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A sustainable urban design approach to adaptive reuse projects in Cape Town
No full textThesis (MTech (Interior Design))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017.This research is about the spaces between places in urban settings, also referred to as
"Interiorscapes", a term coined by Paul Cooper (2003). These spaces are often
overlooked by developers and urban planners in their vision of the bigger scheme yet
they function as extensions of the habitable spaces in buildings and contribute to the
overall structure and understanding of a place. If disregarded these spaces can
potentially become neglected and derelict inadvertently sanctioning opportunities for
crime. In Cape Town, the proposed developments at the Two Rivers Urban Park in
partnership with the Western Cape Government and the City of Cape Town, offer an
opportunity to explore the inclusion of Interiorscapes in adaptive reuse projects aimed
at creating sustainable commercial urban spaces in Cape Town.
This interpretive qualitative research was conducted by exploring proposals made for
two of the districts within the Two Rivers Urban Park area; (1) Oude Molen Ecovillage,
currently a mixed-use sustainable neighborhood, and (2) the River Club where planning
is currently underway to develop a commercialised recreational hub and tourist
attraction. These sites were identified as study areas as they offer the potential for the
implementation of Interiorscapes in adaptive reuse projects. Using a Grounded Theory
approach, data was collected by interviewing the stakeholders, reviewing the
proposals drawn up for these developments and through observations made when
visiting the sites. Using the principles of New Urbanism, data has been analysed and the
findings are presented as a narrative.
The findings of this research indicate that ultimately the inclusion of Interiorscapes and
all they represent is tied up in politics and economic processes monopolised by
developers. The construct of Interiorscapes becomes a metaphor for the wellconsidered,
well planned, user centered, ‘bottom-up’ design solutions which in the
current context may present as a challenging problem which has no apparent solution.
Recommendations are made for sustainable design alternatives to the current building
and planning practices in Cape Town for adaptive reuse projects through the
introduction of Interiorscapes
Reactor reconfiguration for enhanced performance of a down-flow expanded granular bed reactor (Degbr) for poultry slaughterhouse treatment
No full textThesis (MTech (Chemical Engineering))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017.The poultry industry is one of the largest industries in the South African agricultural sector. To sustain their various operations, this industry utilises a large quantity of potable water to process slaughtered birds in order to satisfy hygiene and sanitation requirements in processing facilities. Thus, the consumption of potable water during poultry slaughterhouse operations results in the production of high-strength poultry slaughterhouse wastewater (PSW), which is laden with a variety of pollutants, including fats, oil and grease (FOG), carcass debris, feathers and organic matter, including proteins, that should be removed from the wastewater, or at least reduced in concentration, prior to the PSW being discharged into the environment. This is to avoid and/or minimise levies and non-compliance penalties from monitoring institutions in charge of controlling the quality of effluents in the area from which the PSW was collected for this study. Furthermore, the option of treating and recycling the PSW to address the current issue of water scarcity in the Western Cape (South Africa), and to minimise possible harmful effects on the environment, will reduce the overreliance on slaughterhouses in the region on potable/drinking water, thus also lessening running costs associated with water procurement for operations.
