DigitalCommons@C.O.D.

Cando, Ariane

ESSAI
Volume 16 Article 8
Spring 2018
Service Learning
Ariane Cando
College of DuPage
Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.cod.edu/essai
This Selection is brought to you for free and open access by the College Publications at DigitalCommons@COD. It has been accepted for inclusion in
ESSAI by an authorized editor of DigitalCommons@COD. For more information, please contact orenick@cod.edu.
Recommended Citation
Cando, Ariane (2018) "Service Learning," ESSAI: Vol. 16 , Article 8.
Available at: https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol16/iss1/8
1 
Service Learning 
 
by Ariane Cando 
 
(English 1101) 
 
 
 
Dear Dr. Rondeau, 
 
 recently found out that you were considering making service mandatory for all Associate’s 
degrees at College of DuPage, and I strongly support your decision! Not only will this required 
service help the school cultivate more engaged students and community members, it will offer 
very meaningful experiences for those volunteering as well. However, the success of having 
mandatory service is highly dependent on its careful implementation. 
 During my first year at College of DuPage, I, along with many other students, was hesitant 
and unconvinced that I would gain anything from a service-learning-focused English course. 
Nevertheless, I was proven wrong when I began volunteering at Burgess Square Healthcare and 
Rehab Center. It is a nursing home that cares for seniors, taking them into their facility regardless of 
their “race, color, national origin, disability, or age in admission, treatment, or participation in its 
programs, services and activities, or in employment” (Burgess Square). 
 Whether it was helping them read aloud during Bible study or just swaying to the beat of 
John Denver’s hit songs, I became so close to the residents by doing such simple activities. At times I 
felt as though my efforts didn’t create a big impact in their lives, but the way they greeted me with 
their light-hearted laughs and gentle smiles told me otherwise. Service has made me appreciate the 
simplicities and relationships I have always overlooked in life, and I never would have been granted 
this awareness if not for the service requirement for my class. 
 Although it would be mandatory, this necessary service could act as an opportunity to form 
bonds and become involved in activities we otherwise would not put effort into doing. As human 
beings, we are in constant pursuit of new experiences and personal connection, which is exactly what 
volunteering offers us. If we are able to help students view service through a more open-minded and 
positive lens, the influence and the benefits it would have within multiple aspects of their lives would 
become more evident to them. 
 Holistically, service is not just a one-sided act of kindness. Revealed by Americans' 
Changing Lives, the “oldest ongoing nationally representative longitudinal study” of how our health 
changes over our lifetimes (“Understanding Social Disparities”), those who volunteered “reported 
higher levels of happiness, life-satisfaction, self-esteem, a sense of control over life, and physical 
health, as well as lower levels of depression.” Likewise, people who reported similar levels of 
satisfaction in their lives were shown to be more likely to volunteer (Corporation for National and 
Community Service 6). The relations that we form through volunteering are not benefactor-to-
beneficiary types of relationships; they are much more personal, leaving us with feelings of deep 
connection. 
 Not only did I interact with numerous patients, I met their families as well. When I 
volunteered at Burgess to help with a family visitation party for the residents, I remember leaving the 
nursing home deeply moved at how much love was present in one room. I spent the night serving 
root beer floats to the residents’ family members as they learned Elvis Presley trivia, and the 
countless stories I heard as I walked around about each of those families left a feeling of warmth in 
my heart. Knowing that the patients I communicated with every week were continuously surrounded 
by their loved ones, whether it was physically or in spirit, made me incredibly grateful to be living 
I
1
Cando: Service Learning
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2018
2 
happily like them, being with my own friends and family. It was then that I realized that it is my job 
to give as much happiness as I have received, which I saw was the true value of service. 
 Many could say that with a mandatory service requirement, we do not benefit from our 
efforts and that it is a waste of time for our degree programs. Although it is not a required course 
educationally, it helps immensely in our social lives. Essentially, it teaches us how to stay connected 
in a world where we are losing our need for human connection. Service can potentially be eye-
opening, demonstrating the extent to which we can change other people’s lives for the better. Civic 
engagement is something that, if enhanced deliberately, is able to give us the power to do so. 
Through this volunteering experience, we are brought one step closer to becoming better versions of 
ourselves. 
 Regardless, the way College of DuPage would apply mandatory service into their curriculum 
is the deciding factor in the enrichment of the students’ experiences doing it. I believe a fair and 
effective way to enforce this is to include it in the school’s General Education courses, urging 
students to take a minimum of one service-learning-focused English class for the completion of their 
degree. Through COD’s website, they can access a list of placement sites where they can volunteer to 
fulfill this requirement, and these locations encompass a variety of activities, ranging from 
interacting with kids in tutoring centers to even helping out with big holiday events at Morton 
Arboretum. This way, people will not be too overwhelmed with the policy’s demands, but they will 
be given the freedom to put their efforts into something that they are passionate about. 
 Knowing now that I really enjoy spending time with the elderly, I also know that there are 
some volunteering activities where I just cannot push myself into giving my all. Throughout high 
school, I had to volunteer at recycling centers as part of mandatory service, and I felt so unmotivated 
as I tried to find enjoyment and a sense of fulfillment in what I did. From my time sorting paper from 
plastic, I learned that it is incredibly important to find a placement site that students think they can 
learn from and enjoy. Finding happiness in these activities is closely related to how invested you can 
become in what you do. As Maya Angelou states in “The Sweetness of Charity,” “It is sad when 
people who give to the needy feel estranged from the objects of their generosity. They can take little, 
if any, relish from their acts of charity; therefore, [they] are generous out of duty rather than delight” 
(191). As students form more personal connections to the service they’re doing, they gain awareness 
and fulfillment that simply can’t be taught in a normal classroom setting. 
 I would like to note that the most essential part of service learning having time allotted to 
self-reflection. What’s the point of doing service if we’re not able to see the impact our efforts are 
creating? My English class assigned weekly journals for us to write about our most recent 
experiences with volunteering. We had the liberty to write about anything: the good, the bad, and the 
mundane. These entries were what kept us aware and accountable of what we did, and being able to 
see our progress throughout this journey, however big or small, was what I found to have been the 
most meaningful. If the service-learning courses at COD execute a similar system, I believe each 
student will be able to come out of their class a different person than they were before. These 
realizations are what stay with us for the rest of our lives and ultimately create the change we want to 
see in this world, and it would be amazing to see the students of your school grow to be the catalysts 
for a better community. 
 I hope you deeply consider the points and suggestions I have mentioned in this letter. I am 
always willing to discuss new strategies and ideas with you anytime, so feel free to contact me by 
calling 630-XXX-XXXX. I look forward to hearing from you, and thank you so much for taking the 
time to read this letter. 
 Sincerely, 
 
