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AI as Public Infrastructure: A Critical Review of the Transition from Tool to Societal Necessity
Get PDFArtificial intelligence (AI) has ceased to be a collection of discrete tools. It is now a general-purpose cognitive infrastructure—an expanding layer that mediates learning, resource allocation, decision-making, and power across economies and polities. From finance and healthcare to education, defense, and public administration, AI systems increasingly shape both productivity and the legitimacy of institutions themselves.
This paper conceptualizes AI as Public Infrastructure (AIPI)—a governance framework for managing the interface between globally produced AI systems and domestic institutions. AIPI operates as a filter-translation membrane, channeling the inflow of capabilities through cultural, legal, ethical, economic, and contractual layers before embedding them in critical national workflows.
Drawing on real-world governance practice, we identify three dominant styles—market-led, state-led, and hybrid—defined by how authority, accountability, and coordination are distributed across public and private actors. Using country cases, we show the conditions under which AI capabilities cross into public-infrastructure status and thus warrant infrastructure-grade obligations.
For small and mid-tier states, the realistic strategic aim is governed dependence—the deliberate alignment of imported frontier systems with national priorities and assurance capacity—rather than unattainable autonomy. To operationalize this perspective, we introduce the Infrastructure Status Index (ISI) as a jurisdiction- and domain-specific metric. ISI scores a given country × sector on four dimensions—Essentiality, Embeddedness, Legitimacy, Governance—to answer two questions: (1) has the national capability crossed public-infrastructure thresholds? (2) where does governance lag adoption?
Taken together, the AIPI–ISI frameworks form a national/sectoral design and oversight architecture: they translate diagnosis into clear obligations and pathways for implementation, so imported AI can be embedded purposefully and accountably
Artificial Intelligence and the Sustainable Development Goals: AI Applications for Each SDG
No full textThe race to achieve the United Nations sustainable development goals has spurred much interest in the potential for artificial intelligence (AI) to accelerate progress towards the sustainable development goals. This study explores the role of artificial intelligence in achieving the 17 sustainable development goals. Several AI applications are identified for each of the 17 sustainable development goals. The study also explores how AI systems are helping to analyze large datasets, identify trends, make predictions, and develop insights related to SDG activities. The study also highlights the challenges associated with using AI to accelerate progress for the SDGs. While the benefits of AI for the SDGs are acknowledged in this study, the study calls for a cautious approach in using AI to achieve the SDGs
Efficient two-stage estimation of cyclical ARCH models
No full textTwo estimation algorithms for Periodic Autoregressive Conditionally Heteroskedastic (PARCH ) models are developed in this work. The first is the two-stage weighted least squares (2S-WLS) algorithm, which adapts the ordinary least squares method for use in the periodic ARCH framework. The second, 2S-RLS, is an adaptation of the former for recursive online estimation contexts. Both algorithms produce consistent and asymptotically normally distributed estimators. Furthermore, the second method is particularly well-suited to capturing the dynamic characteristics of financial time series that are increasingly being observed at high frequencies. It also enables effective monitoring of positivity and periodic stationarity constraints
Влияние информационных технологий и искусственного интеллекта на экономические механизмы
No full textIn recent years, the economic literature has discussed the impact of generative artificial intelligence (AI) and large language models on macroeconomic indicators, productivity, wages, inequality, etc. The proposed study complements these results by analyzing the impact of AI on the economy through the functioning of regulatory structures and mechanisms. The hypothesis that the efficiency of economic mechanisms can be increased with the help of information technology (IT), including AI, is considered. For this purpose, based on the concepts of the Institutional Analysis and Development framework, the information processes involved in the work of six functions of coordination and management of economic mechanisms are described. These information processes are sequences of procedures for collecting and processing information that are universal for economic mechanisms of various types. The nature of the relationships between the efficiency of mechanisms and the general properties of IT/AI solutions is considered. IT/AI solutions that improve the efficiency of mechanisms for joint activities of a large number of participants in the context of increasing intensity of unpredictable changes are described. Possible economic consequences of increasing the efficiency of mechanisms through the use of the described IT/AI solutions are analyzed. The main results of the study also include: a) methodology for studying the functioning of economic mechanisms; b) an initial version of the concept for the systemic digitalization of economic mechanisms; c) a description of the "social order" for the IT/AI industry, consisting of IT/AI solutions that are key to digitalization, but currently lacking.
