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Commonwealth of the Vasas
No full textWprowadzenie -- O wojsku i żołnierzach -- Siły zbrojne Rzeczypospolitej -- Siły zbrojne Korony i Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego -- Król i hetmani -- Podstawy prawne i finansowe -- Oddzialy polskie i cudzoziemskie. Artyleria. Inżynieria wojskowa -- Listy przypowiednie, besztalunki i kapitulacje -- Kozacy zaporoscy -- Lisowczycy -- Zaprowiantowanie w czasie działań -- Chorzy, ranni, wzieci do niewoli -- Żołnierz a prawo -- Wypowiedzenie służby -- Pospolite ruszenie -- Tatarzy Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego -- Wybrańcy -- Siły zbrojne sejmików -- Poczty magnackie i szlacheckie -- W walce -- Szlachta i Habsburgowie -- Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie a Moskwa w dobie smuty -- Rzeczpospolita 17 sierpnia 1629 roku albo doba narodzin Jana Sobieskiego -- Dysydent protektorem zakonów czyli epizod z działalności Krzysztofa Radziwiłła -- O dyplomacji i poslach -- Podejmowanie decyzji -- Posłowie wielcy, oratorzy i inni -- Komisarze -- Dokumenty poselstw i komisji -- Koszty legacji -- Swoboda postępowania dyplomatów -- Ratyfikacja -- The Commonwealth of the Vasas -- Wykaz skrótów -- Indeks osób.Tai 2002 m. išleisto veikalo Vazų Respublika tęsinys (antrasis tomas). Jame nemėginama išsamiai atsakyti į klausimą, kaip bajorų visuomenė nuėjo keliu, kurį sąlyginai galima vadinti keliu nuo Deulino iki Nemėžio, nors šis klausimas – ATR silpimo problema – neišvengiamai atsiduria kiekvieno platesnio mokslinio tyrimo centre. Deulinas – vietovė šalia Maskvos, kurioje 1618 m. sudaryta taikos sutartimi Respublikai atiteko dideli rusų žemių plotai, įskaitant Smolenską – strateginės reikšmės miestą ir tvirtovę. Nemėžis – kaimelis šalia Vilniaus, kuriame 1656 m. susitarta Lenkijos sostą po Jono Kazimiero mirties atiduoti carui. Tyrimas rodo, kad Respublikos silpnoji vieta buvo finansai, valstybės iždo sandara. Nuo iždo galimybių priklausė, kad Respublikos kariuomenė ne tik skaičiumi, bet ir organizaciniu atžvilgiu nusileido Maskvos ir Švedijos armijoms. Kartu augo visuomenės ir valdančiųjų pasyvumas situacijoje, kuomet iš pradžių nieko arba beveik nieko nedaryta situacijai gerinti, o vėliau Respublikos negalia tapo tokia akivaizdi, kad visiems nusviro rankos ir įsigalėjo įsitikinimas, esą niekas nieko pakeisti nebegali. Tęsiamas Pirmąjame tome pradėtas LDK kariuomenės ir diplomatijos tyrimas. Aptariami kariniai veiksmai, diplomatinių procesų peripetijos, pasiuntinybių tikslai. Bandoma visa tai įvertinti ir apibendrinti. Pažymima, kad ateityje dar turi būti giliau išnagrinėti ir aptarti valdžios sluoksnių veiksmai, karaliaus ir jo aplinkos veikla, bajorijos ideologija. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Lenkija (Lenkijos karalystė. Kingdom of Poland. Poland); Kariuomenė; Socialinė istorija; Politika; Diplomatija; Army; Social history; Politics; Diplomacy; Vazos (Vasa family); Zigmantas Vaza, 1566-1632 (Zygmunt III Vaza; Sigismund); Vladislovas Vaza; Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės ir Lenkijos kariuomenės; Kariuomenės struktūra ir finansavimas; Statutas; Konstitucijos; Papročiai; Jonas Karolis Chodkevičius (Jan Karol Chodkiewicz); Radvilos (Radziwill; Radvila family); Leonas Sapiega; Habsburgai; Time of Vasa's; Sigismundus Vasa; Wladyslaus Vasa; Army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland; Structure and budget of the army; Statute; Constitutions; Customs; Jan Carol Chodkiewich; The Radvila's family; Leon Sapiega; House of Habsburgs; Rusija (Russia)The present book is a continuation of The Commonwealth of the Vasas, published in 2002. It depicts two of the indicated issues: functioning of the army, albeit only of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and diplomacy. The author emphasises the significance for the military of the whole Commonwealth and only of Lithuania first, the decisions on the incorporation of Sigismund Augustus, then the Union regulations. The former and the latter, of 1569. The incorporation into the Polish Crown of: Podolia, Volhynia (the palatinates of Braclav and Volhynia) and the Duchy of Kiev (formally a palatinate, in reality a district of Kiev, as the Mozyr's remained Lithuanian) caused the change of a strategic situation of the both states. There declined the border between Lithuania and Turkey and its vassal states, instead was established a border between the Polish Crown and Muscovy. This meant that the Crown took over the burden of defence against Tartars raids, Turkish threat and partly Muscovite and in