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[Article] Prehistory of How Ancient Official Documents Came into Existence : Kanji, Calendars, Seals, and Document Styles
Get PDFapplication/pdf本稿では、古代の文書を成り立たせている諸要素について考察を加えた。具体的には、漢字運用に対する習熟、暦の導入・普及、印章制度の導入、文書形式の統一などである。いずれも七世紀後半以降に充実化してくることが確認された。
大宝令以前の要素を残す「大命符(宣)」「某前白(申)」「辞」「牒」「解」などの文書形式を検討した結論として、文書形式は上申か下達かという大きな違いがあるだけで、公式令に規定された文書形式の違いは大きな意味を有さないことが再確認された。さらに、書状形式の影響や口頭伝達を前提にした内容がみられ、唐代ではなく古い中国の文書形式が朝鮮半島を経由して大宝令以前から継受されていたことも確認された。奈良期前半における出土木簡や正倉院文書にはこうした公式令の文書形式を逸脱した実例が多く見られる。七世紀には確実に口頭伝達を補完する文書が存在したことが指摘できる。紀年木簡を基準とすれば、天武四年以降の年紀を持つ物が連続して出土するようになるのは、文書行政の習熟において大きな画期となる。In this paper, a study is made of the various factors by which ancient documents came into existence. Specifically, this includes the proficient use of kanji (Chinese characters), introduction and spread of the calendar, introduction of seal systems, and uniformity of document formats. It was confirmed that all of these factors were fully developed by the second half of the 7th century and thereafter.
As a conclusion to the study of the document formats that remain from before the Taiho Code, such as Oomikoto no fu (大命符), Sen (宣), Nanigashi no mae ni mosu (某前白) Mosu (申), Ji (辞), Cho (牒), and Ge (解), it was again confirmed that there is no major significance to the differences in the document format stipulated in the Kushiki-ryo (公式令), based simply on the key difference of whether the document format is a report to a superior or to a subordinate. Furthermore, it was confirmed that the ancient Chinese document format rather than that of the Tang Dynasty had been handed down from before the Taiho Code through the Korean Peninsula, as the content shows the influence of correspondence styles and the assumption of oral transmission. There are many cases wherein the mokkan (wooden writing tools) excavated from the early-Nara period and the Shosoin (正倉院) (treasure house) documents deviated from this Kushiki-ryo document format. It has been indicated that documents from the 7th century were most certainly used to complement oral transmission. Taking the Kinen mokkan (紀年木簡) (annual wooden writing tools) as a standard, there was a major transition in the proficiency of document administration, as objects describing the years from the fourth year of Tenmu onward are continually being excavated.departmental bulletin pape
[Article] A Comparative Study of Priest Enchin’s 円珍 Iki 位記 and Tang Gaoshen 告身
Get PDFapplication/pdf日本の古代律令国家の公文書は、中国・唐の文書制度や文書の機能・様式を継受して成立した。日本古代の公文書の成立と展開に関して、本稿では、「位記」を中心に検討した。日本の位記は、唐の「告身」を継受したものである。身分証明書である位記・告身は、原本も残っており、古文書の国際比較や時代による変遷を追うことが可能な素材である。
本稿では、従来の位記研究において等閑視されてきた僧の位記について、唐の告身と比較しつつ考察を加えた。まず従来の位記・告身研究を踏まえ、弘仁九年(八一八)に改定された位記の書式が、唐の告身の「かたち」に近づけたもので、それが『延喜式』五位以上位記式に定着したことを確認した。書式の変更には、延暦の遣唐使が持ち帰った唐の告身が影響を与えた可能性がある。そして日本の五位以上位記式＝勅授位記式は、唐の制授告身式に倣っていること、『延喜式』僧綱位記式が、唐の勅授告身式に準拠していることを述べた。
ついで、園城寺(三井寺)蔵の円珍の一連の位記が、位記の原本として日本最古であることに着目し、それらが『延喜式』判授位記式、僧尼位記式、延暦寺位記式と一致することを確認した。僧尼位記式、延暦寺位記式は、「可某位」ではなく、「授某位」の書式をとる。また「中務位記」は円珍が入唐にあたって特別に用意したもので、そのため唐の勅授告身式に倣った書式をとっていることを指摘した。
東京国立博物館蔵の円珍贈法印大和尚位????智証大師諡号勅書もまた位記である。近年、その書式に疑問が出されたが、印の捺し方や官位署の書き方など、「かたち」は唐代の勅授告身と一致し、古文書学的にはまぎれもなく位記の書式である。日本の古文書だけをみていたのでは思わぬ誤りに陥ってしまう。中国を中心とする東アジアの古文書との比較研究、とくに、文書原本の比較研究が必要である所以である。The official documents of ancient Japanese Ritsuryo 律令 state were established by inheriting the Tang China document systems.