2
ESSAI, Vol. 16 [2018], Art. 8
https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol16/iss1/8
3 
  
 
Works Cited 
 
Angelou, Maya. “The Sweetness of Charity.” The Civically Engaged Reader . Edited by Adam Davis 
and Elizabeth Lynn. The Great Books Foundation, 2006, pp. 191. 
Burgess Square: Transforming the lives of those we serve. Burgess Square, 
www.burgesssquare.com/. Accessed 21 Nov. 2017. 
Corporation for National and Community Service, Office of Research and Policy Development. The 
Health Benefits of Volunteering: A Review of Recent Research, Washington, DC 2007, pp. 6, 
www.nationalservice.gov/pdf/07_0506_hbr.pdf. Accessed 21 Nov. 2017. 
“Understanding Social Disparities in Health and Aging: The Americans' Changing Lives Study.” 
Americans’ Changing Lives, www.isr.umich.edu/acl/. Accessed 13 Dec. 2017. 
 
 
 
 
3
Cando: Service Learning
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2018


English

Service Learning

Cavanaugh, Benjamin

ESSAI
Volume 16 Article 9
Spring 2018
Copernican Heliocentrism
Benjamin Cavanaugh
College of DuPage
Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.cod.edu/essai
This Selection is brought to you for free and open access by the College Publications at DigitalCommons@COD. It has been accepted for inclusion in
ESSAI by an authorized editor of DigitalCommons@COD. For more information, please contact orenick@cod.edu.
Recommended Citation
Cavanaugh, Benjamin (2018) "Copernican Heliocentrism," ESSAI: Vol. 16 , Article 9.
Available at: https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol16/iss1/9
4 
Copernican Heliocentrism 
 
by Benjamin Cavanaugh 
 
(Honors Chemistry 1551) 
 
