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The Meat Ambivalence Questionnaire: Assessing Domain-Specific Meat-Related Conflict in Omnivores and Veg*ans
Get PDFPeople are increasingly concerned about how meat affects the environment, human health, and animal welfare, yet eating and enjoying meat remains a norm. Unsurprisingly, many people are ambivalent about meat—evaluating it as both positive and negative. Here, we propose that meat-related conflict is multidimensional and depends on people’s dietary group: Omnivores’ felt ambivalence relates to multiple negative associations that oppose a predominantly positive attitude towards meat, and veg*ans’ ambivalence relates to various positive associations that oppose a predominantly negative attitude. A qualitative study (N = 235; German) revealed that omnivores and veg*ans experience meat-related ambivalence due to associations with animals, sociability, sustainability, health, and sensory experiences. To quantify felt ambivalence in these domains, we developed the Meat Ambivalence Questionnaire (MAQ). We validated the MAQ in four pre-registered studies using self-report and behavioral data (N = 3,485; German, UK, representative US). Both omnivores and veg*ans reported meat-related ambivalence, but with differences across domains and their consequences for meat consumption. Specifically, ambivalence was associated with less meat consumption in omnivores (especially sensory-/animal-based ambivalence) and more meat consumption in veg*ans (especially sensory-/socially-based ambivalence). Network analyses shed further light on the nomological net of the MAQ while controlling for a comprehensive set of determinants of meat consumption. By introducing the MAQ, we hope to provide researchers with a tool to better understand how ambivalence accompanies behavior change and maintenance
Iron (hydr)oxide formation in Andosols under extreme climate conditions
Get PDFRedox-driven biogeochemical cycling of iron plays an integral role in the complex process network of ecosystems, such as carbon cycling, the fate of nutrients and greenhouse gas emissions. We investigate Fe-(hydr)oxide (trans)formation pathways from rhyolitic tephra in acidic topsoils of South Patagonian Andosols to evaluate the ecological relevance of terrestrial iron cycling for this sensitive fjord ecosystem. Using bulk geochemical analyses combined with micrometer-scale-measurements on individual soil aggregates and tephra pumice, we document biotic and abiotic pathways of Fe released from the glassy tephra matrix and titanomagnetite phenocrysts. During successive redox cycles that are controlled by frequent hydrological perturbations under hyper-humid climate, (trans)formations of ferrihydrite-organic matter coprecipitates, maghemite and hematite are closely linked to tephra weathering and organic matter turnover. These Fe-(hydr)oxides nucleate after glass dissolution and complexation with organic ligands, through maghemitization or dissolution-(re)crystallization processes from metastable precursors. Ultimately, hematite represents the most thermodynamically stable Fe-(hydr)oxide formed under these conditions and physically accumulates at redox interfaces, whereas the ferrihydrite coprecipitates represent a so far underappreciated terrestrial source of bio-available iron for fjord bioproductivity. The insights into Fe-(hydr)oxide (trans)formation in Andosols have implications for a better understanding of biogeochemical cycling of iron in this unique Patagonian fjord ecosystem
The benefits of prosocial power motivation in leadership: Action orientation fosters a win-win
Get PDFPower motivation is considered a key component of successful leadership. Based on its dualistic nature, the need for power (nPower) can be expressed in a dominant or a prosocial manner. Whereas dominant motivation is associated with antisocial behaviors, prosocial motivation is characterized by more benevolent actions (e.g., helping, guiding). Prosocial enactment of the power motive has been linked to a wide range of beneficial outcomes, yet less has been investigated what determines a prosocial enactment of the power motive. According to Personality Systems Interactions (PSI) theory, action orientation (i.e., the ability to self-regulate affect) promotes prosocial enactment of the implicit power motive and initial findings within student samples verify this assumption. In the present study, we verified the role of action orientation as an antecedent for prosocial power enactment in a leadership sample (N = 383). Additionally, we found that leaders personally benefited from a prosocial enactment strategy. Results show that action orientation through prosocial power motivation leads to reduced power-related anxiety and, in turn, to greater leader well-being. The integration of motivation and self-regulation research reveals why leaders enact their power motive in a certain way and helps to understand how to establish a win-win situation for both followers and leaders
Headlines win elections: Mere exposure to fictitious news media alters voting behavior
Get PDFRepeatedly encountering a stimulus biases the observer’s affective response and evaluation of the stimuli. Here we provide evidence for a causal link between mere exposure to fictitious news reports and subsequent voting behavior. In four pre-registered online experiments, participants browsed through newspaper webpages and were tacitly exposed to names of fictitious politicians. Exposure predicted voting behavior in a subsequent mock election, with a consistent preference for frequent over infrequent names, except when news items were decidedly negative. Follow-up analyses indicated that mere media presence fuels implicit personality theories regarding a candidate’s vigor in political contexts. News outlets should therefore be mindful to cover political candidates as evenly as possible