large extent - against the Kossacks revolts. At the same time the shift in belonging of the territory of ca. 200 thousand square kilometres weakened the potential of Lithuania and strengthen the Polish Crown. The Union itself, by maintaining the partial autonomy of the states (territory, offices, treasury and army) caused that the vital problems of the foreign policy were either the problems of Lithuania or the Crown. In addition, the states had to defend their borders on their own. The army is divided by the author into the Crown, Lithuanian and, to some extent, supranational (the king's guard, the auxiliary troops of the vassals, the dukes of Kurland and Prussia). In the Lithuanian army there are distinguished the state armed forces (maintained by the state treasury and formed by the people obliged to the military service, that is the noble levy-en-masse, the Tartars and "selected infantry"), organised by the decision of the dietine (local levy-en-masse and the district squadrons), and finally the private troops. Then the author presented the methods of financing the army, that is from the taxes agreed to by the Sejm and dietines. There is also a description of the command, the ways of forming of the military forces and, among others, the judicial and legal system in the scope concerning the soldiers. With reference to the diplomacy, the author analyses the rules of the law which were playing a decisive role in sending and receiving legates. It is compared with the practice and ended with a conclusion that the decisive voice was that of the king, although on one condition. That is to say, his decisions had to be concurrent, or at least not opposed to the feelings of the noble nation. Then the book presents the division of legates (envoys and commissaries), the hierarchy (both according to Polish and Latin terminology) and types of legates. With reference to their activity, the author described the extent of freedom of action which, according to the author's view, was in fact full, although occasionally it was a result of impossibility to contact with distant king. The part dedicated to diplomacy is concluded with the chapter describing the way of ratification of the treaties. In the author's opinion, there were three such methods: confirmation by the king, confirmation by the king and then by the Sejm, and by the commissaries who concluded the treaty. The two main parts are supplemented with four concise sketches. The first one (The Nobility and the Hapsburgs) is, in fact, a polemics with a wide-spread in Polish historiography opinion on unfavourable attitude of the Polish nobility towards the Hapsburgs. The author indicates the two-time election of the Hapsburgs to the Polish throne, first in 1575 of Emperor Maximilian II, then, in 1587, of Archduke Maximilian. He also reminds about the good will showed towards the queens of the Hapsburg House, and frequent studies in Austria and service in the Hapsburg army. The second sketch (The Grand Duchy of Lithuania versus Moscow in the period ofSmuta) analyses the attitude of the Lithuanian nobility towards Moscow in the early seventeen century. In general, this is a period of transition: from the fear of Moscow to the belief in chance of victory, then, after the seizure of Smolensk - a retreat to the postulate of maintaining the peace. The third essay (The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth on 17 August, 1629) briefly describes an international position of the Commonwealth by the last years of Sigismundus III. The title date indicates the day of birth of the future king, John III Sobieski (1674 - election, 1676 - coronation, 1696 - death). And finally, the last sketch (Dissident as a Protector of Orders) is dedicated to the activities of Krzysztof Radziwill (1585-1640), palatine of Vilnius, hetman and - which is the most important in this context - the leader of Lithuanian Protestants, as the author presents the efforts of Krzysztof Radziwill to make bishop of Vilnius Eustachy Wollowicz to permit the Dominicans to establish a monastery at Nowogrodek, then the next one at Kleck. There are also shown his alms-giving to the Warsaw Jesuit house and - in general - friendly relations with the order
Prince Janusz Radziwiłł : the responsibility of a politician
