih snaga Republike Hrvatske.Lifelong learning and lifelong education represent key concepts in the development of
military personnel, enabling them to continuously advance and acquire the necessary knowledge
and skills. This paper will explain the concepts of lifelong learning and education, highlighting
the distinction between the two. The main difference lies in the fact that lifelong learning refers
to a continuous process of acquiring knowledge, while lifelong education encompasses organized
and institutionalized activities aimed at improving knowledge and skills. Additionally, the paper
defines the four fundamental forms of learning—formal, non-formal, informal, and self
directed—and discusses their role in professional military education. Formal learning takes place
in institutions dedicated to acquiring and enhancing knowledge and skills, non-formal learning
allows knowledge acquisition through various courses and workshops, self-directed learning
emphasizes the individual's autonomy in deciding what, when, and how to learn, while informal
learning refers to lifelong knowledge acquisition through everyday experiences. The conclusion
of the paper will explain the purpose of lifelong learning and education within the Armed Forces
of the Republic of Croatia
Targeted Killing as a Counterterrorism Strategy: The Case Study of Osama bin Laden
No full textPredmet ovog završnog rada je objasniti i analizirati protuteroristički kompleks sa fokusom na
proaktivnim defenzivnim strategijama ciljanog ubijanja. Nakon teorijskog pregleda koncepta
protuterorizma i njegovog odnosa sa terorizmom, analiziramo institucionalizaciju i provođenje
američke protuterorističke politike koja naglasak stavlja na uporabu “tvrde moći“ i proaktivnih
strategija, od kojih je i strategija „ciljanog ubijanja“. Riječ je o protuterorističkoj strategiji koja je
kombinacija obavještajnih djelovanja, specijalnih i tajnih akcija. Rad će kontekstualno prikazati
proces institucionalizacije naznačene strategije uz konkretan primjer studija slučaja eliminacije
terorističkog vođe Osama bin Ladena. Kroz analizu studija slučaja, istražuju se dosezi i prepreke
prikupljanja obavještajnih podataka kroz desetogodišnju potragu za planiranjem provedbe
operacije „Neptun Spear“ u kojoj Američka specijalna jedinica SEAL upada u kompleks i ciljano
eliminirala terorističkog vođu. Ovaj rad će nastojati doprinijeti boljem razumijevanju uporabe
proaktivne defenzivne mjere ciljanog ubijanja kao uspješne protuterorističke strategije.The subject of this thesis is to explain and analyze the counterterrorism framework with focus on
proactive defensive strategies of „targeted killing“. After a theoretical overview of the concept of
counterterrorism and its connection with terrorism, the paper analyzes the institutionalization and
implementation of American counterterrorism policy, which emphasizes the use of “hard power”
and proactive strategies, among which is the strategy of “targeted killing.” This is a
counterterrorism strategy that combines intelligence operations, special and covert actions. This
paper will contextually present the process of institutionalizing this strategy through a concrete
case study of the elimination of terrorist leader Osama bin Laden. Through the analysis of this case
study, the scope and challenges of intelligence gathering over a ten-year manhunt are examined,
leading up to the planning and execution of Operation “Neptune Spear,” in which the U.S. Navy
SEAL special forces unit raided the compound and deliberately eliminated the terrorist leader.
