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Women and men of a certain age : the gender dimension of ageism in paid employment
No full textOnce a Cinderella subject, the employment of people aged 50 and above (often referred to in the literature as 'older workers') has become an issue of major prominence in recent years. This is no more evident than in the passage of the Age Regulations (October 2006) and with it, New Labour's pledge to encourage age diversity in the workplace. Older people are thus being encouraged to re-enter the labour market through schemes such as the New Deal 50 plus and Pathways to Work or to take up volunteering under the rubric of 'active citizenship'. There is now a variety ofways in which people approaching later life would, on the face ofit, be able to access work, education and training opportunIties. However, past research and current data suggest that there are number ofbarriers to the take up ofsuch opportunities. For instance, research has shown that older workers receive lower performance ratings than their younger counterparts (Saks and Waldman, 1998). The suggestion here is that .negative stereotypes regarding an individual's chronological age may over ride employers' appraisal oftheir older workers. Ageism has been cited as the main barrier to employability and occupational progression for the majority of older workers. Past research in this field has highlighted the discriminatory power of economic myths and stereotypes concerning the work ability of older age groups (for example Taylor and Walker, 1998). The picture to emerge is that older workers are perceived by employers to be less productive, harder to train, and more expensive and difficult to manage than younger workers. It is therefore hoped that policy intervention will have the long term effect of supporting older age groups who have consistently been undervalued and often discarded by employers for simply being 'too old'. Laudable aims, but are employers ready to listen? Moreover are older people (and society at large) ready to refuse to conform to or accept negative images oftheir age group? This research considers the nature and salience of ageism in the UK labour market. It also asks whether ageism alone is enough to explain the extent of the discrimination experienced by older wQmen and men. It looks at these issues through the eyes ofolder people themselves and the organisations that impact upon their lives in an effort to understand the barriers they face in the realm ofwork and employment. Qualitative and quantitative evidence is presented from older individuals and employers across the UK. Analysis of the data supports the existence of ageism in the workplace. It also reveals a gender dimension to the ageism experienced, which works to the detriment of older women and, in a qualitatively different way, older men as well. Yet self-reported examples of ageism were often more implicit than explicit, based around wider cultural stereotypes about people of a certain age. These findings are, of course, in accordance with much related past theory and research. Yet in contrast to previous work, consideration is also given to the part played by individual difference and to broader societal and psychological influences (i.e. life satisfaction). Such an approach indicates that older peoples' experiences of employment are more complex than previously assumed. For example, individuals' experiences of gender and age discrimination are not static, nor isolated from wider personal, historical and social contexts in which they had grown up and grown older. It is therefore argued that the study ofageism should be broadened out and linked to a variety offactors that concern how we as individuals and a society view old age
An experimental study and finite analysis of punching shear failure in steel fibre-reinforced concrete ground -suspended floor slabs
Get PDFThe present research is concerned with investigating the structural effect of using steel fibre-reinforcement on the punching shear behaviour of ground-suspended slabs with internal columns. The main objectives of this research were to develop a constitutive model for steel fibre-reinforcement (SFRC), to study experimentally the punching shear behaviour of SFRC with no longitudinal reinforcement and to develop a finite element model that can accurately predict the behaviour of SFRC slabs subjected to punching shear. In this respect, a literature review of the work undertaken by previous researchers on punching shear behaviour of concrete slabs is presented. After that, a constitutive model for SFRC was developed. This is followed by a preliminary finite element analysis (FEA) and experimental study of SFRC slabs. Finally, a finite element model was developed. The literature review revealed that little work has been carried out to study the effect of fibre-reinforcement on the punching shear capacity of concrete slabs. Furthermore, structures, hence a thorough investigation in this area was mandatory. A constitutive model for SFRC in post-cracking stage was developed. This enables one to estimate the tension stiffening behaviour of SFRC based on a simple beam bending test and a statistical model developed in this research, this constitutive model was used later on in the modelling of the SFRC slabs using FEA. In the preliminary FEA, sufficient information for the size and the design of test specimens that were used in the experimental programme was produced. In the experimental study, eight steel fibre-reinforced concrete slab-column connection specimens were tested. The variables of the test specimens include the concrete compressive strength, fibre dosage and fibre aspect-ration
