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    Understanding the role of Pinus cembroides and Quercus potosina  in water and nutrient dynamics in a semi-arid forest ecosystem of central-northwest Mexico applying the functional matrix approach.

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    Tesis (Doctorado en Ciencias Ambientales)"Cada especie presente en los ecosistemas posee características específicas a través de las cuales interactúa con el ambiente, influyendo simultáneamente en varios procesos funcionales del ecosistema. La teoría de la matriz funcional permite entender el efecto de estas características de las especies en varios procesos de los ecosistemas así como entender cual es la aportación de cada especie individual cuando se encuentran coexistiendo con otras especies. Este trabajo evalúo el papel de Pinus cembroides y Quercus potosina en la dinámica hidrológica y nutrimental de un ecosistema forestal semiárido del centro-noroeste de México aplicando la teoría de la matriz funcional. Este estudio fue llevado a cabo en el periodo que comprende entre junio del 2006 a noviembre del 2008. El estudio se realizó en tres tipos de rodal seleccionados en un bosque semiárido y que incluyeron: rodales monoespecíficos de Q. potosina, rodales monoespecíficos de P. cembroides y rodales mixtos de pino-encino. Derivado de este estudio, se encontró que la matriz funcional que resulta de las características inherentes en morfología, fisiología y composición química de ambas especies generó diferentes efectos en la redistribución del agua de lluvia (escurrimiento foliar, escurrimiento fustal y escurrimiento superficial), así como en el reciclamiento de nutrientes que ocurre a través de la producción de hojarasca y descomposición del mantillo. Este efecto, sin embargo, es modificado cuando las especies dominantes se encuentran en rodales monoespecíficos y/o mixtos. Así, la apertura del dosel, el diámetro del tronco, la capacidad de retención de agua por el mantillo y su volumen, fueron rasgos inherentes que controlaron los flujos de las diferentes fracciones del agua de lluvia dentro de cada rodal. Paralelamente, la cantidad de agua en cada evento de lluvia también jugo un papel importante en el desencadenamiento de algunos de los procesos hidrológicos. En otros aspectos, los tipos de rodal fueron diferentes en la producción de hojarasca y en la cantidad de nutrientes que recircularon a través de la hojarasca.""The species present in ecosystems have specific traits through which they interact with the environment, influencing simultaneously in several ecosystem processes. The functional matrix approach contributes to understanding the multiple effects of these species characteristics on several ecosystem processes simultaneously as well as to understanding the contribution of each single species when it occurs alone and when it co-occurs with other species. This work evaluated the role of Pinus cembroides Zucc. and Quercus potosina Trel. in water and nutrient dynamics in a semi-arid forest ecosystem of central-northwest Mexico applying the functional matrix approach. This study was carried out in the period from June 2006 to November 2008 considering three different stand types which included: monospecific stands of Q. potosina; monospecific stands of P. cembroides and mixed oak-pine stands. Derived from this study, the functional matrix that results from inherent traits in morphology, physiology and chemical composition of each species generated different effects in rainfall redistribution (throughfall, stemflow, and runoff), as well as in the nutrient recycling that occurs through litterfall production and litter decomposition. This effect, however, is modified when the dominant species occur in monospecific or mixed stands. Thus, the openness of the canopy, stem diameter, litter water content and litter volume were inherent traits that controlled the flux of different fractions of rainfall within each stand. At the same time, the size of rainfall event also played an important role in triggering some hydrological processes. In other aspects, the stand types were different in litterfall production and in nutrient cycling. The present study highlights the following aspects: the importance of extreme events in the nutrient cycling through green leaves in the litterfall, with respect to the species of slow decomposition like P. cembroides., These processes did not follow the expected mechanisms when they were incubated with Q. potosina leaf litter. In addition, the mass loss rate of litter of the faster decomposing species (Q. potosina) was stimulated in the mixture during the first stage of decomposition. Finally, another important result of this work was related to the layer of the forest floor surface, which had an important control over transfer and exchange of nutrients and water between atmosphere, the canopy and the soil, within forest ecosystems.

