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A trans-national analysis of equitable utilisation and minimisation of environmental harm under environmental laws at international, federal and national levels
Get PDFDue to increasing demand for various human needs and climate change issues, rivers are now under enormous pressure. With increasing pressure on these valuable natural resources, responses among state and non-state actors are insufficient in the Anthropocene. To fill the gap, International Environmental Law (IEL) provides several principles for better management of these resources. Equitable utilisation and minimisation of environmental harm are among the most important principles of the IEL. From a theoretical perspective, these principles should lead to the sustainability of these resources and promote cooperation among relevant actors.
However, many river basins are still not allocated equitably and suffer from environmental damage. By using comparative, doctrinal, and empirical research methods, this thesis evaluates the two principles at the international level in Tigris and Euphrates River Basin, the federal level in Murray Darling Basin and at the local level in the Waikato River catchment. The research discovered major challenges for implementing the two principles. One major challenge is sovereignty, another is a lack or weakness of local voices and transparency. As the nature and status of all basins are different, the challenges are not exactly the same. For example, hearing local voices and better information transparency have significantly improved in the Waikato River.
As the challenges for implementing the two principles are not purely legal, the responses should blend legal solutions with political and socio-economic solutions. Therefore, this thesis strongly supports shared sovereignty among states at the international level as well as shared sovereignty with indigenous and minority groups at the national level. Cooperation among national and international actors in the river basins is also crucial for implementing the two principles effectively. Finally, there is the opportunity to establish basin institutions or organisations to manage river basins integrated and sustainable. This is vital in the case of TE-RB because the basin still lacks an institution. Furthermore, the basin institution in the MDB requires more robust compliance and monitoring power because the provisions of the Water Act 2007 and the basin plan still have not been implemented effectively.
Finally, the thesis concludes with two common lessons in comparing these cases. The first lesson is that equitable utilisation cannot be implemented effectively if it is not accepted by the local community in a broad and deep meaning. It means that the equitable allocation should be extended from only the riparian states to equitable allocation among the people within each state. The second lesson is that the minimisation of environmental harm cannot be implemented without determining the minimum flow of rivers, particularly transboundary rivers. Determining an environmental impact assessment for water projects and taking advantage of available solutions of nature contributes significantly in implementing the two principles and sustainable management of our rivers
Radiocarbon analysis of a novel bone sample type: snapper and barracouta bone from New Zealand archaeological sites
Get PDFThis dissertation investigates the potential of fish bone, specifically barracouta (Thyrsites atun) and snapper (Pagrus auratus), for routine radiocarbon analysis. Of particular interest to this study is the perceived reliability of bone ¹⁴C determinations in the New Zealand archaeological literature. Issues of bone preservation and contamination, dietary fractionation, species differences, and the reliability of different pretreatments are of key importance. Informed, critical assessment of bone determinations in New Zealand is, however, currently limited for a number of reasons. First, there have been no, or few comprehensive tests of bone pretreatment, species reliability or the influence of contamination. Second, confusion has resulted regarding the effectiveness of the varied radiocarbon pretreatments available, due in part to the complexity of some methods. This has been further hampered by the incorrect reporting of fractions isolated for ¹⁴C measurement. Third, inadequate sample selection procedures have resulted in burnt bone, sub-fossil bone and severely degraded bone, each with intrinsically different chemistries, being submitted for radiocarbon assay. Fourth, insecure provenance of the sample, or associated samples to be dated, mean that few comparisons of bone reliability could have, or can be made. Fifth, publication of results and procedures have been limited. Finally, there has been limited research into the radiocarbon measurement of bone in New Zealand due to a preconception about the reliability of bone determinations. These uncertainties with bone radiocarbon measurement are addressed in this dissertation.
The sources of ∆¹⁴C to fish are also critical. Bone collagen and its derivatives (e.g. gelatin, tripeptides, amino acids) are the most common bone fractions isolated for radiocarbon measurement. For fish, the ¹⁴C in collagen is derived either directly, or indirectly via diet, from dissolved inorganic carbon in sea water. A number of uncertainties have previously been identified with the measurement of ¹⁴C in marine animals, including the effects of hardwater, depleted carbon from depth, or terrestrial organic carbon. These factors are investigated, and it is determined that their impact on fish bone ¹⁴C determinations depend on the immediate environment and the type of fish selected for dating. Both barracouta and snapper occupy predominantly the well-mixed surface waters around New Zealand. Studies of marine shell and snapper otolith carbon from around New Zealand, suggest that hardwater and terrestrial organic carbon are of limited influence. This requires further testing and may depend on the specific dietary preferences of each species. Of particular concern, however, is the upwelling of depleted carbon, especially at the convergence of inshore and offshore waters or at the boundary of two water masses (i.e. the Subtropical Convergence). In addition, inbuilt age is often cited as reasons for anomalous ¹⁴C determinations. This also appears to be of nominal influence, due in part to the precision of the radiocarbon technique, but also because of the relatively rapid replacement of collagen.