 
 
ince the beginning of mankind, we have sought out the answers to questions provoked by our 
ever so mysterious surroundings. We were not born into a world where things simply make 
sense, and work in ways we would presume. As a species determined to explain the behavior 
of the reality within which we live, scientific studies and propositions have built our understanding of 
the universe to what it is today. Inevitably so, many studies and propositions about the workings of 
material and the universe have been superseded by more accurate and true-to-life models. An 
example of one such theory is the Copernican heliocentric model of the universe. This theory, 
proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus, sought to describe the orientation of our universe with the sun at 
center (Hence the name, helio- meaning sun and centric- implying at center). The theory proposed 
that the earth and other observable planets orbit the sun in perfectly circular orbits, and that the sun 
lies stationary at the center of the universe. It also describes the earths daily rotation about an axis, 
annual revolution around the sun, and the annual tilting of its axis to explain seasonal changes in 
climate. The Copernican heliocentric model of the universe was close to the modern understanding of 
our universe, but was flawed in a few major ways. 
 Although Copernicus was flawed in his proposition (to be detailed further into this reading), 
he was on the right track. This theory was a huge step in the right direction in describing the 
organization of the universe as we know it today. The leading scientific theory that preceded 
Copernicus’ heliocentric model was that of the geocentric model, (geo- meaning earth) which 
positioned the earth stationary at the center of the universe (Lawson). This model, known as the 
Ptolemaic system held strong in ancient civilizations during the times of Aristotle and Ptolemy. 
Positioning the earth at the center of the universe came from one very strong intuition of the ancients, 
being that it seemed as if everything in the sky made circles about the earth. It appeared as if the sun 
and moon made a full rotation around the earth each day, and the stars appeared to be plotted over a 
sphere that rotated around the earth’s axis once per day. Being positioned on the earth, it was very 
natural for the ancients to believe earth to be at the center of things, as it did certainly appear so upon 
initial observations. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
S
1
Cavanaugh: Copernican Heliocentrism
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2018
5 
 
 However believable this arrangement of the universe, it is not at all accurate to todays 
accepted model. The measurable flaws of the geocentric model, such as inaccuracies in predicting 
planets positions and inability to account for retrograde motion were solved with the introduction of 
the much more accurate heliocentric model of the universe (Gingerich). So, with the introduction of 
the heliocentric model, Copernicus proposed our universe was instead centered around our sun, 
which was fixed in space. This proposal described planetary orbits as being perfectly circular and 
concentric, and it was believed that all planetary motion could be described with simple circular 
motion. This concept of simple circular motion was strongly supported by the works of Galileo, who 
lived when the geocentric model was commonly accepted. This picture of the planets centered 
around our sun was much closer to the way we see things today, as we know now the earth and 
planets of our solar system do in fact orbit the sun. 
 Although Copernicus’ proposal was much closer to accurately describing the universe, it was 
flawed in a few ways. Firstly, planets do not orbit the sun with perfectly circular orbits, but rather 
travel in elliptical paths. This concept was first recognized by an astronomer named Johannes Kepler, 
who worked to improve Copernicus’ heliocentric model with the introduction of his three laws of 
planetary motion (Holton). Kepler’s first law of planetary motion stated that a planet’s orbit traced 
the shape of an ellipse, rather than a circle. Further, Kepler’s work supported the fact that the sun is 
not at the center of planet’s orbits, but rather at a focal point of their elliptical orbit. Kepler’s Second 
and third laws described a more technical analysis of this elliptical model of planetary motion. His 
second law stated that a line connecting the orbiting planet to the sun swept out equal areas in equal 
amounts of time. This implied planet’s velocities were not constant, as when a planet came closer to 
the sun it began to move faster along its orbit. Finally, Kepler’s third law stated that the orbital period 
of a planet, if squared, was proportional to a half of the major axis of its elliptical orbit, cubed. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The second issue with the heliocentric model was the fact that it was supposed to be a model 
of the universe. While the planets of our solar system are in fact centered around the sun, the same is 
not true for the entire universe. During the time of Copernicus, they did not have the technology 
necessary to fully understand the stars and their implications. This type of technology didn’t come 
until much later on in time. As we know today, our solar system orbits the center of the Milky Way 
Galaxy. And it is also understood that the Milky Way is part of a group of 50 other galaxies, deemed 
the local group. It wasn’t until the 1920’s that an astronomer named Edwin Hubble showed that 
distant clouds of light in the universe were actually other galaxies, dawning light upon the fact that 
the Milky Way galaxy is just one of numerous other galaxies in space (Hubble Essentials). 
 Copernicus led a huge movement in scientific theory, and vastly improved the model of the 
universe that preceded his heliocentric model. His model, however, was not perfect, as proved by 
Kepler’s describing planetary motion as elliptical. The heliocentric model was also inevitably flawed 
in its foundation due to the lack of technology necessary to see far off galaxies at that time. However 
inaccurate his proposition, Copernicus’ heliocentric model was a huge advancement in our 
understanding of the universe. 
2
ESSAI, Vol. 16 [2018], Art. 9
https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol16/iss1/9
6 
  
