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A quantitative investigation into the effectiveness of a 2x2, crossover, randomized control trial, for individuals suffering from non-specific chronic lower back pain, using a physical exercise-focused clinical intervention on the transverse abdominus/ multifidus (stability) and rectus abdominals/ erector spinae (dynamic) muscles.
No full textA plethora of research has been conducted on interventions to reduce non-specific
lower back pain and improve the quality of life of sufferers. However, there is a lack of
distinction on the complementary nature of these interventions. Our primary research goal
was to assess the effectiveness of stability- and dynamic-style clinical interventions, focusing
on exercises to strengthen specific trunk muscles, including the transverse
abdominis/multifidus (stability-AB), and rectus abdominis/ erector spinae (dynamic). We
aimed to determine the effectiveness of these interventions in reducing non-specific chronic
lower back pain. Our research questions focused on whether a two-part clinical intervention
targeting specific core muscle groups (dynamic or stability) improves pain outcomes, whether
exercises targeting specific core muscle groups improve disability index physical impairment
and overall low back pain rating scale scores, and if there is a difference between intervention
groups and the sequential order of intervention for these outcomes. Additionally, we wanted
to investigate the correlation between these outcome measures and trunk endurance strength
scores. Seven participants were randomly assigned to either the stability (N =4) or dynamic
(N = 3) exercise group. Outcome measures included back and leg pain, lower back pain
visual analogue scale scores, disability index, physical impairment, and total Low Back Pain
Rating Scale (LBPRS) scores. Four measures of trunk endurance strength were taken using
Mcgill's Torso Endurance Test Battery (MTETB), which involves trunk extension, trunk
flexor, and trunk lateral tests on both the left and right sides. Assessments were performed
before the first clinical intervention, after the first intervention, and after the completion of
the final intervention. Each intervention phase lasted 4 weeks for each participant before they
switched to the opposing exercise group. The scores of back and leg pain, lower back pain,
disability index, and physical impairment all improved significantly after both interventions.
We found no difference between the groups during these intervention phases, or any potential
crossover/sequential effect, except for the dynamic group showing a significant improvement
in physical impairment scores after the first intervention, which remained consistent between
interventions one and two. In conclusion, both exercise approaches were similar across all
our outcome measures and may serve as complementary interventions for individuals
suffering from non-specific chronic low back pain
Enhancing the precision of the Self-Compassion Scale Short Form (SCS-SF) with Rasch methodology
No full textObjectives: Precise measurement of self-compassion is essential for informing well-being–related policies. Traditional assessment methods have led to inconsistencies in the factor structure of self-compassion scales. We used Rasch methodology to enhance measurement precision and assess the psychometric properties of the Self-Compassion Scale Short Form (SCS-SF), including its invariance across Ghana, Germany, India, and New Zealand. Method: We employed the Partial Credit Rasch model to analyse responses obtained from 1000 individuals randomly selected (i.e. 250 from each country) from a total convenience sample of 1822 recruited from the general populations of Germany, Ghana, India, and New Zealand. Results: The initial identification of local dependency among certain items led to a significant misfitting of the SCS-SF to the Rasch model (χ2 (108) = 260.26, p < 0.001). We addressed this issue by merging locally dependent items, using testlets. The solution with three testlets resulted in optimal fit of the SCS-SF to the Rasch model (χ2 (27) = 23.84, p = 0.64), showing evidence of unidimensionality, strong sample targeting (M = 0.20; SD = 0.72), and good reliability (Person Separation Index = 0.71), including invariance across sociodemographic factors. We then developed ordinal-to-interval conversion tables based on the Rasch model’s person estimates. The SCS-SF showed positive correlations with measures of compassion towards others, optimism, and positive affect, alongside negative associations with psychological distress and negative affect. Conclusions: The current study supports the reliability, as well as the structural, convergent, and external validity of the SCS-SF. By employing the ordinal-to-interval conversion tables published here, the precision of the measure is significantly enhanced, offering a robust tool for investigating self-compassion across different cultures
Heritage-making in Aotearoa planning: Unsettling norms in contested urban space
No full textHeritage is currently a high-profile and often contentious topic in urban environments. As cities face growing challenges of climate change, intensification needs and cultural contestation, state-mandated heritage continues to have a significant influence on how cities are perceived, whose pasts are remembered, and what future change can be. However, this is being increasingly tested as urban pressures bring questions of who has a right to the city to the fore.
