BLResearchDay (LJMU)
Not a member yet
77 research outputs found
Sort by
Economic and Social Rights and Liberal Democracy: Challenging the symbiotic relationship
Full text linkDominant approaches to human rights law, especially where economic and social rights are concerned, have not been effective. In light of the overlapping crises facing the world today in the form of environmental damage, geopolitical instability, pandemics, and the like, there may be ample opportunity to rethink the theoretical justifications for human rights and their expression in law. Failing to ground human rights law theoretically risks abandoning its rhetoric to those who may seek to use it for other purposes. Today, rights seem at risk of being emptied of their content and engulfed in geopolitics and therefore confined to use as a stick with which to beat unfriendly nation-states. There may also be an opportunity to rethink liberal democracy, which is often suggested to enjoy a symbiotic, ‘mutually-reinforcing’ relationship[1] with human rights.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights[2], passed by the United Nations in 1948 after the second World War, contained broad references to a wide range of human rights, but since then, human rights have been divided into two categories or ‘generations’: civil and political rights (first generation rights) and economic and social rights (second generation rights)[3]. The distinction has not been merely ornamental: economic and social rights are widely recognised as lesser human rights[4], and they have mostly not been implemented in domestic jurisdictions as legal rights, especially in comparison with civil and political rights[5].
Liberal democracy has (arguably) crystalised into a norm of international law, a theory advanced by Thomas Franck in 1992[6]. Liberal democracy has spread across the world, especially after the collapse of the Soviet Union, in a time period referred to by Francis Fukuyama as the ‘End of History’[7], a time in which all arguments over political and economic systems were thought to have been resolved in favour of liberal democracy and capitalism. Liberal democracy supposedly will lead to human rights to be respected and fulfilled due to democracy’s enhancement of society[8], with democracy itself striking a balance between economic & social and civil & political rights[9]. This is a highly dubious idea, especially where economic and social rights are concerned[10], largely due to the abstraction of liberal democracy from its historically contingent relationship with capitalism, which has also spread across the world. The development of capitalism, especially the establishment of private property, has created a distinction between the public sphere of the State and the private sphere of civil society[11]. As democracy tends to remain confined to the public sphere, this means that the private sphere, where economic exchange takes place, remains mostly untouched by democratic pressure.
Human rights enjoy a complicated relationship with the State. On the one hand, the tension within liberalism between individual liberty[12] and society[13] a tension that manifests in liberal democratic theory as one between the collective common good and individual liberty[14], leads to an overly negative view of the State that matches the negativity of civil and political rights but not the action required to fulfil economic and social rights. On the other hand, insufficient theorisation about the State’s historical development and ‘relative’ autonomy can lead to the mistaken belief that it is an independent ‘subject’ that is capable of acting like a referee between sections of society or a passive ‘thing’ that can easily be wielded to achieve a certain goal[15]. A more nuanced conception of the State clarifies that whilst it remains a powerful actor, it also faces significant constrains based upon conflict between social classes and the independent, private power of capital. This also has democratic implications: elections are fought over control of the State, and the idea of change being accomplished at the ballot box is premised upon the idea that the State can be wielded for progressive change. This may not be the case.
At the international level, as mentioned, democracy has become widespread across the world, supported by international law, but this has not led to a global environment more conducive to economic and social human rights. This is due to changes to the structures of capitalism, attributed to globalisation but better known as ‘neoliberalism’, that have reduced the scope of economic sovereignty. This included the increased mobility of transnational capital[16], the use of global governance institutions by powerful Western countries (like the US) to force economic policies upon countries in the Global South[17], and a ‘judicialisation’ of the global economy[18] in order to entrench and protect private property internationally. All of these changes were backstopped by the United States’ immense military power[19].
Liberal democracy also serves as the legal order around which dominant conceptions of human rights have been developed. The UDHR[20], the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights[21] and the European Social Charter[22] all instruct States to implement rights into domestic law, which, as mentioned, States have been reluctant to do. However, even if this were not the case, there would be significant challenges to fulfilling economic and social rights in liberal democratic capitalist society. First, the social power of capital, which is dominant if not totalising in such societies[23] tends to push all economic activity towards the production of profit, which has an uncomfortable relationship with universal economic and social rights. Second, the individual liberty at the heart of liberal democracy, which has an economic counterpart in private property, has shaped the development of law in liberal societies: it tends to treat individuals as abstract, formally equal subjects[24]. This leaves the law unable to reckon with underlying economic inequalities that give rise to the need for economic and social rights.
Therefore, a challenge must be issued to idea that there is necessarily a supportive, symbiotic relationship between democracy and human rights. Human rights, especially economic and social rights, must be re-examined, clarifying that these rights are wrongly seen as subordinate to civil and political rights. Liberal democracy should also be reassessed: its status as the world’s dominant governmental and social system is problematic due to its limits and drawbacks, all of which are constituent parts of liberal democracy itself. The way that the international legal and economic order has developed into one that is unfriendly to both human rights and democracy, especially over the past four decades, must be highlighted. Finally, the inadequacy of current legal approaches must be interrogated for the purposes of advancing alternatives.