Рассматривается предположение, что эффективность экономических механизмов может быть повышена с помощью информационных технологий (ИТ), включая ИИ. Для этого на основе концепций фреймворка «Институциональный анализ и развитие» описаны информационные процессы, которые участвуют в работе шести функций координации и управления экономических механизмов. Эти информационные процессы представляют собой последовательности процедур сбора и обработки информации, которые являются универсальными для экономических механизмов различных типов. Рассмотрен характер связей между эффективностью механизмов и общими свойствами ИТ/ИИ решений. Описаны ИТ/ИИ решения, обеспечивающие повышение эффективности механизмов для совместной деятельности большого количества участников в условиях усиливающейся интенсивности непредсказуемых изменений. Проанализированы возможные экономические последствия от повышения эффективности механизмов за счет использования описанных ИТ/ИИ решений. В основные результаты исследования также входят: а) методология исследования функционирования экономических механизмов; б) начальная версия концепции системной цифровизации экономических механизмов; в) описание «социального
заказа» для ИТ/ИИ индустрии, состоящего из ключевых для цифровизации механизмов, но пока отсутствующих, ИТ/ИИ решений
Evolution and efficiency of the agricultural utilization wastewaters management chain in Bulgaria
No full textThere has been a fundamental modernization of the wastewater management system in Bulgaria during the EU pre-accession and membership periods. The transition toward sustainable management of wastewaters has been associated with the modern disposal of generated sludge from wastewater treatment plants and the increasing agricultural utilization of this material. The agricultural utilization wastewater management chain emerged and gradually extended as the amount of produced sludge increased and its share was effectively utilized in agriculture. This paper analyses the evolution and challenges of agricultural inclusion in sustainable wastewater management in Bulgaria. It is based on the incorporation of the interdisciplinary New Institutional Economics methodology, official data, and numerous in-depth interviews with representatives of the wastewater treatment plants, responsible authorities, farmers participating and not involved in sludge utilization, and other related agents. The study has found that there has been a significant modernization of the formal institutional environment (rules, regulations, standards, agencies) and incentive structure for agricultural sludge production, transportation, and utilization in recent years. Nevertheless, the potential for inclusion of agriculture in water treatment plants’ sludge utilization has not been entirely used, and the policy target in the area has not been effectively reached. The main impediments for the later arethe significant transition and compliance costs for related agents, inadequate public information, training, and support, environmental and health risks, opposition of landowners, businesses, eco-groups and residents, and uncertain directions of policy development. In the future following actions are needed to promote agricultural use of sludge: clearer policies for wastewaters management, waste disposals and agricultural sludge utilization, including development of a national strategy for sludge management; better enforcement of formal regulations and quality standards in agricultural utilization wastewaters management chain; introducing measures to reduce institutionally determined (production and transaction) costs for agents; support specialized training, information and independents assessment on agricultural sludge utilization; use CAP and other EU instruments to support agents’ efforts to adapt to formal requirements and extend sustainable treatment, disposal, transportation, agricultural utilization and commercialization of sludge
Georgi Petrov and the model of socialist market economy in Bulgaria
No full textWe provide brief information about the context of the 1963 reform. This is followed by a presentation of the main themes and ideas in Georgi Petrov's life research project, which systematically and logically derives the need for decentralisation of the economy, a transition from directive planning to economic levers, granting full autonomy to enterprises included in market mechanisms and profit incentives
A global minimum tax for large firms only: Implications for tax competition
No full textThe Global Minimum Tax (GMT) is applied only to firms above a certain size threshold, permitting countries to set differential tax rates for small and large firms. We analyse tax competition among multiple tax havens and a non-haven country for heterogeneous multinationals to evaluate the effects of this partial coverage of GMT. Upon the introduction of a moderately low GMT rate, the havens commit to the single uniform GMT rate for all multinationals. However, gradual increases in the GMT rate induce the havens, and subsequently the non-haven, to adopt discriminatory, lower tax rates for small multinationals. Our calibration exercise shows that introducing a GMT rate of 15\% results in a regime where only the havens adopt split tax rates. Welfare and tax revenues fall in the havens but rise in the non-haven, yielding a positive net gain worldwide
Tax Burden, Incentives, and Informality: Determinants of SME Growth and Formalisation in Emerging Markets
No full textThis study investigates how tax policies affect small and medium enterprises in developing countries between 2005 and 2023. Panel data regression analysis is employed to examine how performance indicators such as revenue growth, employment generation, and formalisation processes are linked to tax rates, costs associated with complying with value-added tax, the structure of value-added tax, incentive mechanisms, levels of informality, and the quality of public services. The results show that higher rates of tax compliance and effective tax rates negatively influence the performance of small and medium enterprises, supporting the resource-based view theory, which holds that such enterprises are more adversely impacted by tax burdens due to their limited resources. In contrast, tax incentives have a strong positive effect, while informality has a significant negative impact. Through this study, fiscal exchange theory is validated in the context of developing countries, indicating that small and medium enterprises are more likely to comply with tax regulations when they perceive public services to be of high quality. The analysis integrates data from multiple countries and draws on classical economic theory and institutional theory. The key policy implications explain that developing countries should simplify tax systems, design targeted incentives, and adopt digital mechanisms to enhance the competitiveness of small and medium enterprises while addressing informality. The study addresses gaps in the literature related to taxation in developing economies and guides policymakers seeking to strengthen the role of small and medium enterprises in promoting economic growth and employment
Exchange rate and financial inclusion
Get PDFThe relationship between financial inclusion and exchange rate has not received any attention in the literature. This study investigates the effect of the official exchange rate on the level of financial inclusion. A sample of 17 countries were analysed from 2012 to 2020. Four financial inclusion indicators were used in the analysis: the number of ATMs per 100,000 adults variable, the number of bank accounts (or depositors) per 1,000 adults variable, the number of commercial bank branches per 100,000 adults variable, and a financial inclusion index. The correlation result shows that financial inclusion and exchange rate are negatively correlated while the regression result shows that a weakening official exchange rate or currency depreciation has a significant positive impact on financial inclusion through increase in the number of bank depositors (or bank accounts) and increase in the number of commercial bank branches. The findings support the argument that currency depreciation will lead people to take more loans which will increase bank profitability and encourage banks to expand to new locations to acquire new depositors, thereby increasing financial inclusion. The implication of the study is that currency depreciation is beneficial effect for financial inclusion. It is recommended that policymakers should determine the right level of currency depreciation (or devaluation) that is needed to support national financial inclusion efforts and they should manage the exchange rate around that level
Response to "A note on Brandl and Brandt's axiomatic characterization of Nash equilibrium"
Get PDFSchroeder (2025) claims that the solution concept, which, for each n-player game, returns the set of all strategy profiles where each player's strategy has full support, constitutes a counter-example to the characterization by Brandl and Brandt (2024). We show that this is not true because this solution concept violates consequentialism