Im Spannungsfeld zwischen der chinesischen Kultur und dem Christentum: Die Entwicklung der Katholischen Fu-Jen-Universität in Peking (1925-1951)
Get PDFDie chinesische und westliche Forschung, die sich mit der Beziehung zwischen chinesischer Kultur und katholischer Kirche befasst, konzentriert sich in der Regel auf die katholische Kirche in China vor dem Verbot des Christentums. Die einzigartige Perspektive dieser Arbeit besteht darin, die Veränderungen in der Beziehung zwischen den beiden vom Ende der Ming-Dynastie bis zur ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts zu untersuchen. Vor dem Verbot nährten die katholischen Missionare den konfuzianischen Gelehrten und verbanden die katholische Lehre mit dem Konfuzianismus, um ihren Einfluss in der Oberschicht der chinesischen Gesellschaft auszuüben. Nach dem Verbot achteten die katholischen Missionare nicht so sehr auf ihre Beziehung zur chinesischen Kultur wie ihre Vorgänger im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert. Einige Missionare sowie chinesische Katholiken wollten die Situation ändern und förderten gemeinsam die Gründung der Fu-Jen-Universität, die großen Wert auf die chinesische Kultur legte und die Beziehung zwischen der Katholischen Kirche und der chinesischen Kultur Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts widerspiegeln konnte. Die Professoren der Abteilung Chinesisch und Geschichte leisteten den größten Beitrag zur Forschung der chinesischen Kultur an der Universität. Im Vergleich zu anderen wichtigen Universitäten in Peking, wo die chinesische Literatur im Fachbereich Chinesisch eine zentrale Stellung einnahm, legte die Fu-Jen-Universität mehr Wert auf die chinesische Sprache und Schriftzeichen. Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts erlangten Frauen unter dem Einfluss der globalen feministischen Bewegung das Recht auf Hochschulbildung. Bis 1920 waren jedoch die katholischen Universitäten in Bezug auf die Hochschulbildung von Frauen Jahrzehnte hinter den protestantischen und nichtkirchlichen Universitäten zurückgefallen. Die Fu-Jen-Universität verbesserte diese Situation, indem sie nicht nur eine große Anzahl von Studentinnen annahm, sondern ihnen eine Vielzahl von Fächern einschließlich Chinesisch und Geschichte anbot. Im Allgemeinen konnte die Universität als Verbindung zwischen dem Katholizismus und der chinesischen Kultur in der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts angesehen werden. Sie spielte eine wichtige Rolle nicht nur bei der Erforschung und Verbreitung der chinesischen Kultur, sondern auch bei der Ausweitung des Einflusses der katholischen Kirche zu dieser Zeit.Chinese and Western studies on the relationship between Chinese culture and the Catholic Church usually focus on the period before the prohibition of Christianity in China. The unique perspective of this dissertation is to analyze the changes in the relationship between the two from the end of the Ming Dynasty to the first half of the 20th century. Before the ban, the Catholic missionaries bonded with Confucian scholars and fused Catholic doctrine with Confucianism to exert their influence in the upper class of Chinese society. After the ban, the Catholic missionaries did not pay as much attention to their relationship with Chinese culture as their predecessors in the 17th and 18th centuries. Some missionaries and Chinese Catholics wanted to change the situation and jointly promoted the establishment of Fu Jen University, which placed great importance on Chinese culture and could reflect the relationship between the Catholic Church and Chinese culture in the early 20th century. The professors of the Department of Chinese and History made the greatest contribution to the study of Chinese culture at the university. Compared with other major universities in Beijing, where Chinese literature played a central role in the Chinese department, Fu Jen University placed more emphasis on the Chinese language and characters. In the early 20th century, women gained the right to higher education under the influence of the global feminist movement. By 1920, however, Catholic universities had fallen decades behind Protestant and non-church universities in terms of women's higher education. Fu Jen University improved this situation by not only accepting a large number of female students, but by offering them a wide variety of subjects, including Chinese and history. In general, the university could be seen as a link between Catholicism and Chinese culture in the first half of the 20th century. It played an important role not only in the study and dissemination of Chinese culture, but also in expanding the influence of the Catholic Church at that time
THE NONLOCAL NEUMANN PROBLEM
Get PDFInstead of presuming only local interaction, we assume nonlocal interactions. By doing so, mass
at a point in space does not only interact with an arbitrarily small neighborhood surrounding it,
but it can also interact with mass somewhere far, far away. Thus, mass jumping from one point to
another is also a possibility we can consider in our models. So, if we consider a region in space, this
region interacts in a local model at most with its closure. While in a nonlocal model this region may
interact with the whole space. Therefore, in the formulation of nonlocal boundary value problems
the enforcement of boundary conditions on the topological boundary may not suffice. Furthermore,
choosing the complement as nonlocal boundary may work for Dirichlet boundary conditions, but
in the case of Neumann boundary conditions this may lead to an overfitted model.
