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Carbon additives for negative electrodes of modern lead-acid batteries
No full textIn vorliegender Dissertation wurde die Wirkweise von Kohlenstoffadditiven auf die verbesserten Ladeeigenschaften negativer Blei-Kohlenstoff Elektroden untersucht, wodurch ein wichtiger Beitrag für die Weiterentwicklung modernen Blei-Säure Batterien geliefert wurde. Neben der Aufklärung der elektrochemischen Prozesse an Kohlenstoffoberflächen, trug die Arbeit dazu bei, das Verständnis hinsichtlich der Rolle des Kohlenstoffs zur Erhöhung der dynamischen Stromaufnahme zu vertiefen und eine Messmethodik zur Bestimmung der Blei-Affinität von Graphitpulver zu entwickeln. Die wichtigsten Erkenntnisse dieser drei Themenfelder werden an dieser Stelle noch einmal zusammengefasst.
Elektrochemische Untersuchungen an amorphem Kohlenstoff: Um ein grundsätzliches Verständnis über die elektrochemische Aktivität von Kohlenstoff in verdünnter Schwefelsäure zu erhalten, wurden in Kapitel 4 die elektrochemisch ablaufenden Reaktion an der Phasengrenze Kohlenstoff/verdünnte Schwefelsäure bestimmt und diskutiert. Als Messmethode diente eine rotierende Scheibenelektrode aus glasartigem Kohlenstoff. Im Gegensatz zu inerten, metallischen Elektroden, zeigte sich an glasartigem Kohlenstoff ein deutlich komplexeres Verhalten. Die Kohlenstoffoberfläche verändert sich in Abhängigkeit des anliegenden Potentials signifikant. Für Potentiale über 1,0 V vs. RHE findet eine Oxidation des Kohlenstoffs statt und eine Zersetzung zu CO2. Diese Veränderungen haben wiederum Auswirkungen auf alle anderen elektrochemisch ablaufenden Reaktionen. So wurde durch umfassende zyklovoltammetrische Untersuchungen und mithilfe der differentiellen elektrochemischen Massenspektroskopie erstmals nachgewiesen, dass die Wasserstoffentwicklung durch kurzzeitige Oxidation des Kohlenstoffs signifikant unterdrückt werden kann. Zusätzliche Überspannungen von über einem Volt legen den Verdacht nahe, dass die Adsorption von Protonen verhindert wird und die Zersetzung des Elektrolyten erst durch Radikalbildung bei extremen Potentialen unter 2,0 V vs. RHE stattfindet. Zukünftig lässt sich dieser Effekt möglicherweise dazu einsetzen, die Nebenreaktion in Blei-Säure Batterien gezielt zu verringern .
Struktur-Eigenschafts-Beziehung zwischen externer Kohlenstoffoberfläche und dynamischer Stromaufnahme: Im Anschluss an die elektrochemische Analyse der reinen Kohlenstoffelektrode wurde in Kapitel 5 die Struktur-Eigenschafts-Beziehung von amorphem Kohlenstoff auf die elektrochemische Aktivität negativer Blei-Kohlenstoff-Elektroden systematisch untersucht. Hierzu wurden Elektroden aus sechs verschiedenen negativen Aktivmasserezepturen hergestellt, welche sich einzig im zugemischten Kohlenstoffadditiv unterschieden. Durch die Verwendung von Kohlenstoffpulver mit gezielt eingestellter spezifischer Oberfläche, konnte zum ersten Mal nachgewiesen werden, dass allein die externe Kohlenstoffoberfläche relevant für die Erhöhung der Aktivität der Elektrode ist. Zyklovoltammetrische Messungen zeigten, dass sowohl die Wasserstoffentwicklungsreaktion als auch die Doppelschichtkapazität durch eine zusätzlich in die Aktivmasse eingebrachte externe Kohlenstoffoberfläche verstärkt wird. Erstmals wurde ein linearer Zusammenhang zwischen Doppelschichtkapazität und dynamischer Stromaufnahme festgestellt, der belegt, dass die Erhöhung der dynamischen Stromaufnahme auf einen reinen Oberflächeneffekt zurückzuführen ist. Da sowohl der Strom durch die Wasserstoffentwicklung als auch durch die Ladung der Doppelschicht nicht ausreichen, um die erhöhte Stromaufnahme zu erkären, muss davon ausgegangen werden, dass die Bleisulfatreduktion durch den Kohlenstoff katalysiert wird. Erklärungsansätze sind eine vergrößerte aktive Oberfläche an Bleisulfat aufgrund einer eröhten Porosität und die Adsorption des oberflächenaktiven Ligninsulfonats auf der Kohlenstoffoberfläche anstelle der des Bleisulfats .
