Jurnal Agribisnis Indonesia
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Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Keputusan Pembelian Sayuran Terhadap Pengguna E-Wallet Go-Pay di Kota JABODETABEK
Full text linkPembelian bahan makanan seperti sayur mengalami peningkatan melalui era digital selama masa pandemi. Tidak hanya itu, sistem pembayaran di Indonesia juga terbilang cukup pesat melalui produk uang elektronik berbasis aplikasi yaitu e-wallet. Hal ini menuntut pebisnis komoditas sayuran dan perusahaan Go-Pay dalam memenuhi kebutuhan dan keinginan konsumen dengan mengikuti perkembangan teknologi secara aman. Penelitian bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan karakteristik dan proses keputusan pembelian sayuran yang dilakukan oleh konsumen dengan menggunakan e-wallet Go-Pay sebagai metode pembayaran, serta mengetahui faktor yang mempengaruhi konsumen dalam melakukan keputusan pembelian sayuran melalui e-wallet Go-Pay di Kota JABODETABEK. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah analisis deskriptif dan analisis faktor. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan terdapat tiga faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan pembelian sayuran oleh pengguna e-wallet Go-Pay di Kota JABODETABEK yaitu, faktor kemudahan transaksi dan kualitas, sosial dan harga, serta diskon dan promo. Faktor yang berkontribusi paling besar adalah kemudahan transaksi dan kualitas.
Grocery purchases such as vegetables have increased through the digital era during the pandemic. Not only that, the payment system in Indonesia is also quite fast through application-based electronic money products, namely e-wallet. This requires vegetable commodity businesses and Go-Pay companies to meet consumer needs and desires by following technological developments safely. This study aims to describe the characteristics and buying process of vegetable purchases made by consumers using Go-Pay as a payment method, as well as to determine the factors that influence consumers in making vegetable purchasing decisions through the Go-Pay e-wallet in JABODETABEK City. The research method used is descriptive analysis and factor analysis. The results showed that there are three factors that influence the decision to purchase vegetables by Go-Pay e-wallet users in JABODETABEK City, namely, ease of transaction and quality factors, social and price factors, and discounts and promos. The biggest contributing factors are ease of transaction and quality
Pengaruh Kredit Terhadap Efisiensi Teknis Padi Sawah di Kabupaten Kutai Kartanegara
Full text linkKeberhasilan usahatani tidak terlepas dari beberapa hal, salah satunya adalah pembiayaan. Kredit merupakan fasilitas pembiayaan memiliki peran sebagai pembentukan modal petani guna untuk mendukung peningkatan produksi pangan khususnya padi. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis pengaruh kredit terhadap efisiensi teknis usahatani padi sawah. Pengumpulan data menggunakan data primer dan data sekunder. Data primer diperoleh dari hasil wawancara kepada petani responden yang terdiri dari 36 petani menggunakan kredit dan 66 petani yang tidak menggunakan kredit, pemilihan sampel dilakukan secara random. Hasil analisis menggunakan metode analisis stochastic frontier dalam fungsi produksi Cobb-Douglas menunjukkan bahwa petani pengguna kredit lebih efisien dibandingkan petani yang tidak menggunakan kredit. Rata-rata tingkat efisiensi teknis petani kredit sebesar 0,93 sedangkan petani yang tidak menggunakan kredit sebesar 0,87. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian, bahwa dengan menggunakan kredit terdapat peluang bagi petani, untuk memenuhi penyediaan input produksi yang diperlukan agar dapat meningkatkan produksinya, karena efisiensi teknisnya lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan petani yang tidak menggunakan kredit.The success of agriculture cannot be separated from several things, one of which is financing. Credit is a financing mechanism that has a role as the formation of farmers\u27 capital to support increased food production, especially rice. This study aims to analyze the effect of credit on the technical efficiency of lowland rice farming. Data collection used primary data and secondary data. Primary data were obtained from interviews with respondent farmers consists of 36 credit users and 66 non-credit users, the sample selection was carried out randomly. The results of the analysis that using the stochastic frontier analysis method on the Cobb-Douglas production function indicated that credit farmers were more efficient than farmers who do not use credit. The average level of technical efficiency for credit farmers was 0,93, while farmers who did not use credit were 0,87. Based on the results of the research, by using credit there was an opportunity for farmers to fulfill the supply of production inputs needed in order to increase their production, because the technical efficiency is higher than the farmers who do not use credit.