 
Works Cited 
 
Gingerich, Owen (2004).  The Book Nobody Read. London: William Heinemann. 
Lawson, Russell M. (2004).  Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 29–30. 
Holton, Gerald James; Brush, Stephen G. (2001).  Physics, the Human Adventure: From Copernicus 
to Einstein and Beyond (3rd paperback ed.).  Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 
40–41. 
“Hubble Essentials.”  HubbleSite - The Telescope - Hubble Essentials, 
http://hubble.stsci.edu/the_telescope/hubble_essentials/ 
 
 
 
3
Cavanaugh: Copernican Heliocentrism
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2018


Copernican Heliocentrism

Gallegos, Axel

ESSAI
Volume 16 Article 17
Spring 2018
The Silent Killer of the Periodic Table
Axel Gallegos
College of DuPage
Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.cod.edu/essai
This Selection is brought to you for free and open access by the College Publications at DigitalCommons@COD. It has been accepted for inclusion in
ESSAI by an authorized editor of DigitalCommons@COD. For more information, please contact orenick@cod.edu.
Recommended Citation
Gallegos, Axel (2018) "The Silent Killer of the Periodic Table," ESSAI: Vol. 16 , Article 17.
Available at: https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol16/iss1/17
38 
The Silent Killer of the Periodic Table 
 
by Axel Gallegos 
 
(Honors Chemistry 1551) 
 
 
 