    Clonación y caracterización de los Superóxido Dismutasa de Amaranto expresada en respuesta a estrés abiótico.

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    Tesis (Maestría en Ciencias en Biología Molecular)"El estrés oxidativo o incremento de especies reactivas de oxígeno (ERO) en plantas generalmente acompaña a diferentes tipos de estrés abiótico como sequía, altas temperaturas y salinidad, afectando la productividad de los cultivos y debido a esto se ha incrementado el estudio de estrés en plantas. Por otro lado, existe el interés mundial de contar con cultivos alternos capaces de producir alimentos. El amaranto es una planta que produce semillas de alta calidad nutritiva y nutraceútica, la planta puede crecer en zonas áridas donde los cultivos tradicionales no logran sobrevivir. En nuestro grupo de trabajo se ha realizado un estudio proteómico comparativo sobre la repuesta de la planta el déficit de agua. De este estudio se encontró el aumento de concentración de una Superóxido Dismutasa (SOD). Las SOD son la primera línea de defensa contra el estrés oxidativo, ocasiona la dismutación del anión superóxido produciendo peróxido de hidrógeno y oxígeno. Existen isoformas de SOD que varían por el co-factor al cual se unen: Cu,Zn-SOD, Fe-SOD, Mn-SOD y Ni-SOD. A partir de los datos de proteínas se diseñaron oligonucleótidos para SOD y se obtuvo un fragmento de 263 pb con homología a Cu,Zn SOD. A partir del fragmento de 263 pb se realizó un RACE al extremo 3’ y 5’ obteniendo un ORF de 459 pb de SOD de amaranto (AhSOD). AhSOD mostró una identidad mayor del 80% con otras Cu,Zn SOD. El gen se clonó en el vector de expresión pET22b(+) y se transformó la cepa de Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) para su sobreexpresión. La proteína recombinante se encontró en la fracción soluble y fue purificada por cromatografía de afinidad. El ensayo de actividad mostró que la AhSOD puede expresarse de forma activa en E. coli AhSOD puede ser empleado para la transformación de plantas con el fin de incrementar su capacidad de acción contra las especies reactivas de oxígeno con el resultado en el aumento de productividad.""Oxidative stress or increased of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plants generally is related with different abiotic stress as water deficit, high temperatures and salinity, affecting the crop productivity and hence, the interest in the research of stress in plants. By other hand, there is interest worldwide to have alternative crops able to produce food with high nutritive and nutraceutical properties. The amaranth is a plant that produces seeds of high quality; the plants grows in arid zones where traditional plants are not able to grow. In our research group has reported a comparative proteomic study of the amaranth response to water deficit. From this, it was found the increased concentration of one superoxide dismutase (SOD) in drought conditions. SOD is the first line of defense against oxidative stress caused by the dismutation of superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide to produce oxygen. SOD isoforms exist which differ by the factor which co-bind: Cu,Zn- SOD, Fe-SOD, and Mn-SOD. From MS data it was designed the oligonucleotides for SOD amplification from cDNA,, obtaining a fragment of 263 bp corresponding to Cu,Zn-SOD. From the fragment of 263 bp were amplified by RACE at 5’ and 3’ end obtaining the complete ORF of 459 bp for amaranth SOD (AhSOD). The multiple alignments AhSOD and SODs from various plants showed an identity above 80 % with Cu,Zn-SOD. AhSOD was cloned on the expression vector pET22b(+) and the strain of Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) was transformed. The recombinant protein, found in the soluble fraction was purified by ion exchange chromatography. The activity assay showed that recombinant AhSOD was active. AhSOD could be used for plant transformation to increased the capacity against reactive oxygen species with the resulting increased in productivity.

    Aspectos cinéticos en la bio-trasformación reductiva de tetracloruro de carbono en presencia de sustancias húmicas suspendidad e inmovilizadas.