A range of different bone pretreatment and assessment methods are discussed. From this review it is concluded that gelatinisation following a NaOH wash, should remove better than 8% contamination (i.e. a maximum error of 42 years in a well-preserved sample of 900 BP material if contaminated by modem carbon). This pretreatment method, in combination with techniques for assessing contamination and collagen preservation, will significantly improve the likelihood of a reliable radiocarbon determination. The use of an appropriate assessment methodology also provides a wealth of information about the sample and site taphonomy.
Snapper and barracouta samples from 7 archaeological sites are analysed. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra, stable isotope values, N% determinations and yield data, obtained prior to and during pretreatment, are presented along with ¹⁴C information. Material from Pleasant River, Long Beach, Shag River Mouth, Twilight Beach, Houhora and Rotokura is identified as well-preserved. Bone removed from Tata Beach is of suspect preservation state due to low levels of remaining collagen, and contamination identified in the FTIR spectra of the acid-insoluble fraction.
Radiocarbon results from Tata Beach are, however, variable, and largely inconclusive at the level of precision used. The remaining 6 sites produced reproducible fish gelatin determinations that are statistically indistinguishable from associated marine shell determinations, and in chronological agreement with charcoal samples after calibration using the marine calibration curve of Stuiver and Braziunas (1993), corrected according to the New Zealand reservoir value (∆R) (Higham and Hogg 1995). Determinations on purified tripeptides do not agree with these results. These are, however, not supported by archaeological evidence or associated ¹⁴C determinations on reliable charcoal and shell samples.
An analysis of 46 New Zealand archaeological sites with bone determinations (human, dog, fish, seal, and moa) obtained over a 40 year period is undertaken and a discard protocol applied according to the results of this dissertation. Eleven sites with bone determinations remain after application of the discard protocol. Not all are statistically indistinguishable from associated charcoal and marine shell pairs. Using geographic and climatic information, as well as intra site data, it is apparent that sites with problematic bone radiocarbon estimates are located in high rainfall areas, which have resulted in bones of poorer preservation. This, in combination with inadequate pretreatment (typically an acid wash, or acid/alkali/acid pretreatment) has resulted in some erroneous determinations.
In the light of these results it is suggested that a bone selection protocol, using a range of chemical methods, needs to be implemented in order to identify problematic samples prior to ¹⁴C analysis. Further, gelatinisation should be a minimum pretreatment. Bones <1000 years of age should be viewed with caution for radiocarbon dating when less than 40% “extractable collagen” remains, and where contamination is identified in the FTIR spectra of the acid-insoluble fraction. The adoption of complex and expensive biochemical purification techniques is not recommended
Characteristics and outcomes of patients with small cell lung cancer - findings from a New Zealand SACT database
Get PDFBackground Small Cell Lung Cancer (SCLC) SCLC generally presents late and is treated with systemic anti-cancer treatment (SACT). Māori are over represented in Lung Cancer statistics but disparities between Māori and non-Māori in patterns of care and survival from SCLC have not been previously reported.
Methods We used the custom-built SACT database collected by the Oncology Department at Waikato Hospital NZ, which recorded comprehensive lung cancer patient factors and SACT regimens from 2000 to 2021. We reported summary statistics to review the treatment by ethnicity, explored Kaplan Meier all-cause survival of patients, and estimated the unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios of surviving 12 months.
Results 742 patients with SCLC were included in this study, with 43% identified as Māori. Approximately 75% of patients received SACT, and there was no difference in the uptake of SACT between Māori and non-Māori. The median survival for SCLC was 8.5 months. After adjustment, patients treated with carboplatin plus etoposide (with/without durvalumab) or cisplatin plus etoposide were 1.5 times or 4.9 times respectively more likely to survive 12 months than those without a SACT regimen.