No full textIn 1654, Moscow broke the peace treaty with the Kingdom of Poland and started military operations. Sweden followed suit in 1655. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (which had been part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth since 1569), deprived of Polish aid, was unable to resist the combined forces of Moscow and the Cossacks. What’s more, the military operations were accompanied with the extermination and abduction of the population into the Muscovite state. In this situation, Lithuania decided to choose the lesser of two evils and subject itself to Sweden. The idea originated from the bishop of Vilnius, Jerzy Tyszkiewicz, but the major role in the negotiations was played by Janusz Radziwiłł (1612-1655), voivode of Vilnius and the Grand Hetman of Lithuania. As a result, he is considered a traitor in Poland. In Lithuania, he was proclaimed a hero who severed the much-criticized relationship with Poland. According to the author, the Prince did not make a choice between Poland and Sweden, but between Sweden and complete annihilation. The question to be asked is not whether the Prince’s decision was an act of betrayal (this also needs to be further specified: who did he betray? Poland? The Crown? Or also Lithuania?). One needs to ask: how should a person who feels responsible for their country have behaved when faced with such insurmountable odds
In the service of the Hetman and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Krzysztof Radziwill's military clientage, 1585-1640 : recenzija
No full textLenkijos ir Lietuvos valstybės karinei organizacijai būdingos stambios privačios didikų armijos. Tokių samdytų karinių formuočių sudarymas buvo grįstas papročiais, įgavusiais teisės statusą. Privati kariuomenė buvo komplektuojama leninės teisės, feodalinio vyresnumo ir samdos būdu. Urszula Augustyniak nagrinėja Kristupo Radvilos, LDK hetmono ir Vilniaus vaivados (1585-1640) kariuomenę. Knygoje apibūdinta Kristupo Radvilos karinių dalinių skaičius ir sudėtis. Tos privačios armijos dydis daugiau priklausė nuo finansinių galimybių, nes karalius negalėjo nei prieštarauti tokių dalinių formavimui, nei riboti jų dydį. Autorė daro išvadą, kad aptartose struktūrose dominavo nekatalikai, bet faktiškai iš analizuoto masyvo šios išvados daryti negalima. Tarp 84 tarnų nekatalikai buvo 37, tarp 32 profesionalių karių - 9, iš 63 "bejotinų klientų" (t.y. jų kaip klientų statusas neaiškus) 52. Paprasčiausiai Radvila rinko samdinius ten, kur tai buvo galima padaryti greitai. Urszula Augustyniak daug dėmesio skiria karinės organizacijos ir drausmės aspektams, samdos sąlygoms, pastangoms riboti nusikalstamumą, nors nurodo, kad net Seimo nuteisti asmenys rado prieglobstį Radvilos kariuomenėje. Analizuojami ideologiniai bei kolektyvinės ir individualios sąmonės, mentaliteto aspektai, samdinių motyvacija. Svarstomi kareivio socialinio statuso klausimai. Kalbant apibendrintai, knyga įdomi. Autorė iškėlė daug klausimų, susijusių su senosios lenkų visuomenės funkcionavimu. Tiesa, kai kas iš autorės teiginių nepagrįsta šaltiniais, ir tai meta šešėlį visam darbui. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Patronatas; Klientas; Socialinė istorijaThe military organization of the state of Poland and Lithuania characterized with large private nobles’ armies. Formation of such hired military was based on the traditions, which acquired the status of the law. The private army was formed by the ways of fief right, feudal supremacy and hiring. Urszula Augustyniak examines the army of Krzysztof II Radziwill, hetman of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Voivode of Vilnius Voivodeship (1585-1640) and provides the information on the sizes and composition of the military units. The size of the private army depended on the financial possibilities, since the king could neither object to the formation of such units, nor limit their size. The author comes up to the conclusion that non-Catholics predominated in the said structures, however, such conclusions could not possibly be made based on the analyzed information. 37 servants out of 84, 9 professional soldiers out of 32, 52 “ambiguous clients” out of 63 (i. e. their status as customers is not clear) were non-Catholic. Radziwill collected his hired men in the places, where it could be done quickly. Urszula Augustyniak dedicates significant attention to the aspects of military organization and discipline, conditions of hiring, attempts to limit crime, although she specifies that certain convicted persons found their place in Radziwill’s army. The ideological, collective and individual aspects of consciousness and mentality and the motivation of soldiers are analyzed. The issues of social status of a soldier are discussed. In general terms, the book is interesting. The author raises a good deal of questions, pertaining to the functioning of the old Polish society. However, certain statements are not based on any sources which overshadows the entire study