 
Preferensi Risiko dan Faktor Yang Memengaruhi Keikutsertaan Asuransi Usahatani Padi (AUTP) di Kabupaten Jember
Full text linkRendahnya partisipasi petani padi di Kabupaten Jember dalam program AUTP bukan berarti petani padi merupakan individu yang berisiko. Berdasarkan hal tersebut, maka secara sistematis tujuan penelitian ini adalah sebagai berikut: (1) Menganalisis preferensi risiko petani padi di Kabupaten Jember; (2) menganalisis faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi partisipasi petani padi di Kabupaten Jember dalam program AUTP. Pengukuran preferensi petani padi menggunakan metode multiple price list dan constant relative risk averse (CRRA). Sedangkan analisis faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi partisipasi petani padi dalam program AUTP menggunakan analisis regresi logit. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa petani padi di Kabupaten Jember memiliki preferensi risiko untuk menghindari risiko. Preferensi risiko petani responden peserta AUTP di Kabupaten Jember adalah sangat penghindar risiko; sedangkan responden petani non peserta AUTP di Kabupaten Jember adalah netral terhadap risiko. Faktor-faktor yang memengaruhi keikutsersertaan petani padi di Kabupaten Jember dalam program AUTP, yakni: (1) usia, lama, (2) berusahatani padi, (3) luas lahan usahatani padi, (4) preferensi risiko, (5) pemahaman terhadap AUTP, dan (6) besaran premi yang mampu dibayarkan.The low participation of rice farmers in Jember Regency in crop insurance (asuransi usahatani padi – AUTP) does not mean that rice farmers are risk seeking individuals. The objectives of this study are: (1) to analyze the risk preferences of rice farmers in Jember Regency; (2) analyze the factors that influence the participation of rice farmers in Jember Regency in the AUTP program. The measurement of rice farmer preferences used the multiple price list and constant relative risk averse (CRRA) method; and the analysis of the factors that influenced the participation of rice farmers in the AUTP program used logit regression analysis. The result showed that rice farmers in Jember Regency had a risk preference to avoid risk. The risk preferences of participants farmers of AUTP in Jember Regency are very risk averse; while not participants farmers of AUTP are risk neutral. The factors that influence the participation of rice farmers in Jember Regency in the AUTP program are: (1) age, (2) rice farming experience, (3) rice farming area, (4) risk preference, (5) AUTP knowledge, and (6) amount of insurance premium that can be paid. The participation of rice farmers in Jember Regency in the AUTP can be increased by increasing farmers knowledge of the scheme and benefits of agricultural insurance through counseling and mentoring
Prospek Swasembada Beras di Provinsi Kalimantan Timur
Full text linkRice self-sufficiency in Indonesia remains a national priority program, since rice is a staple food of the majority of population. This national program has become an economic development agenda in almost all local governments at the provincial and district levels. East Kalimantan Province is one of the provinces that set the rice self-sufficiency on the local medium term planning (RPJMD) 2013-2018. This research generally aimed at analyzing the prospect of rice self-sufficiency in East Kalimantan Province. Specifically, the research aimed to measure the potential for developing rice in East Kalimantan Province and to analyze the production technical efficiency of rice farming. The data used in this research were national and provincial agriculture land area, and 337 units of rice farm from Agricultural Census 2013. Using LQ (Location Quotient) method indicated that economically rice was not a basic commodity of East Kalimantan Province. In the provincial level, there were only two out of four districs that had rice as basic commodity. Stochastic production frontier analysis showed that technical efficiency of rice production was 0.64, which indicated that rice production in the province was 36 percent below its production frontier. Planting patterns and land status significantly improved technical efficiency. From this research can be concluded that self-sufficiency program in East Kalimantan Province was not supported by regional potential of rice production nor by technically efficient rice production at the farm level.Rice self-sufficiency in Indonesia remains a national priority program since rice is a staple food of the majority of the population. This national program has become an economic development agenda in almost all local governments at the provincial and district levels. East Kalimantan Province is one of the provinces that set the rice self-sufficiency on the local medium-term planning (RPJMD) 2013-2018. This research generally aimed at analyzing the prospect of rice self-sufficiency in East Kalimantan Province. Specifically, the