Situated within the field of critical heritage studies, this thesis critically examines how heritage is officially “made” in the cities of Aotearoa New Zealand, and how emerging views and values may reshape these established norms for more spatially and culturally just futures. Focused on urban locations within the so-called “CANZUS” states (Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United States of America (USA)), the thesis centres on statutory heritage – the objects and places that are identified and managed within state-mandated planning systems that create dominant assumptions about what is worthy of protection. As such, its contribution is at the intersection of heritage and planning as it critically queries heritage’s future legacy claims and considers what other legacies may be imagined.
The thesis includes four key enquiries. First, it explores the history of state-led heritage-making in Aotearoa, focusing on the city of Tāmaki Makaurau / Auckland. It examines the tension between contemporary urban intensification priorities and heritage / special character regulation, critiquing the narrative of heritage as a “public good” given its entanglement with spatial and cultural inequity. Second, it studies three cases of urban heritage protest across Australia, Aotearoa and the USA. These cases expose the continued inadequacy of statutory heritage-making for Indigenous and emerging aspirations, as normative approaches are embedded not only by the heritage sector itself but by the planning and legislation systems that structure its mandate.
Third, the thesis explores the current thinking of those shaping and working within heritage’s statutory framing across Aotearoa. It finds that heritage policy leaders are cognisant of, and concerned to change, heritage’s entrenched Eurocentricity, expert dominance and material orientation, but that shifting established practice remains a multi-dimensional challenge. Finally, it investigates the perspectives of young emerging planners in the city of Kirikiriroa / Hamilton, which again foregrounds the obstacles to displacing systemic norms but also highlights planning policy’s significant potential to shape different heritage futures.
This thesis has important implications both for Aotearoa’s urban environments and for CANZUS cities more broadly. Grounded in contemporary real-world examples, it not only exposes heritage’s imbrication with issues of urban inequity but its deeper role in maintaining settler state security, making “home” on Indigenous land. It finds that unpicking this legacy will involve more than adding the heritages of “others” into the existing canon. Rather, deeper reconsideration of heritage’s societal purpose as part of Indigenous, multi-storied and dynamic cities is required. Finally, it highlights the central role for planning in transforming the heritage field, both through statutory policy reform and through integration with broader urban objectives. However, planners will need to be better equipped for critical engagement with heritage if they are to creatively support more inclusive, democratic and malleable alternatives
Ōhau Channel diversion wall: 7-year review: Water quality review and modelling
No full textLake Rotoiti experienced significant degradation in water quality from the 1960s to the early 2000s due to nutrient-laden waters flowing from Lake Rotorua via the Ōhau Channel. To address this, an inlake diversion wall was constructed in 2007/2008 to block the influx of these nutrient-rich waters. However, during this period, water quality in Lake Rotorua also improved due to enhanced catchment management practices and alum dosing. Consequently, there is now a question of whether and to what extent the diversion wall is still necessary to prevent water quality deterioration in Lake Rotoiti, at its current Trophic Level Index (TLI) and target TLI of 3.5.
This report presents the findings and implications of a comprehensive study commissioned by the Bay of Plenty Regional Council to evaluate the impact of the Ōhau Channel diversion wall on the water quality of Lake Rotoiti, New Zealand. The study, guided by specific research questions outlined in the “Terms of Reference: Ōhau wall: 7-year review”, aimed to assess the effectiveness of the wall in improving water quality, its influence on achieving TLI targets, and its impact on the quality of the Kaituna River. Additionally, the study investigated the potential consequences of removing the diversion wall, considering the altered water residence time and its effects on bottom water dissolved oxygen (DO) levels. An assessment of the holes in the diversion wall was also carried out to understand the amount of water leaking through the wall into Lake Rotoiti.