State of the Vasas
No full textWprowadzenie -- Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów w świetle aktu unii i jego uzupełnień -- Nazwa, herb, chorągiew -- Uznanie Zygmunta Wazy władcą Litwy -- Prawo -- Granice i terytorium -- Sejmiki -- Senatorzy - senat Wielkiego Księstwa? -- Zjazdy -- Sądy -- Podatki -- Stan albo naród szlachecki -- Świadomość - język - książka -- Dwa tumulty: 1611-1639 -- Kircholm -- Zjazd Glówny i sejmiki Wielkiego Księstwa wobec śmierci Zygmunta III -- Slawne państwo, Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie a Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów -- The State of the Vasas -- Spis skrótów -- Indeks nazwisk.Studija skirta Lietuvos valstybės gyvenimui po Liublino unijos (1569 m.). Tai trečiasis daugiatomio leidinio Rzeczpospolita Wazów tomas, ir tai turi reikšmės atskirų tomų sandarai bei turiniui. Gynybinių ir diplomatinių LDK istorijos aspektų atsisakyta, paaliekant tai būsimiems tomams. Tyrimo chronologija apima laikotarpį nuo Zigmanto Vazos išrinkimo (1587 m.) iki Vladislovo IV Vazos mirties (1632 m.). Autorius apibūdina visas Lietuvos sutartis su Lenkija (nuo pirmosios 1325 m. iki paskutiniosios 1569 m.) atkreipdamas dėmesį į faktą, kad paskutinioji radikaliai pakeitė LDK sieną (1/3 teritorijos perduota Lenkijai), dėl ko lietuviai į konfederaciją įėjo jausdami skriaudą ir nepasitikėdami partneriu. Autorius pabrėžia, kad abi federacijos komponentės - Lenkijos Karalystė ir LDK - išliko gana savarankiškos (teritorija, iždas, kariuomenė, civilinė administracija, teisės sistema). Atskirame skyriuje analizuojamas pats sąjunginės valstybės pavadinimas, pastebima, kad jau XVII a. pavadinimas Lenkija ėmė reikšti tą patį, ką ir oficialūs Lenkijos ir Lietuvos Respublika ar Abiejų Tautų Respublika. Knygoje analizuojama LDK administracinė sistema, seimų ir seimelių veikla, Lietuvos didžiojo kunigaikščio prerogatyvos, teismų sistema. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Zigmantas Vaza, 1566-1632 (Zygmunt III Vaza; Sigismund); Vladislovas Vaza; Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės kariuomenė; Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės teritorija; Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės pareigūnai; Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės iždas; Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės diplomatija; Liublino unija, 1569 (Union of Lublin); Lenkija (Lenkijos karalystė. Kingdom of Poland. Poland); Abiejų Tautų Respublika (ATR; Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów; Žečpospolita; Sandrauga; Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth); Abiejų Tautų Respublika (ATR; Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów; Žečpospolita; Sandrauga; Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth); Kazokų sukilimai; Seimas; Seimelis; Mokesčiai; Politinė tauta; Habsburgai; Karaliaus rinkimai; Vilniaus vaivada; Lietuvos protestantai; Disidentai; Trečiasis Lietuvos Statutas, 1588; Aukščiausias susirinkimas; Didikai ir magnatai; Bajorija; Savarankiškumas; Dvaras; Vilniaus riaušės; Evangelikai; Romoa katalikų Bažnyčia; Zygmunt Vaza; Władysław Vaza; Army of Grand Duchy of Lithuania; Territory of Grand Duchy of Lithuania; Offices of Grand Duchy of Lithuania; Treasury of Grand Duchy of Lithuania; Diplomacy of Grand Duchy of Lithuania; Union in Lublin; Polish Crown; The Republic of the Two Nations; Kossacks revolts; Sejm; Dietine; Taxes; Noble nation; Hapsburg House; Election of the king; Palatine of Vilnius; Lithuanian Protestants; Dissidents; Third Lithuanian Statute; Principal Assamblie; Magnates; Nobles; Autonomy; Court; Riot in Vilnius; Evangelics; Roman Catholic ChurchThe study is dedicated to the life in the state of Lithuania after the Union of Lublin (1569). This is the third volume of the multi-volume publication Rzeczpospolita Wazów, which has significance to the structure and content of individual volumes. The defense and diplomacy related aspects of the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were refused, the said issues were left out for the future volumes. The chronology of the study covers the time period from the election of Sigismund III Vasa (in 1587) till the death of Wladislaw IV Vasa (in 1632). The author characterizes all the treaties between Lithuania and Poland (starting with the first, concluded in 1325 till the last of 1569) drawing the attention to the fact that the latter radically changed the borders of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1/3 