Various technologies, involving physical, chemical or biological processes, have been evaluated for the treatment of PSW, with this study focusing on anaerobic treatment (part of the biological treatment) of PSW, using a high-rate anaerobic bioreactor system (HRABs), which provides for low production of sludge, the production of biogas as a source of energy and the provision of high performance in terms of organic matter removal. Moreover, HRABs are cheaper, when compared to other aerobic treatment technologies. However, numerous potential challenges were encountered when using HRABs, such as low production of biogas due to gas entrapment, head losses across the granular bed, sludge washout in upflow HRABs, uneven wastewater distribution, and thus poor dispersion of the organic matter, which impacts on the adequacy of treatment, poor release of toxic substances contained in the entrapped biogas (NH3 or H2S), clogging of the underdrain system for down-flow HRABs, or the formation of dead zones within the granular bed, resulting in short-circuiting
Modelling of a bioflocculant supported dissolved air flotation system for fats oil and grease laden wastewater pretreatment
No full textThesis (MTech (Chemical Engineering))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017.In the recent past, the poultry industry in South Africa has grown due to an increased demand of
poultry products as a result of population growth and improved living standards. Furthermore,
this has led to poultry slaughterhouses generating high strength wastewater which is laden with
a high concentration of organic and inorganic pollutants from the slaughtering process and
sanitation of equipment and facilities. As a result, South Africa has promulgated restrictions and
a set of quality standards for effluent discharged into the environment to minimize ecological
degradation and human health impact. Hence, there is a need for improved Poultry
Slaughterhouse Wastewater (PSW) pre-treatment prior to either discharge into municipal
wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) or on-site secondary treatment processes such as
anaerobic digesters. Additionally, amongst the pre-treatment methods for Fats, Oil and Grease
(FOG) laden wastewater, flotation remains the most popular with Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF)
system being the most applied. However, modelling and optimization of a biological DAF system
has never been attempted before in particular for a bioflocculant supported DAF (BioDAF) for
PSW pre-treatment. Process modelling and optimization involves process adjustment to
optimize influential parameters. In this study, Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was used
to develop an empirical model of a BioDAF for pre-treatment of PSW, for which a bioflocculant
producer including production conditions, flocculant type and its floc formation mechanism, were
identified.
Twenty-one (n = 21) microbial strains were isolated from the PSW and their flocculation activity
using kaolin clay suspension (4g/L) was quantified, with a mutated Escherichia coli (mE.coli)
[accession number LT906474.1], having the highest flocculation activity even in limited nutrient
conditions; hence, it was used for further analysis in other experiments. Furthermore, the
optimum conditions for bioflocculant production achieved using RSM were pH of 6.5 and 36°C
conditions which induced instantaneous bioflocculant production with the highest flocculation
activity. The bioflocculant produced by the mE.coli showed the presence of carboxyl/amine,
alkyne and hydroxyl functional groups, which was indicative that the bioflocculant contained
both polysaccharides and some amino acids
The effectiveness of quality assurance systems towards delivering low-cost housing in Cape Town South Africa
No full textThesis (MTech (Construction Management))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017.The study investigates the effectiveness of quality assurance systems in the delivery of low-cost houses in Cape Town South Africa.
As an endeavor to deliver adequate social housing in Cape Town‟s disadvantaged and underdeveloped communities, the study is aimed at ensuring that National Housing Code as set by Department of Human Settlement concerning the overall resultant quality of houses constructed is adhered to. There are several studies on resultant quality and quality assurance of low-cost houses (LCH) in the entire country, of which skill inadequacy has been highlighted as the major concern. This is because of the sluggish improvement in quality of the low-cost houses constructed. However, skill inadequacy of construction workers has been reported in developed and developing countries, and consequently poorly impacts on the delivery of low-cost house construction projects. The human resource (labour) is the significant tool to adequate use of materials and plant for the achievement of the project objectives.
The study identified six objectives directed towards establishing an instrument that will ensure appropriate application of quality assurance systems in the delivery of low-cost house construction, hence improving the resultant quality of low-cost houses being constructed. The first objective identifies the existence, prevalence and depth of the poor resultant quality in low-cost housing areas; the second objective identifies the quality assurance systems in current use in construction of low-cost housing; the third objective evaluates the extent to which the existing quality assurance systems used assist in current low-cost housing construction; the fourth objective evaluates the effectiveness of quality assurance systems in current use; and fifth objective determines whether the poor resultant quality is the consequence of poor application of the system or the lack of knowledge from the professionals involved. Finally, the last objective is to establish the mechanism to ensure the effective use of quality assurance systems in the construction of low-cost houses.
The research adopted a mixed methodological approach, with a use of quantitative questionnaires completed by beneficiaries and structured qualitative interviews conducted with the building inspectors, contractor and designer. The research questionnaires were designed to understand the perceptions of beneficiaries on the day to day structural performance of their houses. The structured interviews were designed to understand the knowledge of building inspectors, the contractor and the designer about the quality assurance systems and their applications in the delivery of low-cost houses, In the main study, one hundred (100) questionnaires were administered and hand- delivered to all three areas identified as Delft, Khayelitsha and Langa. Seventy three (73) questionnaires (73%) were duly completed, returned and analysed with Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22.