research aimed to measure the potential for developing rice in East Kalimantan Province and to analyze the production technical efficiency of rice farming. The data used in this research were national and provincial agriculture land area and 337 units of rice farm from Agricultural Census 2013. Using LQ (Location Quotient) method indicated that economically rice was not a basic commodity of East Kalimantan Province. At the provincial level, there were only two out of four districts that had rice as a basic commodity. Stochastic production frontier analysis showed that the technical efficiency of rice production was 0.64, which indicated that rice production in the province was 36 per cent below its production frontier. Planting patterns and land status significantly improved technical efficiency. From this research can be concluded that the self-sufficiency program in East Kalimantan Province was not supported by regional potential of rice production nor by technically efficient rice production at the farm level
Komparasi Pendapatan Usahatani Bawang Merah Berdasarkan Sumber Pembiayaan di Kabupaten Nganjuk
Full text linkPenelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui perbedaan antara pendapatan petani yang mengakses kredit lembaga keuangan formal dan informal. Penelitian dilakukan di Kabupaten Nganjuk. Pengambilan sampel menggunakan purposive Sampling. Jumlah sampel dalam penelitian ini sebnayak 100 petani bawang merah yang mengakses kredit lembaga keuangan formal dan informal. Metode penelitian menggunakan pendekatan analisis kuantitatif. Analisis data menggunakan analisis matematik untuk mengetahui perbedaan pendapatan petani bawang merah yang mengakses kredit ke lembaga keuangan formal dan informal. Analisis statistik menggunakan Independent Sampel T Test, untuk mengetahui ada tidaknya perbedaan pendapatan petani bawang merah yang mengakses kredit pada lembaga keuangan formal dan informal. Hasil penelitian menunjukan rata-rata pendapatan petani bawang merah yang mengakses lembaga keuangan formal sebesar Rp. 35.852.746,43 per musim tanam, sedangkan rata-rata pendapatan petani bawang merah yang mengakses lembaga keuangan informal sebesar Rp. 16.317.527,62 per musim tanam. Perbedaan pendapatan disebabkan oleh luas lahan yang ditanami oleh petani dan jumlah produksi bawang merah dan berdasarkan analisis perbedaan (Komparasi) pendapatan usahatani bawang merah yang mengakses kredit ke lembaga keuangan formal dan informal dengan uji beda dengan hasil Fhitung lebih besar dari Ftabel dan Thitung lebih besar dari Ttabel dengan signifikan 0,00, dengan keputusan tolak Ho terima H1, artinya terdapat perbedaan nyata antara usatani bawang merah yang mengakses kredit ke lembaga keuangan formal dan informalShallots in Indonesian society as a complement to spices in cooking, are also needed as raw material for the fried onion industry and have many benefits of high economic value. Shallot consumption has risen year after year, resulting in a rise in shallot commodity development. The scale of onion farming variety from small to large scale; it demands a significant amount of capital gets started. One of the most essential aspects of initiatives to promote a shallot commodity, which is intended to boost farmers\u27 income, is the availability of funding. The purpose of this study was to determine the income between shallot farmers who access credit to formal and informal financial institutions. The research was conducted in Nganjuk Regency because it is one of the centres of shallots in East Java Province. The analysis in this research is analyzing farm income and examining the differences between farms that have access to formal and informal. The results showed that the income of shallot farming in Nganjuk Regency was very profitable and there was a difference between the income of shallot farming who accessed formal and informal financial institutions
Analisis Struktur Pasar Kentang Pada Pasar Relokasi di Plaju Palembang
Full text linkKentang adalah komoditas yang mengalami fluktuasi baik dari sisi luas panen ataupun tingkat produksi di Sumatera Selatan dalam kurun lima tahun terakhir. Begitu juga, dari sisi harga produsen dan konsumen mengalami fluktuasi namun dengan trend harga yang meningkat. Tipe pasar dapat mempengaruhi struktur pasar, dimana struktur pasar untuk komoditas sayuran adalah pasar yang memiliki tingkat persaingan yang tinggi, dengan kata lain merupakan pasar yang mendekati persaingan sempurna. Pasar Modern Plaju adalah pasar yang direlokasi dari Pasar Plaju yang merupakan pasar tradisional. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui struktur pasar kentang di Pasar Modern Plaju. Data berasal dari 10 orang pedagang pengecer kentang dan dianalisis secara kuantitatif. Analisis yang digunakan adalah konsentrasi pasar (CR) dan HHI (Herfindal-Hirscman Index). Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa struktur pasar kentang di Pasar Modern Plaju yang didominasi oleh empat pedagang pengecer terbesar dan delapan pedagang pengecer terbesar adalah oligopsoni dengan konsentrasi sedang dengan CR4 sebesar 59,18% dan CR8 sebesar 93,27%. Dan nilai HHI sebesar 0,1313 (1.313) menunjukkan struktur yang terbentuk mengarah pada pasar oligopsoni.Pasar Modern Plaju is a modern market, which was relocated from the traditional market Pasar Plaju so that there is a change in management of the market. Vegetables are the most widely sold commodity in the market, one of which is potatoes. Potatoes harvested area and production in South Sumatra had fluctuated in the past five years. Producer and consumer prices also fluctuated but have positive trends. Changes in market management and potato prices are always fluctuating, which would affect the market structure. The study aimed at determining the buying and selling activities and the structure of the potato market in Pasar Modern Plaju. The data came from 10 potato retailers. The data collected is daily data from buying and selling activities during January 2020 and was analyzed quantitatively. The analysis used was market concentration ratio (CR) and HHI (Herfindal-Hirschman Index). The result showed the diluent traders bought potatoes from a collector at a maximum of 600 kg per purchase, did not do grading, and the payment system was in cash. The market concentration ratio showed 59,18% CR4 and 93,27% CR8 was indicated that the structure of the potato market in Pasar Modern Plaju was oligopsony. HHI value 1.313 also showed that the potatoes market structure trend to word oligopsony market. These findings imply that the structure market can be influenced by the type of market
Analisis Efisiensi Pemasaran Jagung di Provinsi Gorontalo
Full text linkPrice fluctuations at the producer and consumer levels determine the performance of the maize market in Gorontalo Province. This will affect the decisions and ability of the corn marketing agencies involved in responding to price changes. The slow response of marketing agencies to changes in maize prices indicates inefficient market conditions in terms of prices. In addition, differences in market power between marketing agencies indicate inefficiencies in marketing maize from an operational perspective. Therefore, this research was conducted with the aim of 1) analyzing market integration and transmission of maize prices between producers and consumers, 2) analyzing the distribution of marketing margins in the maize marketing channels in Gorontalo Province. The research data used is in the form of weekly price data at the producer and consumer levels for 148 weeks, from March 2016 to March 2019 and added data from direct interviews with the marketing actors involved, namely farmers as many as 30 people, while sampling of traders was carried out by snowball sampling technique. Data analysis used the Asymmetric Error Correction Model (AECM), marketing margin and farmer share for each channel. The results showed that the transmission of maize prices at the producer and consumer level is symmetrical in the long run indicating market integration. The smallest marketing margin and the largest farmer share are in Channel III, where marketing is done directly to an exporter. Corn marketing in Gorontalo Province shows price transmission and market integration as well as high farmer share value in each channel, so it can be concluded that marketing is efficient.Price fluctuations at the producer and consumer levels determine the performance of the maize market in Gorontalo Province. This will affect the decisions and ability of the corn marketing agencies involved in responding to price changes. The slow response of marketing agencies to changes in maize prices indicates inefficient market conditions in terms of prices. In addition, differences in market power between marketing agencies indicate inefficiencies in marketing maize from an operational perspective. Therefore, this research was conducted with the aim of 1) analyzing market integration and transmission of maize prices between producers and consumers, 2) analyzing the distribution of marketing margins in the maize marketing channels in Gorontalo Province. The research data used is in the form of weekly price data at the producer and consumer levels for 148 weeks, from March 2016 to March 2019 and added data from direct interviews with the marketing actors involved, namely farmers as many as 30 people, while sampling of traders was carried out by snowball sampling technique. Data analysis used the Asymmetric Error Correction Model (AECM), marketing margin and farmer share for each channel. The results showed that the transmission of maize prices at the producer and consumer level is symmetrical in the long run indicating market integration. The smallest marketing margin and the largest farmer share are in Channel III, where marketing is done directly to an exporter. Corn marketing in Gorontalo Province shows price transmission and market integration as well as high farmer share value in each channel, so it can be concluded that marketing is efficient