Conclusion There was no significant evidence of disparities in patterns of care and outcomes between Māori and non-Māori with SCLC. Carboplatin/cisplatin in combination with etoposide remained the primary first line SACT regimen for patients with SCLC in this New Zealand cancer treatment centre
Two thermostable hemicellulases and their effects on wood pulps
Get PDFTwo hemicellulases, cloned from a thermophilic anaerobe (isolate TP8 6.3.3.1) were partially purified and characterised. The ability of these enzymes to hydrolyse the hemicellulose components of various types of pulps and their effects on the bleachability of radiata pine kraft pulp were examined. The xylanase (two preparations) and mannanase had broad pH optima (6-7.5). The xylanases had temperature optima of 70°C (10 min assay) and the mannanase had an optimum of 80°C (10 min assay). All the cloned enzymes were thermostable with more than 95% of the enzyme activity remaining after 24 hours at 70°C, in an unbuffered solution. Buffering affected the thermostability of the enzymes. The mannanase had a half life of 48 min at 85°C. The xylanases were able to hydrolyse xylans but also had a pH-dependent CM cellulase activity, but this was never more than 10% of the xylanase activity. The mannanase hydrolysed mannan, glucomannans and galactomannans. The glucose content of the glucomannans had little or no effect on mannanase activity but the galactose substituents of the galactomannans severely inhibited the hydrolysis of these substrates.
The thermostable xylanase hydrolysed more than 75% of soluble radiata pine xylan to low molecular weight (< DP10) xylo-oligomers. These included; xylose, xylobiose, xylotriose, arabinose-substituted xylobiose and xylotriose and 4-O-methyl glucuronic acid substituted xylotrioses. The arabinose substituents were bound to the terminal, non-reducing xylose residue; the glucuronic acid substituents may be bound to the non-reducing or central xylose residues of the substituted xylotriose. The thermostable mannanase also hydrolysed more than 75% of soluble radiata glucomannan, producing mannose, mannobiose, mannotriose, glucomannose and glucomannobiose.
The hemicellulases were used to treat (at 70°C, 24 hr) a variety of wood pulps, including kraft (softwood and hardwood), radiata NSAQ pulp, radiata CTMP and radiata TMP. Both enzymes solubilised their respective substrates from these pulps. The chemical pulps were more susceptible to enzymatic attack than the mechanical pulps, possibly due to the greater fibre porosity of the chemical pulps. The xylanase solubilised ~4% of the xylan and the mannanase solubilised 10% of the glucomannan from radiata kraft pulp. In comparison with other xylanases, the thermostable xylanase was less effective in solubilising xylan from kraft pulps. The hemicelluloses of kraft pulps that had been enzyme treated were extracted. The extracted xylan from the xylanase-treated pulp was lower in average DP than the xylan extracted from untreated pulps. The average DP of the extracted glucomannan from the mannanase-treated pulps was no different than that of glucomannans extracted from untreated pulps. The extracted xylan and glucomannan from untreated kraft pulps were readily hydrolysed by the xylanase and the mannanase respectively, suggesting that enzyme inaccessibility to the substrate within the fibre wall was the main cause of their resistance to enzymatic attack.
The effect of these enzymes on the bleachability of radiata kraft pulps was studied by measuring the reduction in kappa number (κ), relative to untreated controls, after a standard D/C E prebleaching sequence. The xylanase and the mannanase had little or no effect on the bleachability of radiata kraft pulps. Xylanase treated kraft pulp required a protease treatment after the hemicellulose treatment but before bleaching, in order to elicit any improvement in bleachability (~7% drop in κ relative to untreated control pulps). Mannanase treated kraft pulp showed no improvement in bleachability. For comparison commercial xylanases (including a thermostable xylanase) were used to treat radiata kraft pulps and did improve bleachability significantly. These enzymes also solubilised three to four times more xylan than the cloned, thermostable xylanase. Therefore, the ineffectiveness of the cloned xylanase may be due to its very limited ability to hydrolyse intra-fibril xylan in kraft pulp fibres
Parasites and pathogens at honey bee mating sites, and the implications for monitoring colony health
Get PDFWestern honey bees (Apis mellifera) are an insect species of high environmental, economic, and cultural importance due to their provision of pollination services to cultivated and native plants and production of honey. Rapid, international dispersal of the parasitic mite, Varroa destructor, has played a central role on colony health. The host-parasite relationship between V. destructor and immature (brood) and adult worker honey bees has been researched extensively. However adult drone (male) honey bees and their relationship with V. destructor has been underexplored. I used a choice test to investigate V. destructor host preference between nurses, foragers, and drones. I investigated the prevalence and abundance of V. destructor and pathogens at drone congregation areas compared to apiaries to explore the role of drones and drone congregation areas in monitoring of pests and pathogens. Varroa destructor selected drones as hosts in equal proportion to foragers, suggesting that drones are important phoretic hosts for the dispersal of V. destructor. I found that there was a significant positive relationship between the V. destructor abundance at DCAs and the V. destructor abundance at the nearest apiary. There was also a significant positive relationship between the abundance of DWV in drones and the abundance of DWV in colonies the nearest apiary. The abundance of DWV was found to be correlated with the abundance of V. destructor, with more viral copies of DWV found in drones and colony bees that had higher infestations of V. destructor. These results support the potential of drones as agents of dispersal for V. destructor and highlights the opportunity that drone congregation areas present for population-scale monitoring of honey bee pests and pathogens
Generation time statistics of Escherichia coli using synchronous culture techniques
Get PDFThe distribution of generation times and the correlation coefficient between the generation times of mother and daughter cells are determined for a B strain of Escherichia coli under various conditions of growth.