[1] Scott Leckie and Anne Gallagher (eds), Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights : A Legal Resource Guide (University of Pennsylvania Press 2006), 410
[2] Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948 UNGA Res 217 A(III)) (UDHR)
[3] Karel Vasak, ‘A 30-year struggle: The sustained efforts to give force of law to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights’ (1977) 11 UNESCO Courier 29, 29
[4] Henry J Steiner, Philip Alston, and Ryan Goodman, International Human Rights in Context (3rd edition, Oxford University Press 2008), 263-264
[5] Wade M. Cole, \u27Strong Walk and Cheap Talk: The Effect of the International Covenant of Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights on Policies and Practices\u27 (2013) 92(1) Social Forces 165, 182
[6] Thomas M Franck, \u27The Emerging Right to Democratic Government\u27 (1992) 86(1) American Journal of International Law 46
[7] Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (Hamish Hamilton 1992)
[8] Amartya Sen, \u27Democracy as a Universal Value\u27 (1999) 10(3) Journal of Democracy 3, 10-11
[9] Jack Donnelly, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice (Cambridge University Press 2013), 233
[10] Tony Evans, \u27If democracy, then human rights?\u27 (2001) 22(4) Third World Quarterly 623, 639-640
[11] Simon Clarke, Keynesianism, Monetarism, and the Crisis of the State (Edward Elgar Publishing 1988), 125
[12] John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (originally published 1859, Penguin Books 1976), 68
[13] John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (originally published 1859, Penguin Books 1976), 62-63
[14] Tony Evans, \u27If democracy, then human rights?\u27 (2001) 22(4) Third World Quarterly 623, 625
[15] Nicos Poulantzas, ‘The Capitalist State: A Reply to Miliband and Laclau’ (1976) 95 New Left Review 63, 74
[16] David Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism (Oxford University Press 2007), 92
[17] Naomi Klein, The Shock Doctrine (Penguin 2007), 163-164
[18] Andrew TF Lang, ‘World Trade Law After Neo-Liberalism’ (2014) 23(3) Social & Legal Studies 408, 417
[19] David Harvey, ‘The \u27New\u27 Imperialism: Accumulation by Dispossession’ (2004) 40 Socialist Register 63, 72
[20] Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948 UNGA Res 217 A(III), article 8
[21] International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 3 January 1976) 999 UNTS 171, Article 2(1)
[22] Council of Europe, European Social Charter, 18 October 1961, ETS 35, article I 1(a)
[23] Karl Marx, Capital (first published 1867, International Publishers 1974), 515
[24] Evgeny Bronislavovich Pashukanis, The General Theory of Law & Marxism (first published 1924, Transaction Publishers 2003), 11
Right to health, securitisation of migration and standards of immigration detention in South Africa and Australia.
Full text linkBackground. Tens of thousands of people are detained globally for reasons related to their immigration status.[1] Some states view immigration detention as a mechanism deterring irregular migrants seeking refuge or attempting an application for asylum, and respond by routinely, rather than exceptionally, detaining them,[2] ignoring the broad recognition that immigration detention is inherently harmful to the health and general well-being of those detained.[1] This transnational doctoral research concerns the comparative socio-legal assessment of the right to health and humane standards of detention of immigration detainees in two countries which experience an influx of migrants, refugees and asylum seekers; one classed as an upper middle-class country on the Development Assistance Committee List of Official Development Assistance Recipients (South Africa) and the other classed as highly developed (Australia).[3] It further aims to investigate the extent to which these two vastly different jurisdictions uphold the rule of law in the context of international human rights law pertaining to the right to health and standards of immigration detention, and the relative efficacy of international human rights instruments to hold offending jurisdictions accountable.
Focus, aim and approach. The study is broadly balanced against South African and Australian immigration detention regulations, through an international human rights law lens whilst considering the actual conditions and treatment of immigrant detainees, with an explicit focus on the right to health. A pragmatist account based on a triangulated (across methods and sources) ‘rule of law’ lens will be created, examining the extent to which South Africa and Australia comply with minimum State obligations to respect human rights norms as it relates to right to health (including access to medical care) and provision of normative standards of immigration detention. The generated narrative will be cognizant of the changing contextual forces of migration into South Africa and Australia, securitization agendas and violations of basic human rights and due process, and additionally, will illustrate various gaps in due process, policy and practice in the application of domestic laws, policies and standards of care. It will also highlight various routes to strategic public litigation, advocacy channels and reforms. The study will garner insights into the most effective means of advocating for change, achieving reforms, informing policies, protocols and detention standard operating procedures, ultimately advancing the rights of those in immigration detention.