Blei-Affinität von Graphitpulver: Abschließend wurde in Kapitel 6 eine neue Messmethodik evaluiert, um die Elektrokristallisation von Blei auf Kohlenstoffadditiven zu charakterisieren. Hierfür wurde Bleimetall potentiostatisch aus wässriger Lösung auf graphitische Kohlenstoffelektroden abgeschieden und das Kristallwachstum und die Keimzahldichte anhand mikroskopischer Betrachtungen und Modellierung der Strom-Zeit-Transienten analysiert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich Blei in partikulärer Form an definierten Stellen der Graphitkristalle abscheidet und dass die Anzahl an Keimstellen durch die Höhe der Abscheidespannung variiert werden kann. In Anwesenheit von Ligninsulfonat wird das Keimwachstum verlangsamt und die ursprünglich instantane Keimbildung in eine progressive überführt. Ein für die Anwendung besonders relevantes Ergebnis lieferte der Vergleich zweier kommerzieller Graphitpulver, welche sowohl im Modellversuch, als auch als Additiv in negativen Bleielektroden eine signifikant unterschiedliche Keimzahldichte aufzeigten. Graphite mit einer hohen Kristallitgröße zeigen eine besonders hohe Bleiaffinität.This study elucidated the mechanism of carbon additives on the improved charging behavior of negative lead-carbon electrodes, thus making a major contribution to further development of modern lead-acid batteries. In addition to the investigation of the electrochemical processes occurring at the interface between carbon and diluted sulfuric acid, a better understanding of the role of carbon additives in the dynamic charge acceptance was gained. Additionally, a new method was established to characterize the affinity of graphite powder towards lead. The major findings of the three main parts of this work are summarized below.
Electrochemical activity of amorphous carbon: The electrochemical reactions that take place at the phase boundary carbon/sulfuric acid were defined in chapter 4 in order to have a better general understanding of the electrochemical activity of carbon in dilute sulfuric acid. The measurements were performed on a rotating disc electrode setup with a glassy carbon electrode. The glassy carbon electrode revealed a much more complex behavior in contrast to inert metallic electrodes. Specifically, the carbon surface changes significantly depending on the applied potential. For potentials above 1.0 V vs. RHE, the carbon electrode is oxidized and decomposes into CO2. This affects all of the other electrochemical reactions. Through an extensive study via cyclic voltammetry and differential electrochemical mass spectroscopy, for the first time, evidence could be provided that the hydrogen evolution reaction can be suppressed significantly by a short anodic oxidation of the carbon electrode. An additional overvoltage of more than one volt suggests an impeded adsorption of protons and a generation of molecular hydrogen only for extremely negative potentials below 2.0 V vs. RHE via hydrogen radicals occurs. This effect might be systematically applied in the future to lower the side reactions in lead-acid batteries.
Structure-property relationship between amorphous carbon and the dynamic charge acceptance: Following the analysis of the glassy carbon electrode, the structure-property relationship between amorphous carbon and the dynamic charge acceptance of negative lead-carbon electrodes was systematically investigated in chapter 5. Electrodes with six different active material formulations were produced in which only the type of carbon additive was changed. Through the implementation of carbon powders with a tailored specific surface area it could be proven, for the first time that the external surface area of the carbon particles has an effect on the electrochemical activity of the electrode. Cyclic voltammetry revealed an increase in the hydrogen evolution activity as well as double layer capacitance with higher external carbon surface areas. A linear relationship between the double layer capacitance and the dynamic charge acceptance indicated for the first time that the improved charging behavior of the electrodes originates solely from a surface area effect of the carbon additive. It can be concluded that the increase in charge acceptance has to be generated by a catalyzed reduction of lead sulfate as the hydrogen evolution reaction and the double layer charging cannot deliver as much charging current as is observed in the test. This result could be explained by an increased electrochemical active surface area of lead sulfate either by an improved porosity due to the presence of the carbon or by the adsorption of lignosulfonate onto the carbon surface that would otherwise block the lead sulfate.