An Evaluation of the Chemotaxonomy of Lignosus Rhinocerus
No full textChemotaxonomy is the classification of plants and microorganisms based on similarities and differences in their natural products and the biochemical pathways involved in their manufacture. The classification and identification of L rhinocerus, a medicinal fungus, for this research was based on secondary metabolites profiles by using chemical analysis that provides more objective and comparable results than traditional descriptions. Furthermore, chemical differentiation products could also be expected to be species-specific which is valuable for assessing the authenticity and quality of THMP containing this fungus. The aims of this research program were directed towards the characterization of key metabolites of the fungus by evaluating the identified metabolites structure that has significance pharmacological or toxicological impact and chemotaxonomic profiling. This research required to develop appropriate extraction techniques to fractionate biochemical compounds of L rhinocerus, to carry out qualitative and quantitative analyses (TLC, IR, UV, HPLC, LC-MS, GC-MS and NMR) of identified compounds and to establish robust quantitative techniques that may be applied in the routine quality assessment of samples of the fungal material. The best method of extraction was by using methanol-Et20 (1:1 v/v) in the presence of NaOH solution. Two identified compounds, ergosterol (0.39 mg/g) and ergone (0.03 mg/g) were isolated from flash chromatographic technique. The robustness of qualitative and quantitative analyses was demonstrated with good data of linearity (r, 0.9990) and %RSD value of precision and accuracy were less than 5.0%. Phenolic acid compounds were also detected and its total content (23.15~glg) was detennined by Folin-Ciocalteu method. Both classification of fungal sterols and PACs of L. rhinocerus were established using the optimum HPLC (chromatographic fingerprint) that may be applied in the routine quality assessment of samples of the fungal material. The main pharmacological effects of these compounds were anti-oxidant and anti-tumor effects. Consequently, overall aims and objectives of this research have been achieved
A comparative study of gender-based linguistic reform across four european countries
No full textThe overall aim of this investigation is to identify the strategies adopted for the implementation of gender-based linguistic reform in four European countries (France, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom). In addressing this aim, firstly the study explores the recommendations to eliminate discrimination of women and men from language at supranational level in order to determine whether international recommendations have influenced legislation in the four countries. Secondly, the recommendations on non-sexist language in each national context have been reviewed taking into account the structural features of each language. The study shows the diverse linguistic resources that each of the four language systems has in order to achieve non-discriminatory language and identifies the key recommendations as well as the main promoters of gender-based linguistic reform in each country. The study has found that in all four countries a significant number of measures designed to combat linguistic sexism have been introduced. The investigation also' aims at providing evidence of the adoption of guidelines for the avoidance of sexist language as well as the stages of implementation in each country. To this end, a linguistic analysis of job offers in the four languages has been carried out. This longitudinal study has helped to identify patterns of language usage across the four socia-linguistic settings as well as the preferred strategy in each language. The main finding is that, although there is no consistent strategy regarding the feminisation of occupational nomenclature in the four languages, the common intention has been to make the language of communication gender-inclusive. The study offers a contribution to the existing work in the area of cross-cultural research. Furthermore, the review of similarities and differences between the recommendations for non-sexist language and their implementation in four linguistic settings aims to provide a framework for further research and practical application which can be drawn from the linguistic analysis of naturally occurring data
Social cognition in epilepsy
Get PDFSome of the psychological problems associated with epilepsy have their origins in the ability of people with epilepsy (PWE) to engage in meaningful and appropriate social interactions. PWE often report difficulties in social settings, yet there is a paucity of research investigating the socio-cognitive skills of this group. This thesis aimed to investigate these skills and relate them to the patient's perceived impact of epilepsy on their social competence. An additional objective was to see whether studying social cognition in focal epilepsy might provide some insight into the organic basis of social cognitive abilities in the normal population. The thesis consists of four separate studies which aimed to investigate social cognition and social functioning in patients with focal epilepsy. With this in mind, a test battery assessing a range of skills linked to social cognition was administered to a cross section of experimental groups (N=95). These included patients with seizure foci in the right frontal lobe (RF), left