In this paper, I focus on “Iki 位記” regarding the establishment and development of official document systems in ancient Japan. The format of Japanese Iki was established by imitating the format of Tang “Gaoshen 告身”. Japanese Iki and Tang Gaoshen are identification card, and are material that can follow the international comparison of old documents and follow the changes over time. I consider the monk’s Iki, which has been neglected in conventional position research.
Enchin’s Iki held at Onjo-ji Temple (Miidera 三井寺) are the oldest Iki in Japan. I also pointed out that the “Chumu-Iki 中務位記” was specially prepared by Enchin who would study abroad in Tang, and that it was formatted according to Tang Gaoshen.
The Imperial Record of Posthumous Promotion and Conferring of Epithet on Priest Enchin, which was written by Ono no Tofu 小野道風, owned by the Tokyo National Museum is also a kind of Iki. In recent years, the format has been questioned, but the “shape”, such as the way of stamping and the writing of government offices, is consistent with the Tang Gaoshen, and is undoubtedly paleontological. Looking at only Japanese ancient documents would lead to unexpected errors. This is why a comparative study with ancient documents in East Asia, especially China, is needed, especially a comparative study of original documents.departmental bulletin pape
[Article] Ships Carrying Japanese Missions to Ming China and the South Sea Route
Get PDFapplication/pdf本稿は、日本と明朝との交流に使われた航路のうち、南海路を考察対象とするものである。日明航路は、東シナ海を横断する「大洋路」と「南島路」があり、これに接続する国内航路として「中国海路」と「南海路」がある。南海路は、南九州から九州東岸を北上し、豊後水道を横断して四国に渡り、土佐国沿岸を経て、紀伊水道から畿内の堺へと至る航路であり、一六世紀中葉に日本に来航した鄭舜功の『日本一鑑』では「夷海右道」として記されている。
南海路は、一五世紀後期の応仁度遣明船が帰路に使用してから注目されるようになるが、実際は遣明船以前からの利用が史料から確認できる。ただし、瀬戸内海を通過する中国海路と比較すると、南海路は、距離も長く時間もかかるうえに、室戸岬や足摺岬を迂回し、太平洋に直面する土佐湾を航行するという自然条件の厳しさもあったため、中国海路の沿線が不安定化した場合や、政治的な背景がある場合に限って利用されることが多かった。本稿では、これまで断片的に蓄積されてきた南海路にかかる研究史を整理した上で、南海路を利用した遣明船について個別に取り上げ、南海路の港町との関係等に注目しながら考察をした。対象とする遣明船は、応仁度船、文明八年度船、同一五年度船、明応度船、永正度船、大永度船、天文一三年度船である。This paper examines the South Sea Route (Nankairo), one of the routes used for exchange between Ming China and Japan. Ships traveling between Ming China and Japan sailed either the Ocean Route or the South Island Route crossing the East China Sea and then traveled either the Chugoku Sea Route or the South Sea Route through the territorial waters of Japan. Those choosing the South Sea Route traveled north from southern Kyushu along the east coast of Kyushu, went through the Bungo Channel to Shikoku, and ran along the coast of Tosa Province and the Kii Channel to Sakai in the Kinai Region. This Route was called “Yihai Youdao” in Riben Yijian(A Mirror of Japan) by Zheng Shungong, who visited Japan in the mid-16th century.