Lead-affinity of graphite: In chapter 6, a new method was introduced to characterize the electrocrystallization of lead on carbon additives. Potentiostatic deposition from aqueous solution was applied to analyze the nucleation and growth mechanism of lead on graphite powder. The number of active nucleation sites was evaluated by microscopic investigation and by modelling of the current-time transients. The measurements revealed that single lead particles are deposited on defined sites of the graphite surface. The number of active sites can be varied by adjusting the deposition overpotential. Lignosulfonate slows the nucleation process and changes the nucleation from an instantaneous to a progressive regime. The comparison of two different commercially available graphite powders provided an important result with respect to the application. Expanded graphite with a big crystallite size exhibits an exceptionally high affinity towards lead. Initial investigations also indicate that a high number of lead particles on graphite is disadvantageous for generating a high dynamic charge acceptance. In this case, a bigger part of the carbon surface area can be covered by lead and therefore reduces the effect of the carbon surface
Going Beyond Counting First Authors in Author Co-citation Analysis
Get PDFThe present study examines one of the fundamental aspects of author co-citation analysis (ACA) - the way co-citation
counts are defined. Co-citation counting provides the data on which all subsequent statistical analyses and mappings
are based, and we compare ACA results based on two different types of co-citation counting - the traditional type that
only counts the first one among a cited work's authors on the one hand and a non-traditional type that takes into
account the first 5 authors of a cited work on the other hand. Results indicate that the picture produced through this non-traditional author co-citation counting contains more coherent author groups and is therefore considerably clearer. However, this picture represents fewer specialties in the research field being studied than that produced through the traditional first-author co-citation counting when the same number of top-ranked authors is selected and analyzed. Reasons for these effects are discussed
Variations on the Author
Get PDF“Variations on the Author” discusses two of Eduardo Coutinho’s recent films (Um Dia na Vida, from 2010, and Últimas Conversas, posthumously released in 2015) and their contribution to the general question of documentary authorship. The director’s filmography is characterized by a consistent yet self-effacing form of authorial self-inscription: Coutinho often features as an interviewer that rather than express opinions propels discourses; an interviewer that is good at listening. This mode of self-inscription characterizes him as an author who is not expressive but who is nonetheless markedly present on the screen. In Um Dia na Vida, however, Coutinho is completely absent form the image, while Últimas Conversas, on the contrary, includes a confessional prologue that moves the director from the margins to the center of his films. This article examines the ways in which these works stand out in the filmography of a director who offers new insights into the notion of cinematic authorship
Appropriate Similarity Measures for Author Cocitation Analysis
Get PDFWe provide a number of new insights into the methodological discussion about author cocitation analysis. We first argue that the use of the Pearson correlation for measuring the similarity between authors’ cocitation profiles is not very satisfactory. We then discuss what kind of similarity measures may be used as an alternative to the Pearson correlation. We consider three similarity measures in particular. One is the well-known cosine. The other two similarity measures have not been used before in the bibliometric literature. Finally, we show by means of an example that our findings have a high practical relevance.information science;Pearson correlation;cosine;similarity measure;author cocitation analysis
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Get PDFDispelling the Myths Behind First-author Citation Counts
Get PDFWe conducted a full-scale evaluative citation analysis study of scholars in the XML research field to explore just how different from each other author rankings resulting from different citation counting methods actually are, and to demonstrate the capability of emerging data and tools on the Web in supporting more realistic citation counting methods. Our results contest some common arguments for the continued
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koamabayili/VECTRON-author-checklist: VECTRON author checklist
No full textWe have done our best to complete the author checklist relating to the use of animals in the hut study. Note that the objective for the hut study was to evaluate the IRS treatment applications for residual efficacy against Anopheles mosquitoes, including the local An. coluzzii mosquito population. Cows were only used to attract mosquitoes into the huts and no tests were carried out directly on the cows. The author checklist is intended for use with studies where experiments are carried out on animals, which is why we have had such difficulty in completing this for the hut study, as many of the questions do not relate to how the cows were used
Author-wise bibliometric analysis based on entropy.
No full textAuthor-wise bibliometric analysis based on entropy.</p
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