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    Tesis (Maestría en Ciencias Ambientales)"En la presente investigación se evaluaron los aspectos cinéticos en la biotransformación reductiva de tetracloruro de carbono (TCC), en presencia de sustancias húmicas (SH) suspendidas e inmovilizadas. Para ello, se estudiaron las dos etapas involucradas en el proceso de óxido-reducción en el que las SH actúan como mediador redox. La primera etapa comprende la reducción biológica de las SH a partir del consumo de un sustrato orgánico (donador de electrones). Al respecto, se determinó la tasa máxima de reducción de SH de dos consorcios anaerobios (PR y U), mediante cinéticas en cultivo en lote. Una de las cinéticas correspondió a SH suspendidas (Leonardita, utilizada tal cual fue adquirida), y otra que correspondió a SH inmovilizadas, mediante un proceso previo de sulfonación y posterior inmovilización sobre una resina de intercambio iónico. Durante las cinéticas, se midió el consumo de sustrato, así como la aparición de ácidos grasos volátiles (AGVs) e hidrógeno, productos del consumo de glucosa, y posterior desaparición de ellos. Los resultados indicaron que el acetato e hidrógeno, producidos a partir de la fermentación de glucosa, fueron utilizados por ambos consorcios evaluados como los donadores de electrones primarios para llevar a cabo la reducción de las SH. La tasa máxima de reducción de SH por PR y U fue de 247 y 167 μEq/g SSV-h, respectivamente, para el caso de las SH suspendidas. En el caso de las SH inmovilizadas, las tasas máximas de reducción fueron de 95 y 55 μEq/g SSV-h para PR y U, respectivamente. Posteriormente, se evaluó la segunda etapa del proceso, la cual involucró la reducción de TCC a partir de las SH reducidas. La primera parte en esta etapa consistió en reducir las SH químicamente usando hidrógeno, en presencia de paladio como catalizador. Una vez reducidas las SH, se determinó su capacidad para reducir TCC. Las SH suspendidas presentaron una mejor tasa de reducción de primer orden de TCC (8.6x10-3 h-1), en comparación con las SH inmovilizadas (5.8x10-3 h-1). Además, el TCC fue adsorbido sobre la resina de intercambio iónico, utilizada como soporte para las SH. Dicha adsorción, hasta las 24 horas de incubación, fue del 40% de la concentración inicial de TCC (100 μM). Por otro lado, el perfil de reducción química de TCC, en presencia de SH suspendidas, presentó dos pendientes, lo cual fue atribuido a la formación de radicales semiquinona, los cuales dieron pie a un cambio en la tasa de reducción de TCC.""In the present study, the kinetic aspects involved in the reductive biotransformation of carbon tetrachloride (CT), in the presence of suspended humic substances (HS) and immobilized HS, were evaluated. In consequence, the two stages involved in the redox reactions in which HS take part, were studied. The first stage comprises the bio-reduction of HS, linked to the anaerobic oxidation of glucose (electron donor), by two different anaerobic consortia (PR and U). The maximum reduction rate of suspended and immobilized HS, in batch incubations by two anaerobic consortia, was determined. HS were used as received, in suspended HS amended incubations. Meanwhile, HS used in immobilized HS amended incubations were previously immobilized on an ion exchange resin after a sulfonation process. Also, glucose consumption was measured during incubations, as well as volatile fatty acids (VFA) and hydrogen production (and consumption) due to glucose fermentation by the anaerobic consortia evaluated. From these experiments, it was possible to identify acetate and hydrogen as the main electron donors for HS reduction. The maximum reduction rate for suspended HS by PR and U, was 247 and 167 μEq/g VSS-h, respectively. Moreover, the maximum reduction rate for immobilized HS by PR and U, were 95 and 55 μEq/g VSS-h, respectively. Subsequently, the second stage involved in the CT reductive bio-transformation process using HS was evaluated; namely, CT reduction by reduced HS. In consequence, HS were chemically reduced using hydrogen as reducing agent and palladium as catalyst. CT first-order reduction rates were estimated, once HS were chemically reduced. Suspended HS showed a greater CT first order reduction rate (8.6x10-3 h-1) than immobilized HS (5.8x10-3 h-1). Furthermore, CT was adsorbed on the ion exchange resin used as supporting material for HS immobilization, which accounted for 40% of the initial CT concentration (100 μM). On the other hand, CT reduction in incubations amended with suspended HS showed two phases. This was attributed to different semi-quinone radicals concentrations throughout incubation time, which led to an increase in the CT reduction rate. Also, chloroform (CF) was the only product from CT chemical reduction.