The South Sea Route became widely known after it was used by the Onin Mission to Ming China in the late 15th century though historical records indicate that it had been used before the Ming period. Compared to the Chugoku Sea Route through the Seto Inland Sea, the South Sea Route was longer and slower and went through harsh conditions while going around Cape Muroto and Cape Ashizuri and crossing the Gulf of Tosa on the Pacific Ocean. Therefore, the South Sea Route was only used under certain circumstances, such as when the coastal areas flanking the Chugoku Sea Route became unstable or when there were political reasons for doing so. This paper reviews the fragmentary discoveries made in previous studies on the South Sea Route and then examines individual ships carrying Japanese missions through the South Sea Route to Ming China with focus on their relationships with port towns along the route. The Japanese missions to Ming China examined in this paper include the Onin Mission, the Bunmei 8 Mission, the Bunmei 15 Mission, the Meio Mission, the Eisho Mission, the Daiei Mission, and the Tenbun 13 Mission.departmental bulletin pape
[Article] The Sea and Local Powers : An Analysis of the Kyushu-Kinai Route based on Missionaries’ Reports
Get PDFapplication/pdf本稿では，16世紀に記された日本で活動するイエズス会士達の記録を手掛かりに，16世紀後半の九州＝畿内間の航路の詳細を検証する。基本的には既刊の翻訳書である松田毅一監訳『イエズス会日本報告集』を情報源とするが，原文の綴りや翻訳内容に疑義のある箇所については原文に遡って，手を加えた。これらの情報の検討の結果，イエズス会士達は主に瀬戸内航路で諸所の港に乗合船で立ち寄りながら移動していたこと，これらの港の一部にはイエズス会士が定宿とするような日本人の家があり，布教の拠点ともなったことが明らかとなる。また，頻繁ではないものの，南海路で移動することもあり，それは主に瀬戸内海の状況が戦争で不安定な時に用いられた。瀬戸内航路，南海路共に海賊は多数おり，海賊との折衝や遭遇の様子も詳細に記される。また彼等を運ぶ船乗り達，船のスペックなどについても詳細な情報がある。特筆すべきは，大友宗麟が大坂出身で塩飽を拠点とする大型船の船頭と直接契約して，宣教師を畿内へと運ばせたという情報である。この情報からも，瀬戸内海の商業航路の関係者が，相当に超領域的な活動を行っていたことが考えられよう。従来のイエズス会史料を用いた南蛮貿易研究では，マカオ＝九州間の交易についてのものが多かったが，本研究では，九州より先の日本国内，主に畿内の商人たちの南蛮貿易への関わりに着目した。とりわけ第四節では，小西家のキリシタン入信前後の状況と南蛮貿易に携わる京都商人の動きに着目し，これまでの研究では言及されたことのない血縁ネットワークについても明らかにした。そこからは，京都商人の入信動機には，南蛮貿易での利益のみならず，西洋からもたらされる最先端の知識への探究心もあったことが推察可能である。This paper analyzes in detail the Kyushu-Kinai Sea Route in the late 16th century based on the reports made by Jesuits sent to Japan in the 16th century. This study principally refers to Jurokushichiseiki Iezusukai Nihon Hokokushu (Collection of Jesuit Reports from Japan in the 16th and 17th Centuries), translation supervised by Kiichi Matsuda, but also consults the original reports when any question arises as to spelling and translation. According to the analysis of these reports, Jesuits stopped at port towns while traveling by passenger boat through the Seto Inland Sea. In some port towns, local people offered their homes for Jesuits to stay in on a regular basis. These homes also served as hubs of missionary work. Moreover, Jesuits sometimes traveled through the South Sea Route, especially when the Seto Inland Sea region was involved in conflicts and fell into an unstable state. There were many pirates along the Seto Inland Sea Route and the South Sea Route. Jesuits also described in detail their encounters and negotiations with pirates in the reports. In addition, these reports include detailed information on seamen and specifications of boats carrying Jesuits. In particular, it is worth noting that Otomo Sorin made a direct agreement with the master of a large ship who was born in Osaka and based in the Shiwaku Islands to transport missionaries to the Kinai Region. This indicates that merchants and seamen involved in the commerce along the Seto Inland Sea Route acted actively beyond the territorial borders. Although most of the previous studies of the Namban trade based on the historical documents of the Society of Jesus examined trade between Macao and Kyushu, this study rather focuses on how merchants from Kyushu and other parts of Japan, especially from the Kinai Region (Kyoto and Sakai), were involved in that trade. In particular, Section IV examines the situations of the Konishi family before and after their conversion to Christianity and the activities of Christian merchants of Kyoto involved in the Namban trade and provides new findings on kinship-based networks. These findings also imply that the reasons for conversion of Kyoto merchants included not only the financial benefits they expected from the Namban trade but also their craving for advanced Western knowledge.departmental bulletin pape