To address the above research questions, this study consisted of three main components: 1) analysis of observed changes in water quality, 2) lake system modelling, and 3) assessment of holes in the diversion wall. Data analysis involved statistical analyses to determine differences in water quality pre- and post-wall construction. Lake system modelling included configuring a 3-D hydrodynamiconly model to assess for variation in hydrodynamics, and a coupled hydrodynamic-ecological model to assess for variation TLI with and without the wall using scenario simulations over a prolonged period (i.e., 19 years for the hydrodynamic model; 8 years for the hydrodynamic-ecological model). Assessment of wall holes involved data analysis and hydrodynamic model scenario testing to evaluate their impact on Lake Rotoiti.
The data analysis of existing water quality data for Lake Rotoiti, employing a three-step approach (in increasing levels of complexity and inference), revealed nuanced insights into the impacts of the Ōhau Channel diversion wall. While descriptive statistics (i.e., approach 1) indicated overall improvement in water quality post-wall construction in Lake Rotoiti, correlation analysis (i.e., approach 2) between water quality in Lake Rotorua and Rotoiti suggests limited statistical significance in observed differences, except for Secchi depth, indicating altered connectivity between Lake Rotorua and Rotoiti. An intervention analysis (i.e., approach 3), employing interrupted time series analysis, detected significant step changes in total nitrogen (TN), Secchi depth, and TLI post-wall construction, suggesting immediate positive effects on lake water quality persisting throughout the study period. The estimated improvements due to the diversion wall were a decrease in TN by 203 mg m-3, an increase in Secchi depth by 2.5 m, and a decrease in TLI by 0.59 units. The data analysis supports the long-held observations of the Lake Rotoiti community, who have noticed a visible improvement in water quality immediately following the construction of the diversion wall. The data analysis revealed that the diversion wall has had no significant impact on bottom water DO demand in Lake Rotoiti, as measured by volumetric hypolimnetic oxygen demand, which remained largely unchanged. Any yearto-year variations are likely attributed to changes in prevailing in-lake and meteorological conditions.
Hydrodynamic model simulations revealed that the wall was effective in reducing the accumulation of Ōhau Channel inflow in the system, increasing the fraction of Ōhau Channel inflow short-circuited down the Kaituna River and, consequently, increasing the residence time of Lake Rotoiti. In terms of accumulation of Ōhau Channel-derived water in Lake Rotoiti, the wall resulted in a substantial reduction as evidenced by an annual cumulative contribution of Ōhau Channel water to Lake Rotoiti of 22.0% without a wall in place, but 0.3% with a wall in place. Concerning the fraction of Ōhau Channel-derived water short-circuited down the Kaituna River, the wall resulted in a substantial increase, as evidenced by the proportion of Ōhau Channel water being diverted down the Kaituna River being 55.2% without a wall in place, but 99.3% with a wall in place. Regarding the residence time in Lake Rotoiti, the wall resulted in a substantial increase, i.e., a factor of 3.3, as evidenced by a residence time of 8.2 years without a wall in place, but 26.9 years with a wall in place.
Coupled hydrodynamic-ecological model simulations revealed the removal of the wall lead to a small deterioration of water quality in Lake Rotoiti, which could be mitigated with improved water quality in the Ōhau Channel inflow. The various scenario testing revealed that removal of the wall alongside a maximum TLI in Lake Rotorua of ~4.3 would likely be required to maintain the current TLI in Lake Rotoiti; however, removal of the wall alongside a maximum TLI in Lake Rotorua of ~4.0 would be required to maintain the current TLI and each of Trophic Level nitrogen, Trophic Level phosphorus, and Trophic Level chlorophyll a. Further, removal of the wall alongside even the most ambitious reduction in maximum TLI in Lake Rotorua (i.e., 3.8) would require additional water quality management in Lake Rotoiti to achieve the target TLI in Lake Rotoiti of 3.5.