Country narratives. South Africa has long been an important destination for migrants from its neighbouring countries and Asia.[4] Migration and cross border movements are increasingly viewed politically and societally using a ‘lens of national security, social instability, and criminality’[5], with rising anti-immigrant sentiment amongst citizens.[6] Despite South Africa’s domestic legislation providing for specific conditions in detention, observers have regularly raised concerns regarding violations of these provisions including overcrowding, inadequate access to health care services, poor nutrition, and the detention of migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers alongside those on remand or sentenced.[7] Excessive use of force by authorities and limited access to legal representation have repeatedly been noted.[7]
In contrast, Australia experiences migration from as far as Sudan, Afghanistan and Iraq,[8] despite its geographical isolation.[9] It is also experiencing increased anti-immigrant sentiment and securitisation agendas,[10] and maintains an immigration detention system which is infamous for being punitive and arbitrary, with a policy of mandatory, indefinite detention and no judicial review of decisions to detain.[9] The lack of consideration of necessity, reasonableness, proportionality and review of a person’s individual needs and vulnerabilities results in detention of vulnerable groups e.g. children and survivors of torture and trauma. There are few normative regulations in place regarding the provision of healthcare, or other special arrangements for vulnerable groups in places of immigration detention, and no measures to reduce the length of detention for vulnerable persons and persons with disabilities.[9]
Preliminary results. Both South Africa’s and Australia’s immigration policies and detention sites, including police cells, proposed border camps [6] and offshore immigration detention facilities [9] have been sharply criticised by various international human rights bodies (e.g. (UN)CESCR, (UN)CAT, UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention). Various international human rights bodies condemned South Africa’s immigration policies and detention sites, inter alia privately operated Lindela Repatriation Centre, police cells and prisons.[4, 6, 7] Conditions are not fit for purpose and continue to fall short of the minimum standards of care.[4] No routine immigration detention surveillance exists in South Africa, and despite having ratified the Optional Protocol to the UN Convention Against Torture (OP-CAT), it is still to implement necessary legislative measures for setting up a National Preventive Mechanism (NPM) (a critical detention monitoring body) to regularly examine closed settings. In comparison, Australia brings together a variety of extreme immigration policies in its immigration detention regime, provides them blanket legal cover and aggressively defends them in the wake of international critique.[9] Refugees are arbitrarily detained in inhumane conditions, lack adequate health care, and experience severe pain and suffering that rises to the level of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or torture.[11] As of January 2022, Australia had failed to establish an NPM in each of its territories as required by the OP-CAT, which it ratified in 2017, with the UN’s Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture cancelling their oversight visit to Australia in 2023 due to them being refused entry into some detention centres.[9, 11]
Contribution and implication. No known study has been conducted in the area of dissecting and analysing these two African- and Asia-Pacific immigration detention systems and standards of detention, triangulated against the three levels of State obligations i.e., respect, protect and fulfil.[12] The work will likely contribute strongly to sensitization around the rights of immigration detainees and is intended to contribute to immigration detention reforms in both countries through publications, sharing of evidence with respective governments, country level NPMs under the OP-CAT protocol, and humanitarian and human rights advocacy organisations operating in the respective countries.
Conclusion. A country’s socio-economic status is not determinant of immigration detention conditions and State parties’ ability / willingness to ‘respect, protect and fulfil’ immigration detainees’ health (and basic human) rights. In the context of right to health and immigration detention, both countries may be in breach of international human rights law, and both Australia and South Africa need policy and legislative reform, as well as the political will to effect implementation. The study will progress to include qualitative data collection (in-depth interviews) and analysis of stakeholders’ socio-cultural understanding of migration forces into South Africa and Australia, gaps in laws, policies, due process and rights assurances, standards of care (including access to and quality of healthcare) and the health profile of people in immigration detention. If possible, a convenience sample of former immigration detainees are to be interviewed about their experiences of immigration detention and their health. This socio- legal assessment will subsequently triangulate and evaluate the indeterminate nature of South African and Australian immigration and refugee regulations, policies and operating procedures in relation to human rights, obligations of the State to uphold the right to health of immigration detainees and normative standards of detention.