Analisis Efisiensi Usahatani Padi di Jawa dan Luar Jawa: Kajian Prospek Peningkatan Produksi Padi Nasional
Full text linkPadi dapat tumbuh di hampir seluruh pulau di Indonesia, tetapi 57 persen padi di produksi di Pulau Jawa, dengan luasan kurang dari 10 persen dari total luasan di Indonesia. Studi mengenai prospek peningkatan produksi padi nasional penting dilakukan sebagai antisipasi meningkatnya konsumsi beras, terkhusus dengan memanfaatkan lahan di luar Pulau Jawa. Tujuan penelitian ini yaitumengidentifikasi prospek peningkatan produksi beras nasional, terutama di luar Jawa, dari perspektif faktor produksi padi dan efisiensin teknis ditingkat petani. Dengan menggunakan stochastic frontier, fungsi produksi translog menunjukan bahwa peningkatan input (lahan, benih, pupuk dan pestisida) tidak banyak meningkatkan produksi padi di Pulau Jawa dan luar Pulau Jawa (inelastis), sedangkan tenaga kerja bertanda negatif. Berdasarkan hasil efisiensi teknis, potensi petani untuk meningkatkan produksi padi di Jawa dan luar Jawa sebesar 28 dan 39 persen. Selain itu, analisis menunjukan irigasi, status lahan, kelompok tani dan pendidikan petani memengaruhi efisiensi teknis. Penelitian ini dapat disimpukan bahwa prospek peningkatkan produksi padi dengan efisiensi teknis di luar Pulau Jawa lebih tinggi daripada di Pulau Jawa. Namun, peningkatan produksi padi di luar Pulau Jawa dapat dilakukan dengan membangun lahan irigasi. Selain itu, untuk meningkatkan produksi padi secara signifikan diperlukannya teknologi produksi padi baru baik di Jawa dan luar Jawa.Rice can grow in almost all of the islands in Indonesia, but 57 per cent of it was produced in Java, which is less than 10 per cent of the national area in Indonesia. To anticipate the increasing need for rice consumption, it is important to study the prospects for increasing national rice production, especially by utilizing the potential of agricultural land outside Java island. The purpose of this study was to identify the prospects for the development of national rice, especially outside Java island, from the perspective of rice production factors and technical efficiency at the farm level. Using stochastic frontier analysis, the translog production function showed that the increasing use of inputs (land, seeds, fertilizers, pesticides) will not significantly increase rice production both in Java and outside Java island (inelastic). Technical efficiency analysis indicated that rice production in Java and outside Java island was 28 and 39 per cent below its frontier, respectively. Further analysis showed that irrigation, land status, farmer groups, and farmer education were significantly improved technical efficiency. This study concluded that the potential to increase rice production by increasing technical efficiency outside of Java island was greater than in Java island. However, increasing the efficiency of rice production outside Java may be constrained by the availability of irrigated agricultural land. To significantly increase national rice production both in Java and outside Java island, a breakthrough in new rice production technology is needed
Struktur, Perilaku dan Kinerja Pemasaran Ikan Cakalang di Kabupaten Halmahera Selatan
Full text linkPenelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis pemasaran ikan cakalang di Kabupaten Halmahera Selatan Provinsi Maluku Utara melalui pendekatan struktur, perilaku dan kinerja pasar dan menganalisis efisiensi pemasaran ikan cakalang di Kabupaten Halmahera Selatan. Hasil penelitian menunjukan, struktur pasar yang terbentuk ialah struktur pasar oligopoly kuat. Struktur pasar ikan di tingkat pedagang besar di PPP Bacan memiliki konsentrasi yang cukup tinggi dilihat dari nilai CR4 mendekati 50 persen. Sementara, tingkat konsentrasi pada pedagang grosir mendekati 75 persen atau oligopoli kuat dan ditingkat perusahaan terdapat 1 perusahaan menguasai 47 persen pangsa pasar dan terdapat 4 perusahaan menguasai 82 persen pangsa pasar. Pasar ikan cakalang tidak memiliki hambatan yang sigfikan untuk masuk dilihat dari Nilai MES 1.8 persen Perilaku pasar menunjukan bahwa nelayan tidak mempunyai kekuatan dalam penetapan harga dan hanya berperan sebagai price taker Terdapat 7 saluran pemasaran ikan cakalang besar. Margin pemasaran terbesar berada pada saluran 3 (nelayan-pedagang besar-pedagang grosir dan konsumen) Terdapat 3 saluran pemasaran pada ikan cakalang kecil dengan saluran pemasaran terbesar berada pada saluran pemasaran 9 (nelayan-pedagang besar- UKM). Farmer Share terbesar berada pada saluran 1 (nelayan dan industri perikanan) untuk ikan cakalang besar dan saluran 9 ( nelayan-pedagang besar- UKM) untuk ikan cakalang kecil.