The analysis of available data on the holes in the diversion wall indicates that despite a relatively small number of estimated holes in the wall, the leakage of Ōhau Channel water into Lake Rotoiti is appreciable; i.e., assuming a total of 100 holes along the length of the diversion wall, approximately 3.3% of the Ōhau Channel water was estimated to leak through the holes into Lake Rotoiti. This percentage increased to 9.8% of the Ōhau Channel water when the total number of holes was assumed to be 300. These discharge rates compare well with the hydrodynamic modelled output, where a single 1 × 100-meter hole (the finest scale hole possible within our model grid) in the Ōhau Channel diversion wall was shown to reduce the effectiveness of the wall in preventing the accumulation of Ōhau-derived water within the lake by 29.3-55.0%. However, the study's estimates are conservative and limited by the model resolution. Given uncertainties in the number of holes, the focus was on estimating water discharge rather than assessing nutrient load or water quality impacts.
Overall, the evaluation of water quality in Lake Rotoiti, including a systematic analysis of long-term datasets and detailed 3-D hydrodynamic-ecological modelling, shows that improvements in water quality in the lake were evident following the construction of the diversion wall. This study shows that the Ōhau Channel diversion wall was critical in preventing the degradation of Lake Rotoiti, but meeting the TLI target in the lake will be challenging if the removal of the wall occurs, even if TLI targets in Lake Rotorua are met
Blurring the lines: the vague boundary between mainstream and deviant internet pornography tags for at-risk viewers
No full textIllegal material is increasingly appearing on popular mainstream websites. Many commentators worry about the impact of such material on adolescents' psycho-sexual development and the potential for some legal pornography to act as a gateway to child sexual exploitation material for users of any age. In this study, we collected publicly available data from a popular legal pornography website to assess the risk of adolescent exposure to content that may hinder healthy psycho-sexual development. We analysed over 27 million customer searches involving 149 video tags from this site. Five international experts on the effects of pornography rated the tags, categorising them into five overlapping genres: mainstream, incestuous, underage, aggressive and non-consensual. They also assessed the potential risk each genre posed. Our analysis found a significant positive correlation between the harm ratings and the frequency of tags used as search terms. Additionally, eleven of the twelve tags with the highest mean risk scores involved potential underage and/or incestuous content. This study highlights a concerning relationship between the harm ratings of various pornographic genres and their popularity as search terms. While exploratory, these results emphasise the need for regulatory measures to address the presence of harmful material on mainstream websites. PRACTICE IMPACT STATEMENT: The study has practical implications for the regulation of potentially harmful pornography by legal pornography sites. The sites should (a) control the use of tags and how new tags are developed in order to prevent content creators from advertising potentially illegal material, (b) vet all content before it is uploaded for public consumption, and (c) implement screening systems to retrospectively find and eradicate all illegal or harmful content already in their collection
Exiting the closet daily: Examining the repetitive nature of minority gender and sexual identity self-disclosures.