Synchronously dividing cultures of E. coli are produced by the Mitchison-Vincent density gradient centrifugation technique. Very precise data are yielded by cell number counts at frequent intervals with a Coulter electronic particle counter. Culture growth is followed for three and sometimes four generations.
Doubling times between 30 and 80 minutes are obtained at 37°C with mineral salts medium supplemented with suitable carbon sources, namely, glucose + methionine + histidine, glucose, sucrose, glycerol, or succinate. On glucose, doubling times between 40 and 90 minutes are obtained by varying the temperature between 37° and 26°C.
A mathematical description of synchronous growth is taken from the literature. The rate of increase of cell number concentration is expressed as the sum of a series of functions with properties related to the generation time distribution of the cells and the correlations between the generation times of related cells. Smoothing of the cell number data by digital filtering and subsequent numerical differentiation yields a series of peaks having little apparent skewness for all growth rates. This is confirmed by fitting a sum of Gaussian functions to the peaks by a nonlinear least squares procedure. The parameters of the generation time distribution and the correlation coefficients between the generation times of parent and progeny cells are then extracted directly from the means and variances of the Gaussian functions.
The uncertainty associated with each data point is estimated to be within 1½% and the errors in the extracted parameters are determined by repeated simulation of the data analysis procedure using computer generated noisy data.
Under all growth conditions the generation time distribution is of Gaussian form with a coefficient of variation of 0.22 ± 0.02. The mother-daughter generation time correlation coefficient was significantly negative at doubling times between 40 and 64 minutes; a constant value of -0.47 ± 0.06 was consistent with the observations. At doubling times of 30 and 80-90 minutes this coefficient tended to be closer to zero but with a higher uncertainty. In succinate medium at 37°C (doubling time 80 minutes) synchrony was noticeably weaker after the first generation compared with the results at higher growth rates. The growth data for this medium indicate a correlation coefficient very close to zero.
The implications of the results are discussed in terms of the predictions of a number of models for the control of cell division that have appeared in the literature
Characteristics and origin of black breccia and its relation to adjacent facies within the Martha hill deposit, Waihi
Get PDFThe Coromandel Volcanic Zone [CVZ] was an active continental volcanic arc between 18 – 1.9 Ma that was responsible for bimodal andesitic–dacitic–rhyolitic volcanism. Following the emplacement of these volcanic formations, some became locally hydrothermally altered to generate ≈ 50 low sulphidation Au–Ag deposits within the CVZ (Hauraki Goldfield). The Martha Hill deposit is a rift–low sulphidation adularia–sericite gold deposit situated in the township of Waihi, New Zealand. Notably, the origin of a black breccia appearing in core logs at the Martha Hill deposit was previously unknown. The focus of this study was to identify the origin of the black breccia through analyses of three separate drill cores (pertaining to the black breccia), and to discover its significance in the paleo–geothermal field at Martha. Analytical techniques included core logging, microscopy, x–ray diffraction [XRD], x–ray flourescence for geochemical majors [XRF] and scanning electron microscopy [SEM]. Initial core logging and analyses recognised 10 new facies relating to the black breccia. These recognised facies fell under three separate categories; two facies for the weakly altered, five for the highly altered and three for the breccia facies. One of the weakly altered facies best reflects the andesite country rock of the Waipupu Formation. The other weakly altered facies is a foreign clast inclusion of a breccia deposited during the original emplacement of the andesite lavas. The five highly altered facies are related to the varying degrees and overprinting events of the paleo–hydrothermal fluid. One of the breccia facies related to the original emplacement of andesite lava as an autobreccia, whilst the other breccia facies was the product of hydraulic fracturing in the sub–surface. Based on core logging, petrographical and geochemical analyses, the black breccia was discovered to be related to diatreme formation. Diatreme formation can vary among deposits due to the post–eruptive hydrothermal environment (high versus low sulphidation) and the nature of the mechanism utilised to generate the diatreme (phreatomagmatism