    Proteomic analysis of amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus L.) leaves under drought stress

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    "Amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus L.) is a plant that produces seed with high protein content, is rich on nutraceutical compounds, and can grow under environmental conditions where most of the basic crops are not able to develop. But little is know about the amaranth stress-responsive genes/proteins. The aim of this work was to apply the comparative proteomics approach to study the differential expression of amaranth leaf proteins under drought stress. However, the protein extraction from amaranth tissues is difficult as a result of high endogenous concentrations of interfering compounds; we have made some modifications of the classical trichloroacetic acid-acetone precipitation method to improve the quantity and quality of extracted proteins. Satisfactory and reproducible two-dimensional electrophoresis protein profiles were obtained; the method was also tested forAgave tequilana and Opuntia spp., two more examples of plants that are tolerant to drought stress. Drought-responsive proteins in amaranth leaves were identified by liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC/ESI-MS/MS). The upregulated proteins identified included chloroplast chaperonins involved in refolding and protein complexes protection. Downregulated proteins include Rubisco large subunit, cytochrome b6f, oxygen evolving complexes, and the ascorbate peroxidase mitochondrial. The results have shown that chloroplasts and mitochondria may play a central role in amaranth adaptation to abiotic stress, and further studies should be done at the subcellular level.

    Chemical species of chromatite of an industrial landfill in the León valley, Guanajuato, Mexico

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    "Chromium is a commonly identified contaminant in soils and groundwater and is widely used in industries. Disposal of industrial solid wastes can cause health and environmental risks due to the leaching and seepage of Cr(VI) from soil to groundwater. In order to improve remediation strategies and make better predictions about the mobility of contaminants, it is critical to understand the time-dependent metal sorption behavior on soil, as well as the mechanism of the sorption reactions, and the dominant chemical species. This study demonstrates that interfacial reactions (e.g., adsorption, desorption, oxidation or reduction) between chromium and minerals play an important role in the spreading of chromium, and could present preferential pathways for chromium mobility in the subsurface environment. Soil samples were collected in a landfill (source) of chromium wastes and their morphology and predominant chemical species were determined. Column experiments were performed on contaminated silty-clayey sand, using deionized water as eluent. It was found in this study that, after 72 h, more than 80% of sorbed chromium was eluted with deionized water, and the total chromium content in the leachate were higher than the permissible limits for human consumption established by Mexican official norms (0.05 mg/L). The Cr(VI) removal efficiency decreased significantly with time and it was independent of the initial pH, indicating that Cr(VI) was poorly adsorbed. UV-Vis analysis indicated that the oxidation state of chromium was Cr(VI). DRX analysis led to the conclusion that CaCrO4 (chromatite), is the main mineral species of Cr(VI), and is predominant in the range of pH from 7 to 8.5. An important effect is that the sorption presented to the pore scale can have consequences on the regional scale because it can retard the mobility of this pollutant during the dispersion process.""El cromo es usado ampliamente en industrias y es un contaminante identificado en suelos y agua subterránea. La disposición de residuos sólidos industriales con niveles de cromo puede provocar riesgos a la salud y al ambiente debido a la lixiviación e infiltración de Cr(VI) hacia el agua subterránea. Para mejorar las estrategias de remediación y entender la movilidad de los contaminantes en el subsuelo, es de suma importancia conocer el comportamiento de la sorción del metal en el suelo con respecto al tiempo de residencia, así como su mecanismo de sorción y la especie química dominante. Este estudio demuestra que las reacciones interfaciales (p.ej., sorción, desorción, oxidación o reducción) entre el cromo y los minerales juegan un papel importante en el transporte del cromo, y puede presentar trayectorias preferenciales para su movilidad en el subsuelo. Se recolectaron muestras de suelo en el interior de un relleno de residuos de Cr(VI) y se determinó su morfología y la especie química predominante. Se realizaron experimentos en columna sobre arena limo-arcillosa contaminada con Cr(VI) empleando agua deionizada como eluyente. En este estudio se encontró que la cantidad de Cr(VI) eluída con agua deionizada fue superior al 80% en un tiempo de 72 h después del contacto con el suelo contaminado, obteniéndose en los luxiviados valores de cromo total mayores al límite permisible para consumo humano establecido en la Norma Oficial Mexicana (0.05 mg/L). La eficiencia de remoción del Cr(VI) disminuye significativamente con el tiempo, es independiente del pH inicial y está en función de la textura del suelo, indicando que el Cr(VI) fue poco adsorbido. Del análisis UV-Vis se concluye que el estado de oxidación del cromo es Cr(VI), el cual predomina en el intervalo de pH de 7 a 8.5. Los resultados por DRX indican que el cromato de calcio (CaCrO4), cromatita, es la principal especie mineralógica de Cr(VI). Un efecto importante es que la sorción que se presenta a la escala de poro puede tener consecuencias en la escala regional en el área de estudio debido a que puede retardar la movilidad de este contaminante en el proceso de dispersión.