References.[1] Global Detention Project (2022) Annual Report: Building Partnerships, Harnessing Data, EndingArbitrary Immigration Detention [online] Available at: https://www.globaldetentionproject.org/2022-annual-report-building-partnerships-harnessing-data-ending-arbitrary-immigration-detention [Accessed: 18 August 2023][2] United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2014) 2014-2019 Beyond Detention - A GlobalStrategy to support governments to end the detention of asylum-seekers and refugees [online]Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/media/beyond-detention-global-strategy-support-governmentsend-detention-asylum-seekers-and [Accessed 18: October 2023][3] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2023) DAC List of ODA Recipients |Effective for reporting on 2022 and 2023 flows [online] Available at DAC-List-of-ODA-Recipients-for-reporting-2022-23-flows.pdf (oecd.org) [Accessed: 02 November 2023][4] Van Hout, M.C. & Wessels, J. (2023) #ForeignersMustGo versus “in favorem libertatis”: Humanrights violations and procedural irregularities in South African immigration detention law. Journal ofHuman Rights [online] Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/14754835.2023.2170709 [Accessed: 24April 2023].[5] Ncube, M. (2017) South Africa Steps up Deportation of Asylum Seekers. News Deeply [online]Available at: https://www.newsdeeply.com/refugees/articles/2017/10/17/south-africa-stepsupdeportation-of-asylum-seekers [Accessed: 29 August 2022].[6] Global Detention Project (2021). Immigration Detention in South Africa: Stricter Control ofAdministrative Detention, Increasing Criminal Enforcement of Migration [online] Available at:www.globaldetentionproject.org/immigration-detention-in-south-africa-stricter-control-of-administrative-detention-increasing-criminal-enforcement-of-migration [Accessed: 29 August 2022].[7] Lawyers for Human Rights (2020) Monitoring Policy, Litigious and Legislative Shifts inImmigration Detention in South Africa [online] Available at: https://www.lhr.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Detention-Report-Final-Final-Digital-1.pdf [Accessed: 31 October 2023][8] Australian Home Affairs (2023) Immigration detention statistics [online] Available at:https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-stats/files/immigration-detention-statistics-28-february-2023.pdf [Accessed: 17 April 2023].[9] Global Detention Project (2022) Immigration Detention in Australia: Turning Arbitrary Detentioninto a Global Brand [online] Available at: https://www.globaldetentionproject.org/countries/asiapacific/australia [Accessed: 17 April 2023].[10] Ibekwe, S. O. (2022) Preventing people from risking their lives at sea’: Forced migration and thesecuritization of asylum seekers in Australia. Asian Journal of Comparative Politics [online]Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/20578911211032514 [Accessed: 02 November 2023][11] Barnes, J. (2022) Suffering to Save Lives: Torture, Cruelty, and Moral Disengagement inAustralia’s Offshore Detention Centres [online] Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feac041 [Accessed 30 October 2023][12] United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2000) General Comment No.14: The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health (Art. 12 of the Covenant), 11 August2000, E/C.12/2000/4 [online] Available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/4538838d0.html [Accessed: 24 April 2023]
 
An investigation into the benefits and challenges of using Olympic sport as a means of empowerment, integration, and advocacy for refugees: Is refugee participation in the Olympics tokenism or sportswashing by the IOC or part of an Olympic movement?
Full text linkExtended abstract from the Faculty of Business and Law Research Day 2024
Simplifying reflective practice for MBA and DBA students
Full text linkThe aim of this discussion paper is to suggest some alterative models and ideas which may resonate more with MBA and DBA students. This is based on my 25 years’ experience teaching reflection and my recent engagement in reflective practice as a core part of my DBA. My aim is to offer clarity on the following three areas:
What should MBA and DBA students reflect on?
A model to facilitate personal development.
An alternative to reflective journalling.
Introduction.
Whilst there is no shortage of literature on reflection, many aspects of this topic remain opaque. Much of the modern dialogue and research around reflective practice comes from the domains of nursing, social work and teaching, all heavily influenced by the work of Schon (1983), with a comparative paucity of evidence from the management field (Griggs et al, 2018). Whilst there are writers on the topic from the management arena eg Reynolds and Vince (2004) their take is influenced by critical theory and focuses on reflection from an organisational perspective. Whilst important, this does not help executive MBA students looking to reflect on their leadership development, nor DBA students looking to get insights into mental blocks and personal frustrations with their research progress.
What should MBA and DBA students reflect on?
From widespread reading I have found that much of literature on reflection does not always have much clarity on what one should reflect on. Browsing three books, by key writers on reflection, that I have to hand (Bolton and Delderfield, 2018; Fook and Gardner, 2007; Moon, 1999) and I cannot easily find the answer to this question. This is not an isolated experience. This is a vitally important question for anyone starting the process of reflection and to offer clarity on this I would like to propose three domains for reflection (Figure 1).
Figure 1: The three domains for reflection for MBA and DBA students.
The interrelated nature of the domains is illustrated by the Venn diagram circles.
Self: the personal self. This involves thinking about hopes, dreams, wants, needs, strengths, weaknesses, personality, motivations, resilience and the importance of work life balance.
Identity –the work (or study) self. This might include considering one’s identity as a leader or as a student in which efficacy, strengths and the skills needed to progress and develop, feelings of imposterism can all be explored.
Ethics and power –the nature of the organisation in which we work and what we do. How do the existing power structures enable us to thrive or survive? What are the power and ethical issues in our work or our research and the impact of our own biases?
A model to facilitate personal development.
The second issue is concerned with the lack of clarity in the literature around how ideas of self-awareness and self-assessment fit within the reflective practice construct. Desjarlais and Smith (2011) consider it to be separate but related, although much of the literature remains unclear on the distinction. Most of the most well-known models such as Johns (1995) and Gibbs (1988) were devised to focus on critical incident reflection in the development of professional practices. Whilst this is valuable in the medical professions, teaching and social work, as it facilitates reflection on performing medical procedures, exploring a patient or client interaction or even teaching a class, but does not align so well with the self-development element of executive leadership where the starting point does not necessarily come from exploring an incident or interaction.
Figure 2: The Bowden DEEP model.
As experienced professionals MBAs and DBAs are already more primed to consider their own strengths or shortcomings and they access feedback from others in the workplace and while on their courses eg DBAs from their supervisors and MBAs from 360s (or other psychometric tests). This is not to say that reflecting on critical incidents cannot be part of this development, but to my mind it is only one part of the richness of reflective possibilities.