or hydrothermal eruption). However, the poorly sorted, matrix supported nature of the black breccia that was observed during core logging is widely associated with volume expansion (a hydrothermal brecciation mechanism responsible for diatreme formation). Diatreme formation is the result of an increase in temperature or depressurisation. Facies that may suggest the presence of a feeder dike responsible for generating volume expansion and phreatomagmatism was not observed during core logging, but may be present at greater depths or in other drill core. A more likely scenario for the formation of black breccia was due to depressurisation and volume expansion in the near surface due to hydrothermal eruptions. Indeed, initial steam bursts may have ejected cover materials at the surface resulting in depressurisation and boiling in the near–surface. Brecciation and fragmentation would have likely continued and propagated further downward until the steam supply rate was insufficient to further brecciate and uplift rock fragments. Carbonate veins (calcite) that were present during core logging indicates that the paleo–geothermal field reset after the formation of the black breccia and associated diatreme. The presence of adularia indicated by XRD analyses within the black breccia matrix, signifies that the paleo–hydrothermal fluid temperatures after the emplacement of black breccia was ≈ 180 – 350°C
New exact Betchov-like relation for the helicity flux in homogeneous turbulence
Get PDFIn homogeneous and isotropic turbulence, the relative contributions of different physical mechanisms to the energy cascade can be quantified by an exact decomposition of the energy flux (Johnson, Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 124, 2020, 104501; J. Fluid Mech., vol. 922, 2021, A3). We extend the formalism to the transfer of kinetic helicity across scales, important in the presence of large-scale mirror-breaking mechanisms, to identify physical processes resulting in helicity transfer and quantify their contributions to the mean flux in the inertial range. All subfluxes transfer helicity from large to small scales. Approximately 50% of the mean flux is due to the scale-local vortex flattening and vortex twisting. We derive a new exact relation between these effects, similar to the Betchov relation for the energy flux, revealing that the mean contribution of the former is three times larger than that of the latter. Multi-scale effects account for the remaining 50% of the mean flux, with approximate equipartition between multi-scale vortex flattening, twisting and entangling
Experimental characterization of the fracture properties of pultruded GFRP structural elements
Get PDFPultruded Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRPs) are a class of novel composite materials with remarkable strength (comparable or even greater to that of steel) and resistance to environmental effects. However, the strongly orthotropic behavior of these materials and the relatively high deformability and spatial variability in mechanical properties bring challenges to the widespread adoption of these elements in structural applications. To this end, the orientation and distribution of the fibers are the most influential parameters that affect both the ultimate strength and stiffness of the specimens. This work presents an experimental campaign conducted on GFRP specimens in uniaxial tension and 3-point bending; coupon specimens with three different fibers orientations (namely 0, 45, and 90 degrees) were tested to characterize the ultimate strength and failure modes Results of such experimental campaign are first presented, and detailed statistical measures of the so-obtained strength values are presented with the ultimate goal of characterizing the variability in mechanical properties in commercially available profiles
Donna Awatere’s Māori Sovereignty: Reflections on White Supremacy and the Racialization of Crime Control and Surveillance in Aotearoa New Zealand
Get PDFDonna Awatere’s examination of whiteness within the Aotearoa New Zealand context, specifically white cultural imperialism, has largely been ignored in academic scholarship. For her, white culture, and its articulation through governance and policy, is the starting point and lens to understanding and addressing historical and contemporary Māori dispossession and ensuing strategies of racialized surveillance, control, and containment. In this essay, we argue that Awatere’s attention to past forms of genocide – mapping them to emerging forms of state confinement of Māori, which engender genocidal characteristics, and problematizing “whiteness” – situates the book Māori Sovereignty as an important text in the field of criminal justice, especially that which manifests in settler-colonial contexts