    Controlled growth of one-dimensional clusters of molybdenum atoms using double-walled carbon nanotube templating

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    "We report the controlled growth of one-dimensional clusters of molybdenum atoms inside the inner cores of double-walled carbon nanotubes. A combined characterization including high resolution transmission electron microscopy, nitrogen adsorption measurement at 77 K, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis reveals that the growth of one-dimensional Mo clusters can be controlled by varying the reaction conditions. The products have specific surface areas of 360–480 m2 g−1360–480 m2 g−1, and their characteristic properties are attributed to the presence of Mo cluster, which affect the electronic structure and can be exploited for the development of nanotube electronic devices.

    Community structure of a southern Chihuahuan Desert grassland under different grazing pressures

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    "The effect of different grazing intensities on the semiarid grasslands of the southern Chihuahuan Desert was studied using a fence-line contrast between a moderately grazed cattle ranch, from which goats and sheep had been excluded for forty-five years, and an ejido, heavily overgrazed for at least the last century. Each plant species density and cover was quantified in three distinctive microhabitats on the ranch and on the adjacent common-use rangelands. The results indicated that three grass species were important in the dynamics of this rangeland. Hilaria belangeri, a stoloniferous, mat-forming grass species, was dominant on the heavily grazed ejido, but is in the process of being replaced by two taller grasses, Bouteloua gracilis and Boutleloua curtipendula, on the more moderately grazed ranch. These data suggest that the dynamics of this system in the semiarid grasslands of the southern Chihuahuan Desert are based primarily on two functional groups of species. Members of the first functional group are stoloniferous and clonal. Their growth form slows the rate of surface water movement, thereby controlling erosion while building up the soil by entrapping debris. In contrast, the second functional group is comprised of non-stoloniferous grasses that are described variously as bunch, tufted or tussock grasses in the literature. These species have the capacity to invade, overtop and replace individuals of the first functional group. They are limited in their lateral growth by their rhizomatous growth habit, which is much less efficient in co-opting space. Finally, there is, at least, a third functional group of much taller grasses present that are limited in these rangelands to refuges by the heavy grazing. These species are usually obligate seed producers. Such species have the potential to replace members of the earlier functional groups by overtopping them. They are limited by their inability to reproduce vegetatively, once established by their seed bank. This research suggests that restoration of the heavily eroded, semiarid grasslands of the southern Chihuahuan Desert must begin with the re-establishment of members of the first functional group. These species have the ability to facilitate the entry of the later functional groups and, in turn, be replaced competitively by them.