The key findings included the use of unskilled workmanship, limited knowledge of quality assurance systems by the building inspector, contractor and designer, and inappropriate procurement systems as well as benchmarking used. This thesis is both theoretical and practical research and is limited to books relevant to quality assurance and quality of low-cost houses and data retrieved from interviews and questionnaire surveys. The selection criteria for inspectors should incorporate skill in quality assurance. The National Home Builders Registration Council (NHBRC) criteria for appointment of contractors to carry on works should not be just a saying but also be put into practice. It should also at least refer to three previous completed projects to ensure the profile of the contractor is in accordance with the statutory requirements of NHBRC
‘The right to the city’ for marginalised communities through water and sanitation service projects
No full textThesis (DTech (Design))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017.The introduction of water service programmes has significantly improved the delivery of Water and Sanitation Services to marginalised communities in Kenya. Since the implementation of the Kenya Water Act of 2002, enacted policies have resulted in communal ablution blocks and water kiosks in some of the more densely populated settlements. In the development of service provision programmes to improve access to water and sanitation, the social and cultural implications have yet to be addressed. To better understand the partnerships between the marginalised community and the political agencies that ensure improved allocation of resources, community participation should be addressed in the emerging water governance.
The right to water is a key clause in the new constitution of Kenya and although this is a laudable recognition of citizens’ rights to basic services, this constitutional clause is yet to be fully implemented. The exclusion of social practices followed by marginalised communities results in limits in the promotion and implemention water and sanitation projects. The resulting lack of water and sanitation services decreases the internal capacities of community members and inhibits development. A natural and finite resource such as water, often taken for granted by most, is the foundation to improved places in a community. These places reflect social relations within the given society and provide a platform for interaction. When this engagement occurs, meaning in both physical and social boundaries between different communities that emerge, can help assert agency to marginalised groups. While a programme is used to define a space by regulating through building codes and standards, a community’s role is validated by the inclusiveness of the design process. Therefore the resultant project allows for a sense of agency to be built, while boosting interaction through learning programmes, to improve civic duties in the society. These aspects are crucial for development and can be achieved using allocation of basic services like water and sanitation.
Grounded Theory is used to analyse the interviews from the respondents and it concerns itself with the meanings attributed to steps within processes. This approach is applicable when meanings attributed to macro-level explanations and micro-level activities need to be uncovered. The interviews conducted for this study are analysed line-by-line coding and memo writing. The data is used as a narrative of distinct processes in both marginalised communities and political agencies. Using the model of an agent the study illustrates the process of agency that highlights the role of marginalised communities in participatory approches toward equitable access to water and sanitaion services. The cases approached in this study further articulate the processes used by political agencies to engage in community participatory approaches. Though these participatory approaches were seen to be more inclusive than previous service delivery approaches, gaps emerged in the study that are addressed in the relationship matrix.
This model distinguishes the differences in the production of space through Water and Sanitation Service programs, and the creation of place in implemented projects. By aligning these two aspects of the production of space when applied to marginalised settings helps in understanding the context prior to the implementation of WSS development programmes. This recognition of the role that marginalised communities play in socioeconomic development can improve programmes and projects aimed at providing water and sanitation services. This access is important to marginalised groups which are disadvantaged, because of a difference in their practices. By understanding the social practices around the use, management and safeguarding of water and sanitation projects, community members can begin to attach cultural value to their water resources. This has implications for the sustainability of the projects and their replicability. Therefore social practices, and by extension culture, influence the concept and design of programmes to enable access to water and sanitation resources, especially to marginalised groups in society
Comparison of distribution coefficients of 14 elements on three cation exchangers
No full textThesis (MTech (Chemistry))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017.Certain resins used in ion-exchange separation techniques have become very expensive. Although ion-exchange is an economical method to soften water it is important to keep the cost low during the process. Any exorbitant costs will make a process unattractive and eventually obsolete. Bio-Rad AG MP-50 macroporous resin (supplied by Bio-Rad Laboratories, Ltd.) at present costs approximately R20000 (twenty thousand rand) for 500 g compared to Amberlyst 15 R840.00 for 500 mL and Dowex Marathon MSC R312.34 macroporous resin for 500 mL (both supplied by Dow, Rohm and Haas Co).