This paper aims to contribute to a better understanding of the use of targeted killing as a proactive
defensive measure and an effective counterterrorism strategy
Influence of technological development on the gathering of intelligence through imagery sources
No full textSlikovno-tehnička obavještajna disciplina bavi se prikupljanjem obavještajnih podataka iz
slikovnih izvora. Ti se podaci prikupljaju putem različitih platformi, koje mogu biti zračne,
zemaljske, svemirske ili pomorske. Najzastupljenije su zračne platforme, među koje spadaju
besposadne letjelice, izvidnički avioni, aerostati i umjetni sateliti. Za snimanje željenih ciljeva
neophodno je koristiti senzore koji odgovaraju specifičnim operativnim potrebama. Senzor je
uređaj koji pretvara fizikalni signal (poput svjetlosti, topline ili elektromagnetskog zračenja) u
mjerljivu veličinu pogodnu za analizu. Prema vrsti detektiranog signala, senzori se dijele na
optičke, elektro-optičke, infracrvene i radarske. Najnoviji tehnološki iskoraci uključuju
hiperspektralne senzore, koji omogućuju prikupljanje izuzetno detaljnih podataka u širokom
spektralnom rasponu. Međutim, zbog velike količine prikupljenih podataka, njihova je pohrana i
obrada tehnički zahtjevna, pa se za sada uglavnom koriste u istraživačke svrhe.Imagery Intelligence (IMINT) is an intelligence discipline focused on collecting
information from visual sources. This data is gathered through various platforms, which can be
airborne, ground-based, spaceborne, or maritime. The most widely used are airborne platforms,
which include unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), reconnaissance aircraft, aerostats, and artificial
satellites. To image desired targets effectively, it is essential to use sensors tailored to specific
operational needs. A sensor is a device that converts a physical signal (such as light, heat, or
electromagnetic radiation) into a measurable quantity suitable for analysis. Based on the type of
signal they detect, sensors are categorized as optical, electro-optical, infrared, and radar. Recent
technological advances have introduced hyperspectral sensors, which collect highly detailed data
across a wide spectral range. However, due to the vast volume of data they generate, storage and
processing remain significant challenges. As a result, these sensors are currently used primarily
for research purposes
Assault operations of an infantry platoon in night and low visibility conditions
No full textOvaj rad se bavi prikazom taktičkih postupaka voda u napadu u noćnim uvjetima i uvjetima
smanjene vidljivosti. Cilj rada je bio istražiti kako se pješačke postrojbe pripremaju, organiziraju
i djeluju tijekom takvih okolnosti, te koja im sredstva omogućuju djelovanje u takvim uvjetima.
Kroz generalne pojmove cilj je približiti temu rada čitatelju a kasnije kroz rad iznesene su neke od
glavnih karakteristika, specifičnosti i problematika borbe u noćnim uvjetima i uvjetima smanjene
vidljivosti koje kao takve predstavljaju specifičan pristup i napore kroz stoljeća ratovanja, a u
današnje moderno doba je to nikad više izraženo upravo zbog razvitka tehnologije i pojavom novih
trendova u borbi. Nadalje, obrađena su neka od osnovnih sustava i uređaja za borbu u takvim
uvjetima, s naglaskom na sustave koji se koriste u OSRH. Na kraju, obrađene su osnovne taktike
i procedure pješačkog voda kako u planiranju tako u provedbi napadne zadaće, krenuvši od
kretanja sve do uspostave kontakta. Zaključeno je da uspješnost noćnih operacija ovisi o temeljitoj
pripremi, dobroj koordinaciji, kvalitetnoj obuci i pravilnom korištenju tehničkih sredstava.This paper presents the tactical procedures of a platoon during offensive operations conducted at
night and under reduced visibility conditions. The aim of the paper was to examine how infantry
units prepare, organize, and operate in such circumstances, as well as what equipment enables
them to function effectively in these environments. Through general concepts, the intention is to
familiarize the reader with the topic, and later in the paper, some of the main characteristics,
specificities, and challenges of combat in night-time and low-visibility conditions are discussed.
These conditions require a distinct approach and effort, which has evolved throughout centuries
of warfare, and are more prominent than ever today due to technological advancement and the
emergence of new combat trends Furthermore, the paper addresses some of the basic systems and
devices used for combat in such conditions, with an emphasis on the systems employed by the
Croatian Armed Forces (OSRH). Finally, the basic tactics and procedures of an infantry platoon
are analyzed, both in terms of planning and execution of offensive tasks, starting from movement
to the establishment of contact. It is concluded that the success of night operations depends on
thorough preparation, good coordination, quality training, and the proper use of technical
equipment