of the territory was given to Poland), due to which the Lithuanians entered into the Confederation with a feeling of injustice and non-confidence in their partners. The author stresses that both elements of the federation, i. e. the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania remained quite independent (in terms of territory, treasury, army, civil administration and the legal system). A separate chapter analyzes the name of the confederate state itself and notices that already in the 17th century the name of Poland commenced denoting the same subject as the official name of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth. The book analyzes the administrative system of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the activities of Sejms, the prerogatives of the Grand Duke of Lithuania and the courts system
Going Beyond Counting First Authors in Author Co-citation Analysis
Get PDFThe present study examines one of the fundamental aspects of author co-citation analysis (ACA) - the way co-citation
counts are defined. Co-citation counting provides the data on which all subsequent statistical analyses and mappings
are based, and we compare ACA results based on two different types of co-citation counting - the traditional type that
only counts the first one among a cited work's authors on the one hand and a non-traditional type that takes into
account the first 5 authors of a cited work on the other hand. Results indicate that the picture produced through this non-traditional author co-citation counting contains more coherent author groups and is therefore considerably clearer. However, this picture represents fewer specialties in the research field being studied than that produced through the traditional first-author co-citation counting when the same number of top-ranked authors is selected and analyzed. Reasons for these effects are discussed
Variations on the Author
Get PDF“Variations on the Author” discusses two of Eduardo Coutinho’s recent films (Um Dia na Vida, from 2010, and Últimas Conversas, posthumously released in 2015) and their contribution to the general question of documentary authorship. The director’s filmography is characterized by a consistent yet self-effacing form of authorial self-inscription: Coutinho often features as an interviewer that rather than express opinions propels discourses; an interviewer that is good at listening. This mode of self-inscription characterizes him as an author who is not expressive but who is nonetheless markedly present on the screen. In Um Dia na Vida, however, Coutinho is completely absent form the image, while Últimas Conversas, on the contrary, includes a confessional prologue that moves the director from the margins to the center of his films. This article examines the ways in which these works stand out in the filmography of a director who offers new insights into the notion of cinematic authorship
Appropriate Similarity Measures for Author Cocitation Analysis
Get PDFWe provide a number of new insights into the methodological discussion about author cocitation analysis. We first argue that the use of the Pearson correlation for measuring the similarity between authors’ cocitation profiles is not very satisfactory. We then discuss what kind of similarity measures may be used as an alternative to the Pearson correlation. We consider three similarity measures in particular. One is the well-known cosine. The other two similarity measures have not been used before in the bibliometric literature. Finally, we show by means of an example that our findings have a high practical relevance.information science;Pearson correlation;cosine;similarity measure;author cocitation analysis
Konstytucje Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego w dobie Wazów
Get PDFW dziejach parlamentaryzmu Rzeczypospolitej, a ściślej w dziejach parlamentaryzmu Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego (WXL) owej doby dwa zjawiska zasługują na baczniejszą uwagę. Jedno stanowią Zjazdy Główne zwane powszechnie Konwokacjami Wileńskimi, drugie, zasadniczo odmienne, konstytucje Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego wyodrębnione spośród ogółu uchwał sejmów walnych koronnych. Pierwsze stanowiły pozostałość dawnego sejmu litewskiego i trwały aż po lata rządów Augusta II Mocnego, drugie pojawiły się nie wiedzieć dlaczego u schyłku XVI w. i zostały zaakceptowane przez usitatae praxes w drugiej połowie XVII w. Nie wynikały z treści aktu unii, nie były następstwem świadomego działania społeczeństwa litewskiego, ich pojawienie się przeszło jakby nie zauważone.