No full textThe process of minority gender and sexual identity self-disclosure is inherently complex. The act of ‘coming out’ is often perceived as a significant, singular event; however, those with lived experiences recognise that it is an ongoing, repetitive experience influenced by varying social contexts—a concept referred to within this research as identity maintenance. Understanding this phenomenon is paramount in addressing the psychosocial realities of LGBTQIA+ people—both individually and collectively—as they navigate the decision to disclose their minority identity in a range of environments, contexts, and interactions. Specifically, this thesis seeks to illuminate the processes of identity maintenance within the context of Aotearoa New Zealand, providing a foundational understanding of the lived experiences of LGBTQIA+ individuals. To do so, five research questions were constructed, these include: 1. How do participants interpret their experiences of identity self-disclosure or non-disclosure? 2. What social factors influence the decision to self-disclose minority gender and/or sexual identity? 3. How does the repetitive nature of identity self-disclosure affect participants? 4. How does identity self-disclosure vary in different social environments? and 5. How does language shape identity self-disclosure? This research utilises Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to analyse qualitative data gathered from a cohort of 10 self-identifying LGBTQIA+ participants. By focusing on lived experiences, the research captures the psychosocial factors involved in self-disclosure practices. Participants were selected through a purposive sampling method, ensuring a range of backgrounds and identities were represented, including age, ethnicity, neurological and physical ability, and religious status. Semi-structured face-to-face interviews were conducted with each of the 10 participants, and five participants elected to complete a diary entry task following their interview. Participants described navigating their LGBTQIA+ identities across different contexts, drawing on a range of psychosocial tools in their day-to-day practice of identity maintenance. Four themes arose from the findings. Firstly, The Temporality of Identity highlighted how the LGBTQIA+ identity is experienced over time, from early identity development to the long-term, ongoing practice of identity maintenance. Secondly, The Tax of Identity theme identified how participants experienced mental, emotional, and educational taxes as a result of their LGBTQIA+ identity. Thirdly, The Ecology of Identity theme identified the ways in which participants experienced effects from distal and proximal environments on the development and embodiment of their LGBTQIA+ identities. Finally, The Language of Identity theme highlighted how participants engaged with both verbal and non-verbal forms of communication to disclose their LGBTQIA+ identity as well as the social monitoring tools they utilised in disclosure decision-making. The findings of this thesis contribute to existing discourse on LGBTQIA+ identities and form the first known literature on the identity maintenance experiences of Aotearoa’s LGBTQIA+ community. Ultimately, this research highlights the ways in which identity maintenance serves as a beneficial tool for restoring the agency of LGBTQIA+ people in choosing when, where, how, why, and to whom identity self-disclosures will be made
Violent and prosocial music: Evidence for the impact of lyrics and musical tone on aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
No full textAlthough there is a large research base on the psychological impacts of violent and prosocial visual media, there is little research addressing the impacts of violent and prosocial music, and which facets of the music have the greatest impact. Four experiments tested the impact of lyrics and/or musical tone on aggressive and prosocial behavior, and on underlying psychological processes, using purpose-built songs to avoid the effect of music-related confounds. In study one, where mildly aggressive, overtly aggressive and violent lyrics were compared to neutral lyrics, any level of lyrical aggression caused an increase in behavioral aggression, which plateaued for all three aggression conditions. Violent lyrics were better recalled than other lyrics one week later. In studies two-three no significant effects of lyrics, or of aggressive versus nonaggressive musical tone, were found on aggressive or prosocial behavior. In terms of internal states, violent lyrics increased hostility/hostile cognitions in all studies, and negatively impacted affective state in three studies. Prosocial lyrics decreased hostility/hostile cognitions in three studies, but always in tandem with another factor. Aggressive musical tone increased physiological arousal in two studies and increased negative affect in one. In study four those who listened to violent lyrics drove more aggressively on a simulated drive that included triggers for aggression. Overall, violent lyrics consistently elicited hostility/hostile cognitions and negative affect, but these did not always translate to aggressive behavior. Violent music seems more likely to elicit behavioral aggression when there are aggression triggers and a clear way to aggress. Implications are discussed
Synthesis, Structural, and Raman Investigation of Lanthanide Nitride Powders (Ln = La, Ce, Nd, Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Er, Lu)