In 2021 I created the Bowden DEEP model (Figure 2) based on the ideas of double loop learning (Argyris, 1977) with the purpose of offering a clear structure for reflecting on self-development from various sources of feedback eg from own musings, mentors or supervisors, 360s, appraisals, performance reviews and other psychometric tools.
An alternative to journaling
Keeping a reflective journal is the default suggested method for engaging in reflective practice (Bolton and Delderfield, 2018; Brookfield, 1998; Griggs et al 2018; Moon, 2001). From my own experiences on the DBA, it can be useful, but is time consuming and generates so much unwieldy detail that it is difficult to unpack and make sense of. Various research has identified time as the main barrier to engaging in reflection (Finlay, 2008; Gibbs et al, 2018).
As an alternative, photo-voice (Wang and Burris, 1997), used as a qualitative research methodology to explore underpinning narratives, works just as well as a reflective tool. Using photographs and images as a way of gaining deeper self-insights and unlocking previously unexplored self-schemas. There are several protocols used to unpack the learning from photovoice narratives eg Horwitz (2012) PHOTO protocols.
Figure 3: The WHAT protocols for using creative reflective techniques
I have adapted this to something that better facilitates sensemaking in the reflective practice domain and used the acronym WHAT (Figure 3). The word ‘what’ has an interrogative meaning and asks us to question the meaning, identity or proposition, value of something, which is at the heart of self-reflection.
To use the WHAT technique requires the selection of a photograph or image (this can be applied to music, sounds, poetry, memes, artefacts, dérive walks) and the participant works their way through the WHAT protocol questions. This can be a free association with whatever comes to mind, or reflections can be on a particular theme eg confidence.
Conclusion
Finlay summarised the difficulties of reflection ‘The problem with reflective practice is that it is hard to do and equally hard to teach. It is even harder to do and teach effectively’. (2008 p 15). This is even more complex in the management and business domain and especially at the executive level of MBA and DBA students. I would like to hope that my ideas and suggestions could add some clarity to the existent body of writing on the topic.
References:
Argyris, C. (1977) Double Loop learning in Organisations. Harvard Business Review Sept 1977.
Bolton, G., and Delderfield, R. (2018) Reflective Practice: writing and Professional Development. 5th Edition, Sage.
Desjarlais, M., and Smith, P. (2011) A Comparative Analysis of Reflection and Self-Assessment. International Journal of Process Education (June 2011, Vol 3 Issue 1).
Finlay, L. (2008) Reflecting on Reflective Practice. A discussion paper for Practice Based Professional Learning Centre, paper 52, The Open University.
Fook, J., and Gardner, F. (2007) Practicing Critical Reflection: A Resource Handbook. Open University Press, McGraw Hill Education.
Gibbs, G. (1988) Learning by Doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Further Education Unit. Oxford Polytechnic: Oxford
Griggs, V., Lawless, A., Rae, J., and Holden, R. (2018) From reflective learning to reflective practice: assessing transfer. Studies in Higher Education, 43 (7), pp.1172-1183.
Horwitz, J. (2012) Photovoice as a critical reflection methodology. Agency through teacher education: Reflection, community, and learning, pp.15-24.
Johns, C. (1995) Framing learning through reflection within Carper’s fundamental ways of knowing in nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 22, 2, 226-234
Moon, J. (1999) Reflection in Learning and Professional Development: theory and practice. Routledge Falmer.
Reynolds, M., and Vince, R. (2004). Organizing reflection: An introduction. Organizing reflection, pp.1-14.
Schon, D., A. (1983) The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.
Wang, C., and Burris, M., A. (1997). Photovoice: Concept, methodology, and use for participatory needs assessment. Health education & behavior, 24(3), pp.369-387
Exploring Wellbeing: A Study of Scottish Hospitality Sector
Full text linkIntroduction: The concept of wellbeing has in recent times resurfaced strongly even though the notion has been in existence for many years. Echoed in psychological, medical, economic, and social sciences is now also prevalent in other disciplines. The complexity and different perspectives make it an interesting area to explore. With the current push of the wellbeing agenda in businesses, larger organisations seem to be making greater efforts relative to micro, small and medium sized firms (MSME).
Consequentially, most research centre on the wellbeing of employees in larger organisations or looking at the quantitative nature of environmental factors effect on wellbeing. Other research attempting to investigate and bridge the gap between the relationship of wellbeing to performance, growth, and productivity, have mainly been in relation to the employee or the worker.
The limited emphasis on MSMEs is troubling for two reasons. First, the general resource constrained nature, state, and operational dynamics of MSME organically leans itself to wellbeing considerations, research, and interventions. Second, significant contributions of MSMEs to development and growth is being impacted by external factors and turbulence, with the hospitality (Accommodation and Food Services) sector being one of the most affected.
The hospitality sector is a welcome point for the wider society including locals and visitors. With this consideration, if there is a significant impact on the wellbeing of employees and owners in this sector, the wellbeing of the wider society is also impacted.