In this thesis, we introduce a nonlocal boundary and study the well-posedness of a nonlocal Neu-
mann problem. We present sufficient assumptions which guarantee the existence of a weak solution.
As in a local model our weak formulation is derived from an integration by parts formula. However,
we also study a different weak formulation where the nonlocal boundary conditions are incorporated
into the nonlocal diffusion-convection operator.
After studying the well-posedness of our nonlocal Neumann problem, we consider some applications
of this problem. For example, we take a look at a system of coupled Neumann problems and analyze
the difference between a local coupled Neumann problems and a nonlocal one. Furthermore, we let
our Neumann problem be the state equation of an optimal control problem which we then study. We
also add a time component to our Neumann problem and analyze this nonlocal parabolic evolution
equation.
As mentioned before, in a local model mass at a point in space only interacts with an arbitrarily
small neighborhood surrounding it. We analyze what happens if we consider a family of nonlocal
models where the interaction shrinks so that, in limit, mass at a point in space only interacts with
an arbitrarily small neighborhood surrounding it
A Penalty Branch-and-Bound Method for Piecewise Convex Objective Functions
Get PDFDie Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit einer neuartigen Art von Branch-and-Bound Algorithmen, deren Unterschied zu klassischen Branch-and-Bound Algorithmen darin besteht, dass
das Branching durch die Addition von nicht-negativen Straftermen zur Zielfunktion erfolgt
anstatt durch das Hinzufügen weiterer Nebenbedingungen. Die Arbeit zeigt die theoretische Korrektheit des Algorithmusprinzips für verschiedene allgemeine Klassen von Problemen und evaluiert die Methode für verschiedene konkrete Problemklassen. Für diese Problemklassen, genauer Monotone und Nicht-Monotone Gemischtganzzahlige Lineare Komplementaritätsprobleme und Gemischtganzzahlige Lineare Probleme, präsentiert die Arbeit
verschiedene problemspezifische Verbesserungsmöglichkeiten und evaluiert diese numerisch.
Weiterhin vergleicht die Arbeit die neue Methode mit verschiedenen Benchmark-Methoden
mit größtenteils guten Ergebnissen und gibt einen Ausblick auf weitere Anwendungsgebiete
und zu beantwortende Forschungsfragen
Essays on the Economics of Education and Industrial Relations
Get PDFThis thesis comprises of four research papers on the economics of education and industrial relations, which contribute to the field of empirical economic research. All of the corresponding papers focus on analysing how much time individuals spend on specific activities. The allocation of available time resources is a decision that individuals make throughout their lifetime. In this thesis, we consider individuals at different stages of their lives - students at school, university students, and dependent employees at the workplace.
Part I includes two research studies on student's behaviour in secondary and tertiary education.
Chapter 2 explores whether students who are relatively younger or older within the school year exhibit differential time allocation. Building on previous findings showing that relatively younger students perform worse in school, the study shows that relatively younger students are aware of their poor performance in school and feel more strain as a result. Nevertheless, there are no clear differences to be found in terms of time spent on homework, while relatively younger students spend more time watching television and less time on sports activities. Thus, the results suggest that the lower learning outcomes are not associated with different time allocations between school-related activities and non-school-related activities.