    Micro-scale systems and cellular automata: Spatio-Temporal Dynamics

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    Tesis (Doctorado en Nanociencias y Nanotecnología)"This work contains the results from the simulations performed according to two computational models. The first one referrs to a chemical system within a Continuosly tirred Tank Reactor (CSTR), while the second deals with a physico-chemical system of self-assembling pieces under different conditions. In addition, two mathematical analyses are also included. One is for waves along microtubules at the brain scale and the other is a wavelet processing of data from time series of Elementary Cellular Automata (ECA). The results of this thesis are mainly based on cellular automata as a tool for modeling and producing complex spatio-temporal dynamics.

    Procesos biológicos de sulfatorreducción en biopelículas para la precipitación de metales.

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    Tesis (Doctorado en Ciencias Ambientales)"La contaminación ambiental por metales pesados es un asunto de importancia debido a su impacto en la salud pública, el medio ambiente y finalmente en la economía. La sulfato reducción se ha convertido en una alternativa para el tratamiento de aguas residuales que contienen metales. El objetivo general de este trabajo fue estudiar la aplicación de procesos biológicos de sulfatorreducción en reactores de biopelícula para la precipitación y recuperación de sulfuros metálicos en una sola etapa. En primera instancia se estudió la competencia entre los microorganismos sulfatorreductores y metanogénicos en un reactor anaerobio de lecho de lodos de flujo ascendente (UASB) que fue operado en continuo durante más de 240 días, para desarrollar biomasa sulfatorreductora a partir de un lodo granular de origen metanogénico. La demanda química de oxígeno (DQO) removida por sulfatorreducción fue de 20% y la concentración total del sulfuro alcanzada fue de 310 mg/L. Los valores de actividad sulfatorreductora y metanogénica (0.29 g DQO-H2S/g SSV-d y 0.35 g DQO-CH4/g SSV-d, respectivamente) corroboraron el desarrollo de bacterias sulfatorreductoras (BSR). La presencia de BSR que oxidan incompletamente el sustrato a acetato, permitió que los organismos metanogénicos no estuvieran limitados por sustrato y, consecuentemente, no fueran completamente desplazados por las BSR al final de la operación del reactor. Posteriormente, se propuso un reactor de lecho fluidificado inverso (LFI) para la precipitación y recuperación de metales. El reactor LFI se operó en continuo durante 320 días y se obtuvieron eficiencias de precipitación de Fe, Zn y Cd mayores a 99.0%. Los sulfuros metálicos recuperados ascendieron al 90% de la masa teórica esperada predominando la pirita (FeS), esfalerita (ZnS) y greenockita (CdS). La carga de metales no afectó el desempeño del reactor aún a valores de pH tan bajos como 5.0. La remoción de DQO fue de 54%, lo cual sugirió la oxidación incompleta del sustrato por las BSR inmovilizadas en la biopelícula, esto fue corroborado por la acumulación de acetato en el efluente y la nula producción de alcalinidad. Finalmente, se estudió el desarrollo de una biopelícula sulfatorreductora capaz de oxidar completamente el sustrato orgánico. Para tal efecto, se utilizó la presión de selección por sustrato realizando tres diferentes pruebas en un reactor LFI alimentado con una mezcla acetato/lactato con las siguientes proporciones en base a DQO: 50/50, 80/20 y 90/10.""The environment contamination by heavy metals is an important matter due to its negative impact over the public health, the environment and the economy. Sulfate reduction has become and alternative for the treatment of wastewaters that contain heavy metals. The general objective of this work was to study the application of biological sulfate reduction processes in biofilm reactors for metal precipitation and recovery of the metal sulfides in one step. First of all, the competence between methanogens and sulfate reducers was studied in an UASB reactor that was operated for over 240 days, for the development of sulfate reducing biomass from a methanogenic granular sludge. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) removed by sulfate reduction was 20% and the total sulfide concentration reached in the reactor was 310 mg/L. The specific sulfate reducing and methanogenic activities of the granular sludge pointed out to the development of sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB). The presence of SRB that oxidize incompletely the substrate to acetate, allowed the permanence of methanogens that were not limited by substrate, and in consequence were not completely displaced by the SRB at the end of reactor operation. Afterwards, a down-flow fluidized bed reactor (DFFB) was proposed for the precipitation and recovery of metals. The DFFB reactor was operated continuously during 320 days and precipitation efficiencies over 99.0% of Fe, Zn and Cd were obtained. The recovered metal sulfides amounted to 90% of the theoretical mass expected to be precipitated; pyrite (FeS), sphaleryte (ZnS) and greenockite (CdS) predominated in the precipitate. The metal loading rate did not affect the reactor performance even at pH values as low as 5.0. The COD removal efficiency was close to 54%, which suggested an incomplete substrate oxidation by the immobilized SRB, this was confirmed by the high concentration of acetate in the effluent and the absence of alkalinity production. Finally, the development of a sulfate reducing biofilm able to oxidize completely the substrate was studied. To achieve this, a selection pressure by substrate was used; three different assays were carried out in the DFFB reactor that was fed with a mixture of acetate/lactate with the following ratios on a COD basis: 50/50, 80/20 and 90/10 during 21 days.