Opatrzony datą 1 lipca 1569 r. Przywilej unii Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego z Koroną poprzestał na zastąpieniu odrębnych sejmów narodowych sejmem walnym koronnym: Sejmy i Rady ten oboj naród ma zawżdy mieć spólne koronne, pod królem polskim panem swym, i zasiadać tak panowie między pany osobami swemi, jako posłowie między posły, i radzić o spólnych potrzebach, tak na sejmie, jako i bez sejmu, w Polsce i w Litwie. Późniejsze o sześć tygodni Potwierdzenie Unii Zygmunta Augusta uznawało za miejsce obrad Warszawę zastrzegając wszelako, że gdzie by casus jaki przypadł znaczny, ażeby tam złożon i trzymany być nie mógł, wolno nam będzie, za dołożeniem panów rad obojga narodów, tam go złożyć, gdzieby commodius być mogła w Polsce. Ponadto król potwierdził niezmienność istniejącego w obu państwach ustroju sejmikowego: — — sejmiki powiatowe wedle obyczaju tak w Polsce, jako i w Litwie składane i trzymane być mają — oraz wyznaczył przedstawicielom Litwy miejsce w kole poselskim i senacie.
State of th Vasas
No full textReikšminiai žodžiai: Zigmantas Vaza, 1566-1632 (Zygmunt III Vaza; Sigismund); Vladislovas Vaza; Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė (LDK; Grand Duchy of Lithuania; GDL); Liublino unija, 1569 (Union of Lublin); Lenkija (Lenkijos karalystė. Kingdom of Poland. Poland); Abiejų Tautų Respublika (ATR; Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów; Žečpospolita; Sandrauga; Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth); Abiejų Tautų Respublika (ATR; Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów; Žečpospolita; Sandrauga; Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth); Zygmunt Vaza; Władysław Vaza; Union in Lublin; Polish Crown; The Republic of the Two NationsThe election of Sigismund Vasa took place on 19 August, 1587, his coronation on 27 December, and one month later, on 27 January 1588, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which did not participate in the election, recognised him as its ruler. When he ascended the throne, the process of shaping the Commonwealth was drawing to a close. There was a principle of election established partly, as became obvious who is entitled to attend, but the ways of election was not fully decided on. There was the relationship between the king and his subject defined, as well as internal relations between the Polish nobility of different faith. The frequency of session of the Sejm was known and there was a partial reform of the judicature carried out through establishment of the Tribunals. In that case the change was different, as the former ones confined in the frames of noble society of one Republic, and now there were two Tribunals: the Crown and Lithuanian. It should be stressed that the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was not created from the beginnings, but only by the changes and complementation to what needed a change. The inferences were avoided where the practices were defined by custom, as it was in the case of the Sejm sessions. Some of the solutions were forced by the need arisen, so - as it was thought - they were to be used only once and was not given the written form. This was the case of the royal election and the rules were never to be changed. During the reign of Sigismund Vasa (1587-1632) there were the changes made in the legal and treasury systems of the Republic. In the times of his son and successor Ladislaus IV (1632-1648) the changes were made in the army. Over sixty years of their rule witnessed the most glorious victories of the Commonwealth: at Kircholm (1605) and at Khiszyn (1610). [...
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