Within United Kingdom (UK) devolved administrations (Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland), Scotland has the highest number of registered businesses in this sector. Considering the sector’s dynamic, resilient, and fast adapting nature, and changes in the past to present, the research seeks to take a holistic approach on wellbeing from an employee and owner perspective within this sector.
Scope: This study seeks to explore and investigate wellbeing through the lens of both employees and business owners within the Scottish hospitality (accommodation and food service) sector. The following research questions arise:
How is the concept of wellbeing defined and perceived by business owners and employees within the urban hospitality tourism sector in Scotland?
How does micro, macro environmental factors and turbulence affect the wellbeing of business owners and employees?
Are there any wellbeing practices and programmes available tailored to the needs of the owner and employees?
What is/are the relationship/s between wellbeing and productivity and what framework could be coined to establish the relationship within the industry of which could be applied in the rest of UK?
Approach: This research is purely mono method research where qualitative data will be collected from micro and small business owners and employees through semi structured in-depth interview. A cross sectional design will be used as time horizon choice as the research will explore and interpret the research questions over a short period in time and not over a long period of time. Interviews will be supplemented with Secondary data on external factors and background of business. Data sampling will be purposive as the research looks in micro and small business with employees’ size between (1-9) and (10-49) respectively within the accommodation and food service in urban Scotland. Snowballing technique will be employed where recruited participants will be asked to assist in identifying potential alike micro and small businesses. Participants will be sourced directly and through hospitality network groups.
Results: At this early stage of the research, the research avoids any pre informed decision on the research as this is an exploration to reveal the reality of effect and impact of the concept.
As far the researcher in concerned, this is the first research of kind to explore and investigate the concept within the hospitability sector in Scotland and bridging the dichotomy with employee and owner perspective.
Relevant literature confirms the nonexistence of a standard definition of wellbeing hence the research adds to the knowledge gap. The devolved administrations in UK are set up differently with distinct devolved history within the MSME space and would be interesting to explore and investigate how the concept interplays within Scotland.
Implication: As there is no universal definition of wellbeing especially in the MSME space, this research will define wellbeing within the hospitality space, adding to the knowledge gap.
The research will help micro and small business have a deeper understanding on the importance of wellbeing to productivity and how the impact of micro, macro environmental factors and turbulence have on their wellbeing.
Policy makers can prioritise wellbeing for SMEs, where reporting scheme similar to diversity and pay gap reporting is mandatory for businesses.
This research could open opportunity for financial support to SMEs to prioritise the agenda for wellbeing. Wellbeing practises and programmes would be promoted and improved within the SME space.
Limitations: The study is only looking at Scotland and within the hospitality sector but unsure if the finding can be generalisable to other sectors as well as the devolved and other nations
A critical appraisal of the experiences, barriers and misconceptions which surround the recruitment and employment of prison leavers amongst UK SMEs in the midst of labour shortages
Full text linkExtended abstract from the Faculty of Business and Law Research Day 2024
Exploring the career aspirations of women in management accounting
Full text linkBackground
Despite men and women entering the UK accounting profession in equal numbers (Financial Reporting Council, 2022), there remains a significant underrepresentation of women in senior roles across all branches of the profession (GAAPweb, 2023). This is somewhat evidenced by a recent survey of accounting professionals (GAAPweb, 2023) which shows women occupying 66% of entry level roles, 40% of mid-level management accounting roles and as little as 18% of executive roles in the profession. Recently, there have been indicators as to the existence of a gender related ‘aspirations-gap’ (Azmat, Cunat and Henry, 2020; Powell and Butterfield, 2022), with evidence to suggest that there has been a decline in women’s aspirations to reach top management positions over recent years. This begins with the very earliest workplace experiences (Olsen and LaGree, 2023) and prevails through middle management stages (Beaupre, 2022).
Research Aim and Objectives
This research aims to address this critical issue by understanding the factors that influence the career aspirations and trajectories of female management accountants (FMAs) in the UK, through exploring their lived experiences, and uncovering strategies to support their career advancement. The objectives are:
To identify the key factors that influence the career aspirations of FMAs.
To explore the obstacles to and enablers of career progression experienced by FMAs as they progress through their careers.
To understand how the experiences of FMAs shape perceptions of career opportunities and advancement.
To identify strategies and interventions that can be implemented to support the career advancement of women in management accounting.
Literature Review & Theoretical Framework
The complexity and interplay of barriers affecting women’s progression through their careers is widely evidenced (Einarsdottir et al., 2018). The literature shows that gender disparity at senior management levels has been attributed to various factors including: gender based stereotypes and bias (Dalton et al., 2014), demands of personal life (Haynes, 2017), lack of promotion and networking opportunities (Cohen et al., 2020) and gendered personality traits (Eagly and Wood, 2014). Although the challenges have been studied extensively in numerous contexts, there is little focus on management accounting roles in organisations. The impact of gender on career aspirations to senior management is a well-established area of study (Powell and Butterfield, 2022) and it has been suggested that gender differences in aspirations may contribute to the underrepresentation of women at the higher levels of the organisation (Fritz and van Knippenberg, 2020). A number of studies from the early part of the 21st century focussed on levels of career aspiration being lower in women than men (Belkin 2003; Litzky and Greenhaus, 2007). However, Hoobler, Lemmon and Wayne (2014) found no relationship between gender and aspirations towards senior management. Other research suggests that women’s aspirations are complex, and affected by a range of factors that are not constant at all stages of career development, but change over the course of time (O’Neil and Bilimoria, 2005; Coffman and Neuenfeldt, 2014).