No full textLanthanide nitride (LnN) materials have garnered significant interest in recent years due to their promising potential as heterogeneous catalysts for green ammonia synthesis under low temperature and pressure reaction conditions. Here, we report on the synthesis of an extended series of lanthanide (Ln) nitride powders (Ln = lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, samarium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, erbium, lutetium) and their structural and vibrational properties. Polycrystalline powders were fabricated using a ball milling mechanochemical process, and their structural properties were assessed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The experimental lattice constants deduced from XRD and TEM were compared with density functional theory-based calculated lattice constants using the Perdew–Burke–Ernzerhof exchange-correlation functional. We show that the calculated lattice constants are within 1–1.5% of the experimental values for the majority of the LnN species─a notable increase in accuracy over prior computational approaches. The frequencies of Raman scattering from the LO(Γ) phonon are reported across the series and compare well with published thin-film data on a smaller selection of the series. As expected, there is a linear relationship between the LO(Γ) phonon frequency and atomic number. Finally, we demonstrate that Raman spectroscopy can be used to detect the presence of a nanoscale oxide layer on the surface of ErN powders
Essays on climate-smart agriculture (CSA) technologies, youth involvement in agricultural activities, and agricultural finance
No full textThe thesis presents four essays addressing key issues in smallholder agriculture in Tanzania,
such as CSA technologies, youth involvement in farming, and agricultural finance. The thesis
examines the effects of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) adoption on crop productivity and
income. The thesis addresses the impact of climate change to enhance farm performance and
improve farmers’ resilience. Also, the thesis analyzes youth engagement in agriculture. Under
this theme, the thesis seeks to understand how we can attract and keep youths in the agricultural
sector as a response to alarming youth unemployment. Further, the thesis examines agricultural
finance constraints and their impacts on farm performance. Access to agricultural finance by
farmers is ideal for poor farm resource farmers to improve farm input usage and resilience.
Chapter 1 consists of the introductory part. Chapter 2 investigates the impacts of CSA on crop
productivity and income using nationally representative data that sampled 1862 smallholder
household farmers who cultivate less than 2 hectares. The chapter reports that smallholder
farmers who practice CSA augment crop productivity per acre and income more than nonadopters.
Interestingly, non-adopters, had they adopted, would have remarkably gained in both.
The results survived robust checks and remained consistent. We used the endogenous switching
regression (ESR) model, instrument variables, and other control variables to address the
endogeneity and selection bias issues. The propensity score matching (PSM) is adopted for
comparison and for a consistency check of the results. At least the results are consistent in both
models. The implication of the findings is that plausible programs, promotions, campaigns, or
policy support initiatives for scaling up CSA adoption have a significant contribution to food
security and poverty reduction through increased crop productivity and income augmentation.
Chapter 3 contains two research papers. The first paper investigates youth involvement in
agricultural activities, using a sample of 6419 Tanzanian youths aged 15-35 years old. The paper
highlights the critical problems and challenges faced by youth in the agricultural sector. Further,
the paper elucidates the crucial drivers of youth’s full involvement in agriculture. The
statistically significant drivers include access to and usage of farm machines (e.g., tractors),
irrigation facilities, land ownership, presence of agro-product processing, profits, access to
agricultural credit, youth membership in the farmers’ cooperatives and organizations, access to
and use of extension services, use of information source channels to access agricultural
information, and distance to the nearest market. At the same time, off-farm income, general
education, and age reduce the propensity of youth’s involvement in agriculture. A series of
robust checks were performed to ensure that the assumptions of the ordered logit model are met
to ensure unbiased and consistent results. The second paper examines the impact of youths’
intensive participation in agriculture on farm performance. We used nationally representative
cross-sectional data of 3399 small youth farmers in Tanzania. We employed a doubly robust
IPWRA estimator, and we compared these empirical results with the results from ESR and PSM
models. The results remain statistically and quantitatively consistent in all models: that youth
intensive involvement in agriculture significantly impacts maize yields, net returns, and returns
on investment (ROI). Overall, both papers propose policy actions, academic interventions, and
parental interventions to promote and retain many youths in agriculture.