Skipjack tuna is the result of the main capture fisheries in the South Halmahera district which experienced significant growth of 4,2 percent during the 2016-2018 period, but increased production experienced constraints in the marketing system and caused income uncertainty for fishermen and traders. The purpose of this study was to determine the marketing system of skipjack tuna in the South Halmahera Regency using a structural, behavioural, and performance (SCP) approach. The sampling method uses snowball sampling which started with 68 fishermen. The results showed that the market structure formed was an oligopsonistic market structure and there was a barrier to market entry of 14 percent. Meanwhile, market behaviour shows that fishermen only act as price takers. Based on the marketing margin analysis, there are 10 (ten) skipjack fish marketing channels. Judging from the value of large skipjack fish, marketing channel 7 has the highest margin value of 70,4 percent and the lowest is channel 8 of 53,9 percent. Meanwhile, the marketing channel of small fish the highest margin value is marketing channel 9 of 73,9 and the lowest is channel 9 of 65,1 percent. While the value of farmer share, channel 1 has the highest value of 70 percent and the lowest is channel 7 of 36 percent. Overall, skipjack tuna marketing channels have not been efficient
Posisi Kopi Robusta Indonesia di Pasar Jerman Menggunakan Metode Linear Approximate Almost Ideal Demand System
Full text linkIndonesia is one of the top coffee producers in the world. The major markets for Indonesian coffee are European Union (EU), then Germany is the largest importing country. This research analyzed the position for Indonesian robusta coffee in Germany among Vietnam and India as the major producers of robusta coffee as Indonesia. The econometric model of the Linear Approximate Almost Ideal Demand System was used to estimate a position for Indonesian robusta coffee among its competitors. The analysis utilized time-series data from 1996 to 2017. The results of the study showed that the main exporting countries, including Indonesia, tended to have lower import tariffs than other countries, not the main exporters. The demand for imported coffee beans was generally influenced by the prices of major exporters, but demand for imported roasted coffee was not affected by the prices of major importing countries. Indonesian coffee beans in the German market was elastic, while roasted coffee was inelastic. Indonesian coffee competed with Vietnam both for coffee beans and roasted coffee. The expenditure elasticity of Indonesian coffee beans was positive and Indonesian roasted coffee was negative.Indonesia is one of the top coffee producers in the world. The major markets for Indonesian coffee are European Union (EU), then Germany is the largest importing country. This research analyzed the position for Indonesian robusta coffee in Germany among Vietnam and India as the major producers of robusta coffee as Indonesia. The econometric model of the Linear Approximate Almost Ideal Demand System was used to estimate a position for Indonesian robusta coffee among its competitors. The analysis utilized time-series data from 1996 to 2017. The results of the study showed that the main exporting countries, including Indonesia, tended to have lower import tariffs than other countries, not the main exporters. The demand for imported coffee beans was generally influenced by the prices of major exporters, but demand for imported roasted coffee was not affected by the prices of major importing countries. Indonesian coffee beans in the German market was elastic, while roasted coffee was inelastic. Indonesian coffee competed with Vietnam both for coffee beans and roasted coffee. The expenditure elasticity of Indonesian coffee beans was positive and Indonesian roasted coffee was negative