frontal lobe (LF), right temporal lobe (RT), left temporal lobe (LT) and a group with idiopathic generalised epilepsy (IGE). A normal control group (NC) and a frontal head injured (FHI) group with no epilepsy were also recruited for the study. In Studies 1 and 2 theory of mind (ToM) deficits were apparent in people with RF and LT epilepsy. These groups demonstrated impairment in the appreciation of false belief and deception at first and second order levels of intentionality. They also exhibited deficits in the appreciation of pragmatic language when attempting to infer the meaning underlying hints given by story characters. These impairments were in part attributable to deficits in narrative memory in the LT group. In Study 3 embedding problems within a social context significantly facilitated conditional reasoning in the NC, LT and RF groups but not in the other experimental groups. This finding was unexpected and suggests a double dissociation between ToM and social conditional reasoning. Study 4 investigated the extent to which socio-cognitive impairment was associated with the perceived impact of epilepsy on everyday social functioning. No statistically significant relationship between these variables was found, although a significant negative correlation between education level and impact of epilepsy was observed. Taken together the findings suggest that impairment in ToM may be a particular feature of right frontal lobe pathology and that social conditional reasoning and ToM may be functionally dissociated. PWE do not appear to have insight into their social functioning difficulties, which may well reflect underlying pathology. In light of this, future research should obtain objective measures of social competence from `significant others'. This is the only series of studies to date to assess social cognition in people with frontal lobe epilepsy (FLE) and temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) within the same design. It is also the first time that social conditional reasoning in epilepsy has been systematically assessed and represents one of the largest lesion studies within the field of social cognition. It is hoped that some of the test material used in the thesis, may prove to be a useful and inexpensive clinical resource to help identify PWE who are at risk of reduced social competence, and in localising the site of seizure foci in patients during clinical audit, particularly where anterior foci are suspected
Human Reliability assessment in oil tanker operations
No full textThis research is carried out to improve Human Reliability Analysis (HRA) in oil tanker operations in general, to extend and enhance in specific Cognitive Reliability and Error Analysis Method (CREAM), with the aim of reducing human error and thus subsequently preventing oil tanker spills. It is concentrated on oil tanker operations to address the limitation of availability of human reliability data in the maritime domain. The continual occurrence of oil tanker spills, which was substantiated with analysis of historical data of oil tanker incidents/accidents from 1970 to 2008, provides a judicious reason to conduct this research. The critical review of Formal Safety Assessment (FSA) and HRA results in the development of a conceptual framework of HRA facilitating FSA and incorporating Human Organisational Factors (HOF), which addresses the shortcomings of the generic HRA and FSA methodologies that exist independently in the management of oil tankers to prevent oil spills. The CREAM is reviewed due to its prominent use in identifying the root causes of human error. However, its inability of providing solutions to an incident/accident investigation and robust quantification of human reliability features stimulates the development of an advanced CREAM and a human reliability quantification model using a combined Analytic Hierarchical Process (AHP) and fuzzy logic approach in this research. In addition to facilitating identification of the root causes of human error, the advanced CREAM also provides the solutions to a quantification model, which enables the development of HRA data in the maritime domain. Furthermore, lack of CREAM studies on relationships among Common Performance Conditions (CPCs) is addressed by proposing a Decision Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL) model, which allows for a comprehensive understanding of relationships and interdependencies among the CPCs. The model could also be used toappreciate and assimilate the relationships and interdependencies among human factor variables involved in other transportation systems and industrial fields. Finally, the research is concluded with an integrated AHP and fuzzy Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to the Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) model for determining the selection of an appropriate risk control option (RCO) while performing an incident/accident investigation by taking subjective judgments of decision makers into consideration. This research as a pioneer work in developing and applying advanced techniques to improve the generic CREAM in oil tanker operations establishes a foundation for future effort to improve the use of CREAM in other industries. The techniques developed can also be tailored to investigate and deal with an incident/accident effectively, resulting in the reduction of human error within the system management of any organisatio
The development of the "PE product" : Physicallly educated and physically active individuals