ercury, the exquisitely beautiful killer of the periodic table. Situated comfortably within the 
6th period and 12th group of the periodic table, the element mercury has an atomic number 
of 80 and the chemical symbol Hg, which comes from the Greek word hydrargyrum, 
meaning “liquid silver.” As its chemical symbol implies, mercury forms a mesmerizing silver liquid 
in its standard state with physical properties unlike any other; however, beneath mercury’s elegant 
and enticing appearance lies its most sinister attribute, its toxicity. This one fatal characteristic nearly 
phased out the once popular and widely used metal. Today, government regulations have nearly 
eradicated all applications of mercury due to health and safety concerns, reducing the metal and its 
unusual physical properties to nothing more than an odd trinket. Despite its recent opposition, 
mercury played an essential part in many different medicines around the globe, before the discovery 
of its poisonous effects. For centuries, people believed that mercury could cure any number of 
ailments, but in reality, these fictitious beliefs exposed them to mercury’s toxic effects, giving way to 
a silent killer. 
 “Known to the ancient Greeks, Romans, Chinese, and Hindus,” mercury has a number of 
legends surrounding it (Sloane). Ancient alchemists believed that mercury lied at core of all metals, 
and by combining mercury with other substances, one could obtain gold, silver, copper, tin, and even 
lead. Although “different cultures had different beliefs,” every culture believed “that the correct 
combination of mercury and other ingredient would yield riches of gold” (Sloane). That belief carried 
over to 4th century China, where the “prominent Chinese alchemist [Ge] Hong […] believed that man 
is what he eats, so by eating gold any man could attain perfection” (Sloane); however, the average 
man cannot afford such a precious metal, so to combat this, Hong reasoned he could make gold from 
cinnabar, a toxic mercury sulfide mineral. Apart from these false promises of longevity and health, 
Hong also believed that smearing cinnabar on a person’s feet would enable them to walk on water, 
and that placing it over a door way would ward off thieves. Hong compiled his monumental work 
into the Baopuzi, an acclaimed Daoist text that ironically promoted immortality and transcendence 
through an elixir of life that contained cinnabar. The now debunked Baopuzi stands as a testament of 
ancient Chinese medicine and its flawed ideology. 
 Mercury’s false connection to immortality did not begin with Hong. Myths surrounding 
mercury have some of their oldest roots in China. “Chinese legend tells of one Huang An, who 
prolonged his life for at least 10,000 years by eating” cinnabar (Ball). Countless others have tried to 
replicate this legend. Famous among them is China’s first emperor, Qin Shi Huang. Huang obsessed 
over the idea of immortally and had done all he could to become immortal. He frequently “consumed 
wine and honey laden with cinnabar thinking it would prolong his life” (Ball). Ironically, many have 
speculated that the irrational emperor might have hastened his death with these “elixirs”.  What 
ancient Chinese alchemists saw as the key to eternal life, proved to be the main ingredient in a deadly 
poison. 
 Despite Mercury’s clearly toxic properties, doctors continued to use the element for 
centuries. In the 1500s, following a wide spread European outbreak of the sexually transmitted 
disease syphilis, physicians would use mercury as an ointment to treat the disease. Ironically, patients 
that used the toxic ointment often got worse, which lead to a new form of treatment, “the tub”. This 
ineffective treatment would place the patient in a mercury vapor bath, today’s equivalent of a carbon 
M
1
Gallegos: The Silent Killer of the Periodic Table
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2018
39 
monoxide bath. Unfortunately, Europeans continued to use these treatments “for over four centuries, 
but none provided a cure, despite claims at the time” (Barron). “For example, John Hunter, a doctor 
who gave himself syphilis by mistake, claimed he had been cured” by mercury, but later died of the 
same thing that supposedly cured him. People continued to believed these erroneous lies for a 
number of reasons. “Syphilis occurs in three phases, each with remission between the phases. The 
period of remission between secondary and tertiary phases” can last up to three years; therefore, 
during a remission period, it may appear that the mercury treatments have cured syphilis, but in 
reality, they have not (Barron). With advancements in medicine, these faulty practices quickly faded 
out, as knowledge of mercury’s poisonous effects slowly spread. 
 Why did people believe that mercury had health benefits? And when did people realize that 
that the element that was supposed to keep them alive, actually brought them closer to death? In 
order to answer these questions, one must take a closer look at the origin of mercury’s chemical 
symbol, Hg. The oldest known record of mercury comes from an academic text dating back to 
sometime during the 4th century BCE. In the text, the famous, ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, 
referred to mercury as “fluid silver” and as “quicksilver”. Because of mercury’s unusual liquid 
properties, coupled with its alluring metallic appearance, Aristotle believed, like Ge Hung and many 
other alchemists, that mercury lied at core of all metals. Although every culture had their own myths 
surrounding mercury, they all stemmed from the same thing, mercury’s abstract physical properties. 
From alchemists to physicians, mercury’s unusual properties lead many to believe that mercury held 
amazing powers, such as health benefits; however, society would slowly discover what ill effects 
mercury had in store for them. 
 It would take centuries for society to realize that mercury had effects. Chemists and 
physicians across history would study mercury and record its effects on humans. Published works 
detailing how fatal prolonged exposure to mercury and its vapors were to humans dotted the 19th and 
20th centuries. “In 1889, Charcot, in his Clinical Lectures on Diseases of the Nervous System, 
attributed some rapid oscillatory tremors to mercury exposure,” which were later expanded on by 
Wilson's classic textbook of neurology, published in 1940 (Olson). In the mid-1900s, Japan’s 
Minamata Bay became plagued by a new mysterious disease aptly named, the Minamata disease. 
Residents of the area reported tremors, sensory loss, ataxia, and visual field constriction. “In 1961, 
researchers in Japan correlated elevated urinary mercury levels with the features of the previously 
mysterious Minamata disease” soon realizing, that their mysterious new disease was actually 
mercury poisoning coming from the fish in the surrounding area (Olson). A nearby factory 
discharged inorganic mercury into the water, which made its way to the population through the 
aquatic life. It would take a few more years for society to adopt this new information and on “January 
19, 2013, a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from the adverse effects of 
mercury” known as the Minamata Convention on Mercury, was agreed upon (Olson). 
 Although it took centuries, the once these fictitious beliefs that exposed thousands, possibly 
millions, to a toxic silent killer were debunked and proven wrong. Today, mercury’s unusual physical 
properties continue to capture society’s attention, but from a reasonable distance. 
 