    Sporulation start and hystidine kinase regulation: a comparative analysis of bacillus subtilis the group of bacillus cereus

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    "La esporulación, que es una respuesta de quorum sensing, es un proceso de diferenciación celular mediado por moléculas de señalización, señales fisiológicas y ambientales. Se sabe que Bacillus subtilis detecta las señales metabólicas y ambientales y éstas son integradas a un sistema de transferencia secuencial de fosfatos. Las señales son detectadas por histidina cinasas que se autofosforilan y fosforilan, a su vez, a proteínas que actúan como reguladores de respuesta y activan la expresión de genes específicos de esporulación. Dada la importancia de B. cereus desde el punto de vista epidemiológico, el potencial para bioterrorismo de B. anthracis y la importancia en biotecnología agrícola de B. thuringiensis, la investigación sobre los mecanismos moleculares de señalización y la regulación del inicio de la esporulación en estas bacterias del grupo B. cereus reviste especial interés. En esta revisión se discute la literatura sobre este tema, haciendo hincapié en las histidina cinasas y en el análisis comparativo de los genomas de B. subtilis y del grupo de B. cereus, en cuanto a las secuencias de posibles histidina cinasas y reguladores de respuesta. Cabe destacar que en los genomas del grupo B. cereus hay mayor número de histidina cinasas (10 a 14) y de reguladores de respuesta (7 a 11) putativos que en B. subtilis (6 histidina cinasas y 6 reguladores de respuesta), lo cual sugiere una mayor capacidad para responder a estímulos ambientales y metabólicos en estas bacterias.""Sporulation is a quorum sensing response and a cellular differentiation process regulated by signalling molecules and physiological and environmental signals. The regulation of sporulation initiation has been extensively studied in Bacillus subtilis and occurs through phosphorelay. B. subtilis detects metabolic and environmental signals through histidine kinases that are autophosphorylated and then transfer the phosphate group to response regulators, activating the expression of sporulation genes. However, there are other important sporulated bacilli like those from the B. cereus group. B. cereus toxins are related to food-borne intoxication, B. anthracis may be used as biological weapon in bioterrorism, and B. thuringiensis is an excellent biological control agent. Therefore, it is critical to understand the signalling processes that control sporulation initiation and the toxin synthesis. This review summarizes known literature about regulation of initiation of sporulation in the B. cereus group focusing in the role of histidine kinases and the putative open reading frames of these sensors in B. subtilis and B. thuringiensis. The genomes of the B. cereus group have 10 to 14 putative histidine kinases and 7 to 11 response regulators, compared to 6 histidine kinases and 6 response regulators in B. subtilis, implying that this last bacteria should have a lower capacity to respond to environmental and metabolic signals.

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