Chapter 3 analyses how individual ability and labour market prospects affect study behaviour. The theoretical modelling predicts that both determinants increase study effort. The empirical investigation is based on cross-sectional data from the National Educational Panel Study (NEPS) and includes thousands of students in Germany. The analyses show that more gifted students exhibit lower subjective effort levels and invest less time in self-study. In contrast, very good labour market prospects lead to more effort exerted by the student, both qualitatively and quantitatively. The potential endogeneity problem is taken into account by using regional unemployment data as an instrumental variable.
Part II includes two labour economic studies on determinants of overtime. Both studies belong to the field of industrial relations, as they focus on union membership on the one hand and the interplay of works councils and collective bargaining coverage on the other.
Chapter 4 shows that union members work less overtime than non-members do. The econometric approach takes the problem of unobserved heterogeneity into account; but provides no evidence that this issue affects the results. Different channels that could lead to this relationship are analysed by examining relevant subgroups separately. For example, this effect of union membership can also be observed in establishments with works councils and for workers who are very likely to be covered by collective bargaining agreements. The study concludes that the observed effect is due to the fact that union membership can protect workers from corresponding increased working time demands by employers.
Chapter 5 builds on previous studies showing a negative effect of works councils on overtime. In addition to co-determination by works councils at the firm level, collective bargaining coverage is an important factor in the German industrial relations system. Corresponding data was not available in the SOEP for quite some time. Therefore, the study uses recent SOEP data, which also contains information on collective bargaining coverage. A cross-sectional analysis is conducted to examine the effects of works councils in establishments with and without collective bargaining coverage. Similar to studies analysing other outcome variables, the results show that the effect of works councils exists only for employees covered by a collective bargaining agreement.Diese Thesis umfasst vier Forschungsstudien zu bildungs- und arbeitsökonomischen Fragestellungen, die dem Gebiet der empirischen Wirtschaftsforschung zuzuordnen sind. Im Zentrum der Analyse steht bei allen Studien, wie viel Zeit Individuen für bestimmte Tätigkeiten aufbringen. Die Allokation der zur Verfügung stehenden zeitlichen Ressourcen ist eine Entscheidung, die Individuen ein Leben lang treffen. In dieser Thesis werden Individuen in verschiedenen Lebensabschnitten betrachtet - Schüler im Alter der Sekundarstufe, Studenten an Universitäten und abhängig Beschäftigte im Berufsleben.
Teil I enthält zwei bildungsökonomische Studien im Bereich der sekundären und tertiären Bildung.
In Kapitel 2 wird erforscht, ob Lernende, die innerhalb ihrer Lernkohorte relativ gesehen jünger oder älter sind, eine unterschiedliche Zeitallokation aufweisen. Aufbauend auf früheren Erkenntnissen, dass relativ jüngere Schüler schlechtere Leistungen in der Schule aufweisen, zeigt die Studie, dass relativ jüngeren Schülern ihr schlechteres Abschneiden in der Schule bewusst ist und sie eine höhere Belastung hierdurch verspüren. Dennoch lassen sich in Bezug auf die Zeit für Hausaufgaben keine eindeutigen Unterschiede finden, während relativ junge Schüler mehr Zeit mit Fernsehen und weniger Zeit für sportliche Aktivitäten verbringen. Die Ergebnisse deuten damit darauf hin, dass die niedrigeren Lernergebnisse nicht mit einer unterschiedlichen Zeitaufteilung zwischen schulischen und außerschulischen Aktivitäten einhergehen.
In Kapitel 3 wird analysiert, wie sich zum einen die individuelle Kompetenz und zum anderen Arbeitsmarktaussichten auf das Studierverhalten auswirken. Die theoretische Modellierung sagt voraus, dass beide Determinanten die Studieranstrengungen erhöhen. Die empirische Untersuchung basiert auf Querschnittsdaten aus dem Nationalen Bildungspanel (NEPS) und umfasst tausende Studierende in Deutschland. Die Analysen zeigen, dass höher begabte Studierende niedrigere subjektive Anstrengungen aufweisen und weniger Zeit in ihr Studium investieren. Hingegen führen positive Arbeitsmarktaussichten zu mehr Einsatz der Studierenden, sowohl in qualitativer als auch in quantitativer Hinsicht. Das potentielle Endogenitätsproblem wird berücksichtigt, indem regionale Arbeitslosendaten als Instrument genutzt werden.