This motivated the research to determine by a comparative study if there is any difference in the efficiency and effectiveness in the quantitative analysis of trace elements when these resins are used.
The following elements will be used to determine distribution coefficients for the elements on these resins: Mn, Fe(III), Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Ag, Cd, In, Ga, Tl, Pb and Bi in 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0 M nitric acid solutions. Another question is whether there is a difference or a preference when selecting either a microporous or a macroporous resin for the ion-exchange separation. Determination of distribution coefficients for 46 elements had been done by Strelow (Strelow F. W., 1984) in nitric acid on Bio-Rad AG 50W-X8. The results obtained in this study will be compared with the distribution coefficients obtained by Strelow.
The Bio-Rad, Amberlyst and Dowex resins were stirred for approximately 30 minutes in deionised water and then packed in a column. Impurities in the resin column were eluted with 5 M HCl and the resin was then rinsed with deionised water to remove the acid. Thereafter the resins was rinsed out of the column with deionised water, filtered off and then dried under vacuum in an oven at 60 0C for approximately 24 hours. Stock solutions of the elements were prepared as 0.1 M solutions and then diluted with deionised water to obtain solutions having the respective concentrations of 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0 M. Quadruplicate reference standards of each element were prepared. Distribution coefficients of the elements on each resin were determined as described by Strelow (Strelow F. W., Distribution coefficients and ion exchange behaviour of some chloride complex forming elements with Bio Rad AG50W - X8 cation exchange resin in mixed Nitric-Hydrochloric acid solutions, 1989).
From the distribution coefficients, obtained from the ICP-OES data, a selectivity series for the 14 elements, mentioned above, was arranged in the decreasing order for each resin’s affinity for the elements. The distribution coefficients also give an indication whether the elements can be quantitatively separated by the cation exchangers in nitric acid media. Elution curves for some elements were done to establish the experimental conditions for quantitative separations of the elements by column cation exchange chromatography
Monitoring and controlling of projects within selected organisations in the public sector
No full textThesis (MTech (Public Management))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, [2017].The study is located within a Project Management paradigm. The South African national Department of Education’s (the DOE) approach to e-Education and its directive issued in 2004 to integrate Information and Communication Technologies (ICT’s) into teaching and learning forms the premise of this study. In 2009, the Western Cape Government adopted the Modernisation Programme to bring the provincial government on par with international best practice, to ensure that government officials are fit for their respective purposes. The challenge for the Western Cape Government was its ability to implement a project management approach to all activities performed by all stakeholders and role players in the project implementation process. The core objective of the study was to develop a theoretical framework to monitor and control projects and practices within selected provincial government departments in the Western Cape, with specific reference to the Department of the Premier (DotP) and the Western Cape Education Department, in order to achieve and provide an improved project management approach to monitor and control projects when implementing strategy and, in turn, enhance effective and efficient service delivery. A qualitative research approach was used, as the researchers were keen to hear verbal accounts around the experiences and perceptions of selected individuals within the Department of the Premier and Western Cape Education Department around the MSPiL Training Project in particular, and how it is monitored and controlled. Applicable literature was consulted which indicated the complexity of project management in the public sector as it relates to monitoring and control of projects. Methods/mechanisms, procedures and systems for defining, planning, scheduling, controlling, organising, monitoring and evaluating project activities to enhance service delivery, were forwarded. One of the core findings of the study was that an agile project management approach/methodology is best suited to an environment that has faster turnaround times with more streamlined, speedier approvals and processes, red tape reduction, as well as more direct communication channels. The aforementioned lacked in the South African public sector. A recommendation forwarded is that the Department of the Premier, Centre for e-Innovation’s (Directorate GITO: Education, Cultural Affairs and Sport) project office and a task team that specifically deal with the MSPiL project should clearly understand their department’s requirements whilst defining, planning and managing projects to improve project management maturity, as well as constantly communicate the roadmap, benefits and progress at both project/programme, departmental and provincial level by 2019, since this is when the Western Cape Provincial Strategic Plan reaches its end. This will assist the department and its MSPiL project team to improve project tasks and activities for future projects with similar characteristics
Influence of nutritional labelling on the choice of a fast food by young adults from the professional and clerk occupational groups in the City of Cape Town, South Africa
No full textThesis (MTech (Consumer Science: Food and Nutrition))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017.Objective: To determine whether nutritional information provision would influence the choice
of a popular fast food by young adults employed in the City of Cape Town, South Africa (SA),
within the professional and clerk occupational classifications as consumer group, using a beef
burger as exploratory item.