Finally, chapter 4 contains one paper that used a sample of 1042 smallholder farmers. The paper
examines the significant obstacles to agricultural financing that both the demand and supply
sides of agricultural credit encounter. Further, the paper demonstrates the impact of agricultural
finance on farm performance for credit-constrained smallholder farmers. We applied the ESR
model to address the endogeneity problem and selection bias. Furthermore, PSM was used to
compare the results of the ESR model. The results in both models are consistent that credit
access augments smallholder farmers’ crop productivity. Interestingly, farmers without credit
counterfactual would increase their crop production if they were assumed to be credit
unconstrained. The findings carry important policy implications in favour of smallholder
farmers’ credit access
Scientific Investigation of the Calf Raise Test Using the Calf Raise Mobile Application to Inform Test Administration and Interpretation
Get PDFThe Calf Raise Test (CRT) is a widely used functional assessment of triceps surae muscle-tendon unit function. While it exhibits acceptable reliability, administration inconsistencies and test parameter variations likely contribute to observed normative value discrepancies in the literature. Additionally, devices employed in research for standardisation and quantification of outcomes beyond the number of repetitions are often inaccessible in clinics. This Thesis addresses these gaps by conducting an evidence-based assessment of the CRT and examining how changes in test parameters affect outcomes. The overarching aims of this Thesis were to: (1) develop a valid and reliable method to assess the CRT in clinical practice that provides research-grade outcomes, and (2) examine the influence of changing CRT parameters on outcomes and triceps surae muscle function. To achieve these overarching aims, two literature reviews and three experimental studies were conducted.
The first literature review, aligned with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, provides an overview of CRT devices used in research. Thirty-five studies were included, identifying seven CRT devices. The linear encoder emerged as the most used, quantifying all three main CRT outcomes (repetitions, peak height, and total work). However, its limited clinical use is attributed to hardware costs and need for programming skills.
Chapter 3 introduces the Calf Raise application (CRapp), a smartphone application designed to aid standardise CRT procedures and automate outcomes. Thirteen individuals underwent single-leg CRT on both legs across three occasions. CRapp outcomes (i.e., repetitions, total work, total height, peak height, fatigue index, and peak power) were validated against 3D motion capture and force plate data, demonstrating excellent concurrent validity and agreement levels. The CRapp proved valid, reliable, and suitable for both research and clinical practice.
Chapter 4 explores the impact of varying ankle starting positions on CRT outcomes in 49 healthy individuals, accounting for gender, age, body mass index (BMI), and physical activity levels. Participants performed single-leg CRT in three randomised conditions on three occasions: flat (0°), incline (10° dorsiflexion), and step (full dorsiflexion). Analysis of CRapp data indicate significant effects of ankle starting position on all CRT outcomes, emphasising the importance of ankle start position for CRT administration and interpreting test outcomes.
Chapter 5 investigates the effects of varying cadence on CRT outcomes in 36 healthy individuals, considering gender, age, BMI, and physical activity levels. Participants performed single-leg CRT in three randomised conditions on three occasions: 30, 60, and 120 beats per minute. Significant cadence effects were observed on CRapp outcomes, hence this study confirmed that cadence does matter when administering the CRT and interpreting its outcomes.
Chapter 6, a systematic review following PRISMA guidelines, examines changes in standing CRT parameters on triceps surae surface electromyography (EMG) activity and fatigue measures. Seven studies were included, indicating increased activity in medial gastrocnemius increased with feet externally rotated, knees straight, and added load; lateral gastrocnemius with feet internally rotated, knees straight, and added load; and soleus with knees bent, whole-body vibration, and added load. These findings can inform evidence-based practices, though further training studies are recommended.
Overall, this Thesis introduces the CRapp, an innovative, valid, and reliable method of quantifying key CRT outcomes. Also, this Thesis provides a better understanding of the influence of varying CRT parameters on outcomes. The evidence-base generated from this Thesis may be used to inform best practice use and interpretation of the CRT and guide future research