Teil II beinhaltet zwei arbeitsmarktökonomische Studien zu Determinanten von Überstunden. Beide Studien sind im Themengebiet der industriellen Beziehungen angesiedelt, da sie zum einen eine Gewerkschaftsmitgliedschaft und zum anderen das Zusammenspiel von Betriebsräten und Tarifbindung fokussieren.
In Kapitel 4 wird gezeigt, dass Gewerkschaftsmitglieder weniger Überstunden als Nichtmitglieder leisten. Die ökonometrischen Schätzungen berücksichtigen das Problem der unbeobachteten Heterogenität, liefern aber keine Hinweise, dass dieser Aspekt die Ergebnisse beeinflusst. Es werden verschiedene Kanäle analysiert, die zu diesem Zusammenhang führen könnten, indem entsprechende Subgruppen separat untersucht werden. Beispielsweise kann dieser Effekt der Gewerkschaftsmitgliedschaft auch in Betrieben mit Betriebsrat und für Arbeitnehmer, die sehr wahrscheinlich unter Tarifverträge fallen, beobachtet werden. Die Studie kommt zu dem Schluss, dass der beobachtete Effekt darauf zurückzuführen ist, dass eine Gewerkschaftsmitgliedschaft Arbeitnehmer vor entsprechenden erhöhten Arbeitszeitforderungen der Arbeitgeber schützen kann.
Kapitel 5 baut auf früheren Studien auf, die einen negativen Effekt von Betriebsräten auf Überstunden zeigen. Neben der Mitbestimmung durch Betriebsräte auf Unternehmensebene ist die Tarifbindung ein wichtiger Faktor im deutschen System der Arbeitsbeziehungen. Entsprechende Daten waren im SOEP lange Zeit nicht verfügbar. Daher nutzt die Studie neuere SOEP-Daten, die auch Informationen zur Tarifbindung enthalten. Es wird eine Querschnittsanalyse durchgeführt, um die Auswirkungen von Betriebsräten in Betrieben mit und ohne Tarifbindung zu untersuchen. ähnlich wie in Studien, die andere Ergebnisvariablen analysieren, zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass der Effekt von Betriebsräten nur für Beschäftigte, die nach einem Tarifvertrag bezahlt werden, existiert
Representation and Integrability Theorems for Cauchy Transforms of Functions and Measures
Get PDFEven though proper research on Cauchy transforms has been done, there are still a lot of open questions. For example, in the case of representation theorems, i.e. the question when a function can be represented as a Cauchy transform, there is 'still no completely satisfactory answer' ([9], p. 84). There are characterizations for measures on the circle as presented in the monograph [7] and for general compactly supported measures on the complex plane as presented in [27]. However, there seems to exist no systematic treatise of the Cauchy transform as an operator on spaces and weighted spaces on the real axis.
This is the point where this thesis draws on and we are interested in developing several characterizations for the representability of a function by Cauchy transforms of functions. Moreover, we will attack the issue of integrability of Cauchy transforms of functions and measures, a topic which is only partly explored (see [43]). We will develop different approaches involving Fourier transforms and potential theory and investigate into sufficient conditions and characterizations.
For our purposes, we shall need some notation and the concept of Hardy spaces which will be part of the preliminary Chapter 1. Moreover, we introduce Fourier transforms and their complex analogue, namely Fourier-Laplace transforms. This will be of extraordinary usage due to the close connection of Cauchy and Fourier(-Laplace) transforms.
In the second chapter we shall begin our research with a discussion of the Cauchy transformation on the classical (unweighted) spaces. Therefore, we start with the boundary behavior of Cauchy transforms including an adapted version of the Sokhotski-Plemelj formula. This result will turn out helpful for the determination of the image of the Cauchy transformation under for The cases and are playing special roles here which justifies a treatise in separate sections. For we will involve the real Hardy space whereas the case shall be attacked by an approach incorporating intersections of Hardy spaces and certain subspaces of
The third chapter prepares ourselves for the study of the Cauchy transformation on subspaces of We shall give a short overview of the basic facts about Cauchy transforms of measures and then proceed to Cauchy transforms of functions with support in a closed set Our goal is to build up the main theory on which we can fall back in the subsequent chapters.