Given the complexity of the issue, the research will use the theoretical models of Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) (Lent et al., 1994) and the Kaleidoscope Career Model (KCM) (Mainiero and Sullivan, 2005). SCCT provides a framework for understanding the career aspirations of women by considering their self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and goals. Lent et al. (1994) maintain that gender has relevance to career development because of reactions to gender in the organisational environment, particularly in traditionally male careers (Erickson, 2013). The model, therefore, provides a cognitive framework for the research to explore the individual level factors that affect career aspirations and can help identify the specific issues that drive or hinder women\u27s progression. The KCM complements the SCCT by taking into account the different stages of a career and the interplay of different factors. The three parameters of the KCM (authenticity, balance, and challenge) interact with the SCCT constructs to influence career aspirations and trajectories across different career stages.
Research Approach and Methodology
This study sits within the interpretivist philosophy, which relies upon description and interpretation instead of measurement and prediction (positivist) to develop an understanding of the ways through which the participants perceive and experience their career aspirations. Interpretivism emphasises the importance of the subjective interpretation of phenomena by individuals. Aligning with the interpretivist philosophy, the epistemological approach for this research is constructivist. According to Denzin and Lincoln (2017), researchers who decide to work from a constructivist position hold an assumption that “there is no objective truth to be known” (p.54) and emphasise the diversity of interpretations that can be applied to the world due to the subjective experience of the respondents. In fitting with the above, the qualitative methodology utilised in the study will be phenomenology. Phenomenology is appropriate for studying complex experiences (Denzin and Lincoln, 2017), such as career aspirations. It allows for a deeper exploration of the factors that shape these unique experiences and perspectives of women in their journeys through the profession.
Research Methods
Semi-structured interviews will be utilised to gather the stories of the FMAs, and is effective for qualitative research because it allows researchers to gain in-depth information from interviewees (Ruslin et al., 2022). The use of semi-structured interviews is likely to give participants the space and freedom to express their own perspectives in their own words (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2009). The study will employ a stratified, purposive sampling approach. This will allow ‘information-rich’ subjects to be selected (Patton, 1990). Participant inclusion criteria, therefore, will be developed to include women currently working, or with experience, in management accounting roles with membership to a professional accountancy body. This will generate a homogeneous sample who could provide a contextualised perspective on the topic area. The population for the interviews will be stratified to include participants within the three groups: early career, mid-career and later career. The findings from the early career sample can then be analysed and used to inform subsequent interviews with mid and later career FMAs. It is anticipated that thematic analysis will be employed as the primary data analysis method for the qualitative interviews. Thematic analysis is a widely used method in qualitative research that involves identifying patterns and themes within the data (Braun and Clarke, 2006). This method allows for a flexible yet systematic approach to analysing qualitative data, making it suitable for exploring complex and nuanced topics (Bell et al., 2022).
Importance and Future Impact
The underrepresentation of women in senior management accounting roles poses significant challenges to the accounting profession, organisations, and society as a whole. The impact of strong female representation at higher levels within the organisation has been researched over recent years, with studies highlighting significant benefits improved financial performance (Green and Homroy, 2018; Fernando et al., 2020). Furthermore, if women’s aspirations for higher positions dilute across different stages of their careers, the gender imbalance at senior levels could be perpetuated, limiting women\u27s opportunities for career advancement in management accounting roles. The research offers potential impact for FMAs themselves, the organisations that employ them and the profession of management accounting. The study will inform organisational initiatives with implementable strategies to support the recruitment, retention, and advancement of FMAs throughout their career journeys, leading to more diverse and inclusive workplaces. The research can also empower FMAs by providing a greater insight into their career development, allowing them to make informed career decisions, set realistic goals, and develop strategies to overcome barriers. The study\u27s findings can have implications for the broader profession of management accounting. By understanding the factors that influence women\u27s career aspirations, the study can inform the development of policies, initiatives, and best practices within the profession.
References
Azmat, G., Cunat, V., and Henry, E. (2020) Gender promotion gaps: Career aspirations and workplace discrimination. Available at SSRN 3518420.
Beaupre, J. G. (2022) To lead or not to lead: Exploring how young women’s early career experiences impact their leadership ambition. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 37(8), p1064–1079.
Belkin, L. (2003) The opt-out revolution. New York Times Magazine, 26(10), 2003.
Bell, E., Bryman, A., and Harley, B. (2022) Business research methods. 6th ed. Oxford: OUP.
Braun V. and Clark V. (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology 3(2), p77– 101.