[Article] Potential of Underwater Cultural Heritage Studies : Focusing on Takashima Underwater Site
Get PDFapplication/pdf水中遺跡、特に沈没船は、当時の様子をそのまま残していることがあり、交易のメカニズムを伝えるタイムカプセルに例えられる。諸外国では一九世紀から水中遺跡を研究対象として捉え、古代から近現代の沈没船の研究が進み、すでに数万件の調査事例がある。一方、これまで日本で確認された水中遺跡は数百件と決して多くない。四方を海で囲まれたわが国において海を介した交易無くして日本の歴史や文化を語ることはできないが、その確固たる証拠が眠る水中遺跡を保護し研究する体制は整っていない。水中遺跡の多くは、滋賀県(琵琶湖)、沖縄県、長崎県の三県に集中しており、中世の交易に関する遺跡はほとんど発見されていない。また、沈没船の発見を念頭に海難記録を調べているが、まだ多くの課題が残される。近年、一三世紀の蒙古襲来に関連した沈没船が長崎県松浦市の鷹島海底遺跡で発見され、わが国でも水中遺跡への注目が急速に集まりつつある。
このように、日本国内での水中遺跡を対象とした研究事例はまだ少ないが、鷹島海底遺跡においては今後の研究の方向性・可能性を見ることが出来る。鷹島海底遺跡では、科学研究費による研究や護岸整備に伴う緊急発掘などにより、すでに四〇年近く調査が行われている。二〇一一年と二〇一四年の調査で船体が発見される前から、アンカー、陶磁器類、武器など多くの遺物が発掘されてきた。船体だけでなく、これらの遺物は、文献史料や絵画資料などと合わせて利用することにより、より正確な歴史事象の理解に貢献することが出来る。水中から引き揚げられた遺物は、保存処理に時間を要するが、現在、研究は着実に進んでいる。これまで鷹島で発見された船体のパーツや遺物などから判断すると、鷹島で沈没した船団のほとんどは、中国南部、揚子江以南に起源を持つ。本稿では、国内での水中遺跡調査の進展を望み、水中遺跡調査の学史、鷹島海底遺跡で行われた研究事例を紹介したい。The underwater archaeological sites are often called the time-capsule of the past maritime trade. The study of underwater remains has its origin in the 19th century and over ten thousands sites have been investigated. However, only a few hundred sites have been investigated in Japan. The island nation with close relationships with the seas throughout history, has no firm management plan for underwater cultural heritage. I have been gathering information of underwater archaeological sites in the country, but the data are highly skewed due to uneven distribution pattern in geographic locations, ages, and types of sites. A large majority of underwater sites are located in three prefectures, Shiga Prefecture (Lake Biwa), Okinawa Prefecture, and Nagasaki Prefecture, and few medieval trade sites have been found. I am also collecting and analyzing the records of marine accident in historical documents, but many challenges still remain. In short, it is too early to discuss the nature and the potential of underwater archaeological sites in Japan.
Despite the fact that only a small number of underwater archaeological sites have been studied, we can see the direction and possible future research plan. The Takashima underwater site, where the remains of the lost fleet of Khublai Khan was recently discovered, shows a great potential. The investigation at the site began nearly 40 years ago. Various groups have led the investigation at Takashima; archaeological investigations were funded by scientific research grants and some investigation conducted as rescue excavations. A large number of artifacts - such as anchors, ceramics, weapons, and fragments of ship timbers - has been excavated at the site though these projects. However, these were all single isolated artifacts scattered all over the seafloor. The breakthrough came in 2011 and 2014, with the discoveries of nearly intact hull of two Chinese vessels. The two hull remains, together with the scattered artifacts, can contribute to a more accurate understanding of historical events by using them in conjunction with historical documents. Relics raised from the sea requires a long period, often several years to conserve them properly. Judging from the currently available data, the majority of the vessels sank in Takashima were constructed in southern China and south of Yangtze River.