The fourth chapter deals with Cauchy transforms of functions and measures supported by an unbounded interval which is not the entire real axis. For convenience we restrict ourselves to the interval Bringing once again the Fourier-Laplace transform into play, we deduce complex characterizations for the Cauchy transforms of functions in Moreover, we analyze the behavior of Cauchy transform on several half-planes and shall use these results for a fairly general geometric characterization. In the second section of this chapter, we focus on Cauchy transforms of measures with support in In this context, we shall derive a reconstruction formula for these Cauchy transforms holding under pretty general conditions as well as results on the behaviur on the left half-plane. We close this chapter by rather technical real-type conditions and characterizations for Cauchy transforms of functions in basing on an approach in [82].
The most common case of Cauchy transforms, those of compactly supported functions or measures, is the subject of Chapter 5. After complex and geometric characterizations originating from similar ideas as in the fourth chapter, we adapt a functional-analytic approach in [27] to special measures, namely those with densities to a given complex measure The chapter is closed with a study of the Cauchy transformation on weighted spaces. Here, we choose an ansatz through the finite Hilbert transform on
The sixth chapter is devoted to the issue of integrability of Cauchy transforms. Since this topic has no comprehensive treatise in literature yet, we start with an introduction of weighted Bergman spaces and general results on the interaction of the Cauchy transformation in these spaces. Afterwards, we combine the theory of Zen spaces with Cauchy transforms by using once again their connection with Fourier transforms. Here, we shall encounter general Paley-Wiener theorems of the recent past. Lastly, we attack the issue of integrability of Cauchy transforms by means of potential theory. Therefore, we derive a Fourier integral formula for the logarithmic energy in one and multiple dimensions and give applications to Fourier and hence Cauchy transforms.
Two appendices are annexed to this thesis. The first one covers important definitions and results from measure theory with a special focus on complex measures. The second appendix contains Cauchy transforms of frequently used measures and functions with detailed calculations
ACADEMIC BOREDOM DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY SECONDARY EDUCATION
Get PDFThe following dissertation contains three studies examining academic boredom development in five high-track German secondary schools (AVG-project data; Study 1: N = 1,432; Study 2: N = 1,861; Study 3: N = 1,428). The investigation period spanned 3.5 years, with four waves of measurement from grades 5 to 8 (T1: 5th grade, after transition to secondary school; T2: 5th grade, after mid-term evaluations; T3: 6th grade, after mid-term evaluations; T4: 8th grade, after mid-term evaluations). All three studies featured cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses, separating, and comparing the subject domains of mathematics and German.
Study 1 provided an investigation of academic boredom’s factorial structure alongside correlational and reciprocal relations of different forms of boredom and academic self-concept. Analyses included reciprocal effects models and latent correlation analyses. Results indicated separability of boredom intensity, boredom due to underchallenge and boredom due to overchallenge, as separate, correlated factors. Evidence for reciprocal relations between boredom and academic self-concept was limited.
Study 2 examined the effectiveness and efficacy of full-time ability grouping for as a boredom intervention directed at the intellectually gifted. Analyses included propensity score matching, and latent growth curve modelling. Results pointed to limited effectiveness and efficacy for full-time ability grouping regarding boredom reduction.
Study 3 explored gender differences in academic boredom development, mediated by academic interest, academic self-concept, and previous academic achievement. Analyses included measurement invariance testing, and multiple-indicator-multi-cause-models. Results showed one-sided gender differences, with boys reporting less favorable boredom development compared to girls, even beyond the inclusion of relevant mediators.
Findings from all three studies were embedded into the theoretical framework of control-value theory (Pekrun, 2006; 2019; Pekrun et al., 2023). Limitations, directions for future research, and practical implications were acknowledged and discussed.
Overall, this dissertation yielded important insights into boredom’s conceptual complexity. This concerned factorial structure, developmental trajectories, interrelations to other learning variables, individual differences, and domain specificities.
Keywords: Academic boredom, boredom intensity, boredom due to underchallenge, boredom due to overchallenge, ability grouping, gender differences, longitudinal data analysis, control-value theor