Methodology: A survey, in the form of a self-administered questionnaire comprising closedended
multiple-choice questions, was used to obtain information on the respondent fast food
consumption, fast food consumption on nutritional information provision using a beef burger as
exploratory item, demographic, biographic and lifestyle characteristics, and eating practices.
Through the purchasing of beef burgers across four major leading fast food franchises located
within the Western Cape, and specifically those based in the City of Cape Town competitive in
this fast food category, information pertaining to beef burger ingredients and the individual
ingredient weights were obtained, to compile 16 representative beef burger-types to be presented
in the questionnaire. Beef burgers were presented as two menu-options (i.e. the first containing
energy provision alone, vs. the second containing extended nutritional information as energy,
total fat, saturated fat and cholesterol provision) within the questionnaire, to obtain information
on whether nutritional information provision would influence the respondents’ choice, and if so,
which provision would do so. The questionnaire was assessed for content- and face-validity by an
expert panel, and on the research receiving ethics approval, piloted and adapted before being
distributed.
Questionnaires were distributed according to the respondent preference for ease of use as either
a hard printed copy or an electronic questionnaire. This was done via means of purposive and
convenience sampling and by way of snowball sampling, to obtain young adults aged 20 to 34
years who were consumers of fast food and specifically beef burgers, within the selected
occupational classifications working for small- to medium-sized companies in the City of Cape
Town. Via the Pearson’s chi-squared and Fisher’s exact test and a logistic regression (Wald chisquare
statistic) applied on the analysis, the factors to significantly influence the respondents to
change their beef burger choice on the nutritional information provison were determined.
Results: The final sample consisted of 157 respondents. A near-even split occurred between the
respondents who would (52.2%) and wouldn’t (47.8%) be influenced by the nutritional
information provision. Of the respondents who indicated that they would be influenced, the
extended nutritional information provision had the highest influence. Twelve factors comprising
a combination of the respondent biographic and lifestyle characteristics (n = 2), eating practices
(n = 7), and fast food consumption (n = 3), were found to significantly (p < 0.05) influence the respondent choice of a beef burger on the nutritional information provision, and on application
of the logistic regression, one factor strongly (p < 0.001) in each of the three domains. Of the
respondents who indicated that they would not be influenced, more than half (54.4%) gave their
reason as even though they were aware, or had an idea of the nutritional content of burgers, that
they would still purchase their original choice even if the nutritional information was available,
followed by one-quarter (25%) who indicated that they did not understand nutritional
information.