Through this paper, I hope to contribute to the progress of the study of underwater cultural heritage sites in Japan.departmental bulletin pape
[Article] Real Picture of Osaka Tsushoshi and “External Pressure” : From the Comparative Aspect with Niigata
Get PDFapplication/pdf通商司は、明治新政府の貿易政策を所管する官庁一機関として明治二年に設置され、その後、産業育成、金融など広範な政策領域を担った。その政策展開は、通商会社・為替会社の設立を通じて、会社・銀行という近代資本主義に不可欠な経済単位の創出を目指す取組でもあった。しかしながら、政策は早期に隘路に陥り、短命に終わった。この失敗の要因としては、政策に内在するいくつかの要因とともに、外国からの強い抗議の圧力があったことが指摘されている。
通商司政策に対する「外圧」の記録は、主に新潟及び大阪におけるこの政策の展開に関して残されている。すでに新潟におけるこの政策の経緯を考察している筆者は、本稿において、日本及びイギリスの外交文書を中心に据えて、大阪での経緯を改めて把握した。そして、その把握を通じて、通商司政策と「外圧」との関係を総体として考察した。
大阪における経緯に関しては、先行研究の認識とは異なり、着手後の早い段階で、政策へのイギリスからの強い抗議が招来されていた、ということが判明した。政策を立案した明治政府内の急進派は、本来、経済の早急な近代化を希求したのだが、「大阪商社規則」に表出されていたのは、近世以来の特定商人の排他的結合(株仲間)との妥協を図った政策枠組みであった。イギリスは、急進派が標榜する政策理念自体は是としたが、その妥協を厳しく糾弾した。政府主導による巨大な貿易独占の試みではないか、として外圧を加えた。
やがて新潟・大阪の両地における動きが合流し、通商司は外交問題化し、これに政府内の路線対立が密接に絡まった。そのなかで、通商司は推進体制を弛緩させ、次第に力を失っていった。
通商司政策をめぐっては、未成熟な前提条件のなかで経済の近代化と対外自立に取り組んだ我が国の性急な動きが、列強諸国とのあいだに摩擦を生じさせた。筆者はその陰影に富んだ展開のありようを、本稿を通じて明らかにした。Tsushoshi, an agency of the new Meiji Government, was established in the 2nd year of Meiji in order primarily to oversee trading policy. It later held a wide range of policy areas including industrial development and finance. Their activities were also recognized as an effort aimed at the creation of economic units essential for modern capitalism, such as companies and banks, through the establishment of Tsusho-kaisha and Kawase-kaisha. However, the policy soon reached an impasse and ended up being a short-lived one. It has been pointed out that there was strong pressure of criticism from foreign countries as a factor in this failure, along with several factors inherent in the policy.
“External pressure” placed on Tsushoshi policy are mainly documented in the context of development of this policy in Niigata and Osaka. The author, who has already grasped the history of this policy in Niigata, examines here the history in Osaka, with a focus on diplomatic documents from Japan and the U. K. Through this understanding, the author studies relationship between Tsushoshi policy and“ external pressure” as a whole.
As for the history in Osaka, it turns out that, unlike recognized by previous researches, strong protests from the U. K. over the policy were invited at an early stage after the start. Originally endeavoured with this policy by an enlightened group in the Meiji Government was the rapid modernization of the economy, but what was represented in “the Osaka Shosha Kisoku (the Osaka Trading Company Regulations)” was a policy framework that tried to find a compromise with “Kabu-nakama,” the exclusive bonds of certain merchants since the premodern era. The U. K. condemned this compromise, although they considered the policy philosophy itself right. Recognizing that what was being carried out was a government-led attempt at a huge trade monopoly, U.K. added harsh external pressure.
Before long, the movement in both Niigata and Osaka merged into a diplomatic issue, and the confrontation of policy course within the government became closely entangled with this matter. Tsushoshi policy gradually lost its driving force.
In the process of execution of the policy, the hastening movement of Japan toward economic modernization and independence without sufficient prerequisites caused frictions with the powers. The author clarifies this development through this article.departmental bulletin pape
[Report on Investigation and Research Activity] Documents Relating to the First Japanese Mission to the U.S.A. in Possession of the U.S. National Archives
Get PDFapplication/pdfdepartmental bulletin pape