Coffman, J., and Neuenfeldt, B. (2014). Everyday moments of truth: Frontline managers are key to women’s career aspirations. NY: Bain and Company.
Cohen, J.R., Dalton, D.W., Holder-Webb, L.L. and McMillan, J.J. (2020) An analysis of glass ceiling perceptions in the accounting profession. Journal of Business Ethics, 164, p17-38.
Creswell, J. W. (2013) Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). CA: Sage
Dalton, D., Cohen, J., Harp, N. and McMillan, J. (2014), Antecedents and consequences of perceived gender discrimination in the audit profession, Auditing: A Journal of Practice and Theory, 33, 3, p1-32
Denzin, N. K. and Lincoln, Y. S. (2017) The Sage handbook of qualitative research. (5th ed.). CA: Sage.
Eagly, A. H., and Wood, W. (2014). Gender and influenceability: Stereotype versus behavior. Women, gender, and social psychology, p225-256 Psychology Press.
Einarsdottir, U. D., Christiansen, T. H., and Kristjansdottir, E. S. (2018) It’s a Man Who Runs the Show: How Women Middle-Managers Experience Their Professional Position, Opportunities, and Barriers.
Ericksen, J. A. (2013) Women pursuing non-traditional careers: A social cognitive career theory perspective, [online]. PhD Thesis, Cleveland State University.
Fernando, G. D., Jain, S. S., and Tripathy, A. (2020) This cloud has a silver lining: Gender diversity, managerial ability, and firm performance. Journal of business research, 117, p484-496.
Financial Reporting Council (FRC) (2022) Key Facts and Trends in the Accountancy Profession.
Fritz, C., and van Knippenberg, D. (2020) Gender and Leadership Aspiration: Supervisor Gender, Support, and Job Control. Applied Psychology, 69(3), pp.741–768.
GAAPWeb (2023) Salary Survey 2023. Available at: https://reachwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/GAAPweb_Salary_Survey_2023.pdf
Green, C., and Homroy, S. (2018) Female directors, board committees and firm performance. European Economic Review, 102(C), p19–38.
Haynes, K. (2017) Accounting as gendering and gendered: A review of 25 years of critical accounting research on gender. Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 43, p110-124.
Hoobler, J. M., Lemmon, G., and Wayne, S. J. (2014). Women’s Managerial Aspirations: An Organizational Development Perspective. Journal of Management, 40(3), p703–730.
Kvale, S., and Brinkmann, S. (2009) Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing. CA: Sage.
Litzky, B., and Greenhaus, J. (2007) The relationship between gender and aspirations to senior management. Career Development International, 12(7), p637–659.
Olsen, K., and LaGree, D. (2023) Taking action in the first five years to increase career equality: The impact of professional relationships on young women’s advancement. Gender in Management: An International Journal, (ahead-of-print).
O\u27Neil, D. A., and Bilimoria, D. (2005) Women\u27s career development phases: Idealism, endurance, and reinvention. Career development international, 10(3), p168-189.
Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Powell, G. N., and Butterfield, D. A. (2022) Aspirations to top management over five decades: A shifting role of gender? Gender in Management: An International Journal, 37(8), p953–968.
Ruslin, R., Mashuri, S., Rasak, M. S. A., Alhabsyi, F., and Syam, H. (2022) Semi-structured Interview: A methodological reflection on the development of a qualitative research instrument in educational studies. IOSR Journal of Research and Method in Education, 12(1), p22-29
The value of cultural mega-events: assessing the economic, social, and urban impacts of Trenčín as European capital of culture 2026
Full text linkExtended abstract from the Faculty of Business and Law Research Day 202
Holistic Demand driven Hydrogen Supply Chain Design Optimisation
Full text linkExtended abstract from the Faculty of Business and Law Research Day 202
An Exploration of Police Leadership and Culture
Full text linkExtended abstract from the Faculty of Business and Law Research Day 2024
Data sources:
LJMU Research Online (Liverpool John Moo...PATT40 (LJMU)Biomolecular Research Reports (BRR) (LJM...Design and Technology Education (LJMU)
BLResearchDay (LJMU)Journal of Living Labs (LJMU)Journal of Natural Products Discovery (L...Journal of Social Media for Learning (LJ...Student Law Journal (LJMU)PRISM (LJMU)Public Health Institute Journal (LJMU)SPARK (LJMU)Student Experience Proceedings (LJMU)Transformation in Education (LJMU)Innovations in Practice (LJMU)Links to Health and Social Care (LJMU)
BLResearchDay (LJMU)Journal of Living Labs (LJMU)Journal of Natural Products Discovery (L...Journal of Social Media for Learning (LJ...Student Law Journal (LJMU)PRISM (LJMU)Public Health Institute Journal (LJMU)SPARK (LJMU)Student Experience Proceedings (LJMU)Transformation in Education (LJMU)Innovations in Practice (LJMU)Links to Health and Social Care (LJMU)Access Repository Dashboard
Do you manage BLResearchDay (LJMU)? Access insider analytics, issue reports and manage access to outputs from your repository in the CORE Repository Dashboard!