No full textThe promotion of physical activity. is a public health priority, and school Physical Education (PE) has been highlighted as an influential setting that can engage young people in physical activity. PE has a number of aims which include striving to produce physically educated and active youth (i. e., the 'PE product'), which can be described in terms of young people who engage in recommended levels of habitual physical activity, and who have competent levels of physical activity ability, knowledge, and understanding. The overall aim of this thesis was therefore to establish how PE influences the outcomes representing the `PE product. ' Key objectives were to: a) develop and test a scale to assess students' Perceived PE Worth and Perceived PE Ability, to explore how these two constructs are related, and to investigate age and sex differences (Study 1); b) investigate which secondary school PE factors most strongly correlate with outcomes representing the 'PE product, ' (Study 2) and; c) qualitatively explore the views of PE students to help understand the development of physically educated and active young people, and clarify the results from the second study (Study 3). Study 1 developed and tested the Physical Education Predisposition Scale (PEPS). Predisposing items including perceptions of competence, self-efficacy, enjoyment and attitude in relation to PE were incorporated into the PEPS. Initially Year 8 and 9 students from four schools in the North West of England were invited to participate. Three hundred and fifteen completed PEPS were returned, students then completed the PEPS 14 days later to enable the assessment of test-retest reliability. The PEPS included 11 of the original items,six Perceived PE Worth items and five Perceived PE Ability items and demonstrated an acceptable level of internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Consequently, the PEPS has potential as a concise and straightforward measurement tool for teachers and researchers to use in the PE setting. Results demonstrated that there was a strong positive association between Perceived PE Worth and Perceived PE Ability (r = 0.69). Furthermore, boys reported significantly higher values on both variables, than girls, and Year 8 students scored significantly higher than their Year 9 counterparts. Within Study 2,146 schools were initially invited to participate in the study and the Heads of each PE department were sent a PE environment audit. The response rate was 27.4%, with 17 schools demonstrating a willingness to take further part in the research. The main outcome variables from the PE environment audit were then used as the basis of school selection, with-three schools being chosen. All Year 8 and 9 students from these schools were invited to participate in the research; the response rate was 28.9% (90 boys, 209 girls). Predictor variables representing predisposing (e. g., Perceived PE Worth and PE Ability), enabling (school PE environment), and personal demographic factors (e. g., socio-economic status), as described in Welk's (1999) Youth Physical Activity Promotion Model (YPAPM) were measured. Outcome variables involved physical activity (assessed by accelerometry and the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children), knowledge and understanding of health-related exercise, and PE ability (teachers' ratings). A number of factors including, sex, year group, BMI, deprivation score, Perceived PE Ability, Perceived PE Worth, number of students on roll, and number of indoor spaces, most strongly correlated with outcomes relating to the 'PE product. ' The final study involved a sub-sample of students from Study 2. These were selected to take part in focus group interviews based on their teachers' normative ratings of their PE ability. Focus groups topics were developed based on Welk's (1999) YPAPM and results from Study 2. The detailed focus group data suggest that girls' negative perception's of PE Worth and PE Ability, learned helplessness beliefs, sex issues in PE, and perceived barriers to physical activity, may partly explain the observed sex differences in physical activity. The students highlighted numerous sources of Perceived PE Ability and PE Worth that could also potentially clarify the relationship between perceptions of competence, enjoyment and physical activity. The enhanced Health Related Exercise (HRE) messages from female PE teachers may account for girls' superior knowledge and understanding of HRE and students who perceive PE to be fun and enjoyable may be positively engaged and more motivated to learn and exert effort. Finally, both students' perceptions of progression in PE over time and PE teachers' positive feedback clarifies why teachers' rating of their students improves with increasing year group. The overall findings of this thesis suggest that PE teachers should provide students with enjoyable, successful experiences, positive feedback, choice and as much variety as is feasible. In addition, a classroom climate that fosters learning and improvement, rather than competition and winning is required. This study highlighted the need for interventions targeting girls and their perceptions of barriers to physical activity. Finally, a number of physical activity issues and themes were raised in this study, and reinforcing variables of parents, family and peers were highlighted as central to the students' physical activity interests and participation (Welk, 1999). Therefore, future work is needed to unravel the complex interrelationships of reinforcing factors on students' thoughts and feelings on school PE
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