Conclusions: Extended nutritional information provision was found to positively influence a
popular fast food choice among young adults employed within the City of Cape Town, SA, with
health-consciousness being the overall factor identified to influence the choice of a healthier
option on the nutritional information provision, as the identified significant factors were all
related to health-conscious consumer attributes
Perfluorooctane acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in the Plankenburg (Stellenbosch) and Diep (Milnerton) Rivers, and potential remediation using vitis vinifera leaf litter
No full textThesis (DTech (Environmental Health))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017.This study represents the first monitoring campaign to assess the seasonal trend of nine perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) in surface water and sediment from the Plankenburg and Diep Rivers in the Western Cape, South Africa. An analytical protocol was developed and validated for qualitative and quantitative routine determination of nine perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), in water and sediment samples using Ultra performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry quadrupole time of flight (UPLC-QTOF-MS). This method was applied to determine levels of PFOA and PFOS in environmental samples. Samples were collected along the Diep (Milnerton) and Plankenburg (Stellenbosch) Rivers respectively. Samples were pre-treated, cleaned-up and extracted using solid-phase extraction (SPE) procedures with hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) C-18 cartridges. Seasonal variation and distribution of PFCs in surface water and sediment was also investigated. Levels of PFCs were monitored in four seasons (summer, autumn, winter and spring) to establish their trend in the environment. The removal of PFOA and PFOS from aqueous solutions using agro-waste biomass of Vitis vinifera (grape) leaf litter was also studied. Activated carbons were produced from the biomass and chemical activation achieved with phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) for the modification of the carbons’ (AC-H3PO4 and AC-KOH respectively). Activated carbons were characterized using Fourier Transform infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Brunauer- Emmett-Teller (BET) in order to understand the removal mechanisms of the contaminants by activated carbons. The effects of solution concentration, pH, adsorbent dosage, contact time, and the temperature were optimized for evaluation of the removal efficiency of the activated carbons. Adsorption isotherm models were used to analyze the equilibrium data obtained and kinetic models were applied to study sorption mechanisms. A fixed bed column study was conducted using: AC-H3PO4 adsorbent. Experimental parameters such as initial concentration of the solution, column bed height, flow rate and initial concentrations of the influent were optimized to establish the best adsorption efficiency parameters of the column system. Breakthrough curve and exhaustion time were predicted using Adam-Bohart, Yoon-Nelson, and Thomas models for the fixed bed column under varying experimental conditions
Forward osmosis : a desalination technology for the textile industry
No full textThesis (MTech (Chemical Engineering))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017.Similar to the energy crisis, the critical state of the water supply in South Africa (SA) is a combination of (i) resource exhaustion and pollution; (ii) increasing demand; and (iii) poor infrastructure. Despite its importance, water is the most poorly managed resource in the world. The disposal of industrial effluents contributes greatly to the poor quality of water. The textile industry consumes great quantities of water and produces enormous volumes of wastewater which requires appropriate treatment before being released into the environment. In an attempt to address the water issues, research globally has focused on advanced technologies such as desalination to increase limited pure water resources. The need for alternative desalination methods for the production of clean water from alternative water resources, such as seawater and brackish water, has gained worldwide attention. Reverse osmosis (RO) and Nanofiltration (NF) have been used as unswerving approaches to yield freshwater. Forward osmosis (FO) is a developing membrane technology that has increased substantial attention as a possible lower-energy desalination technology. However, challenges such as suitable FO membranes, membrane fouling, concentration polarisation, and the availability of effective draw solutions (DS), limit FO technology. FO is seeking more importance in novel areas where separation and recovery of the DS is not required.
The aims of this study was to: i) identify alternative water resources and evaluate their potential as suitable feed solution (FS); ii) Identify dyes and evaluate their potential as suitable draw solutions (DS) at different concentrations; iii) assess the use of aquaporin biomimetic membrane and iv) assess a FO system for the production of dye solutions. Osmotic pressure (OP) is the pressure exerted by the flow of water through semi-permeable membrane, separating two solutions with different concentrations of solute. The DS should always have OP higher than the FS in order to achieve high water flux. Three basic dyes (i.e. Maxilon Turquoise, Red and Blue) and three reactive dyes (i.e. Carmine, Olive Green and Black) were selected, based on their common use in the SA textile industry. The respective dye samples were prepared at different concentrations and dye-to-salt mass ratios ranging from 1:10 to 1:60 and assessed for OP using a freezing point osmometer. A lab-scale FO unit was used for all the studies. Feed and draw channels were circulated in a counter-current flow at a volumetric flow rate of 600 mL/min. Feed solutions(FS) included deionised water (DI) as a control, brackish water (BW), synthetic seawater (SSW) and textile wastewater (TWW) collected from two textile factories. OP of the FS (DI, BW5, SSW and SW, Factory 1 and Factory 2) was 0, 414, 2761, 2579, 1505 and 3308 kPa, respectively. Basic Blue and Reactive Black generated a higher OP compared to other selected dyes in the study and were therefore selected to be used as DS at a 1:10 dye-to-salt ratio and 0.02 M concentration. An aquaporin biomimetic FO membrane (Aquaporin, Denmark) was used for all the experiments conducted in the FO mode