 
  
 
Works Cited 
 
Ball, Philip. “Flowing Rivers of Mercury.” Chemistry World, THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF 
CHEMISTRY, 6 Jan. 2015, www.chemistryworld.com/feature/flowing-rivers-of-
mercury/8122.article. 
 
2
ESSAI, Vol. 16 [2018], Art. 17
https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol16/iss1/17
40 
Barron, Andrew R. “The Myth, Reality, and History of Mercury Toxicity.” OpenStax CNX, Rice 
University, cnx.org/contents/-yJE1DIQ@5/The-Myth-Reality-and-History-o. 
Czaika, Ellen, and Bethanie Edwards. “History of Mercury Use in Products and Processes.” Mercury 
Science and Policy at MIT, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 15 Jan. 2013, 
mercurypolicy.scripts.mit.edu/blog/?p=367. 
Olson, David A. “Mercury Toxicity.” Medscape, WebMD LLC., 
emedicine.medscape.com/article/1175560-overview#a3. 
Sloane, Julie. “Mercury: Element of the Ancients.” Mercury: Element of the Ancients – Dartmouth 
Toxic Metals Superfund Research Program, Trustees of Dartmouth College, 26 July 2016, 
www.dartmouth.edu/~toxmetal/mercury/history.html. 
The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “Ge Hong.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia 
Britannica, Inc., 16 June 2017, www.britannica.com/biography/Ge-Hong. 
 
 
 
 
3
Gallegos: The Silent Killer of the Periodic Table
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2018


The Silent Killer of the Periodic Table

Kannadan, Ajesh

ESSAI
Volume 16 Article 18
Spring 2018
History of the Miasma Theory of Disease
Ajesh Kannadan
College of DuPage
Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.cod.edu/essai
This Selection is brought to you for free and open access by the College Publications at DigitalCommons@COD. It has been accepted for inclusion in
ESSAI by an authorized editor of DigitalCommons@COD. For more information, please contact orenick@cod.edu.
Recommended Citation
Kannadan, Ajesh (2018) "History of the Miasma Theory of Disease," ESSAI: Vol. 16 , Article 18.
Available at: https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol16/iss1/18
41 
History of the Miasma Theory of Disease 
 
by Ajesh Kannadan 
 
(Honors Chemistry 1551) 
 
 
 
iasmatic theory of disease states that diseases were caused by the presence of miasma. 
Miasmas are poisonous emanations, from putrefying carcasses, rotting vegetation or 
molds, and invisible dust particles inside dwellings. Miasmas could be identified by its 
foul smell (Demaitre, 2004). From the time of ancient Greece till the mid of 19th century, it was 
believed that the miasma would enter the body and cause diseases like cholera and malaria. In the 
medical world the miasma theory was advanced over the time to explain many important diseases. 
Even the disease called malaria has got its name from miasma theory. In Italian mala means bad and 
aria means air and it stands as the one of the proof of existence of miasma theory in the ancients. In 
the mid of the 19th century the miasma theory was replaced by the Germ theory of diseases (Maia 
2013). 
 The Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460- 377 B.C.E.) believed that bad air could be the 
cause of any pestilences, the fatal epidemic. According to his beliefs, the bad air was equivalent to 
the pestilence (Sterner, 1). The ancient people believed the cause of any disease were some 
supernatural powers. There had been many explanations for disease related to supernatural powers. 
“In ancient and primitive medicine, disease was often seen either as a form of punishment sent by the 
gods, or attributed to demons, ghosts, and evil spirits. Because it was thought to be caused by 
supernatural agents, magic was part of its diagnosis and treatment (Biomedicine and Health).” 
Hippocrates rejected the supernatural explanation of diseases and came with idea that the illness was 
caused by the patient’s environment. He proposed that the bad air, which is poisonous is the main 
cause of disease. His idea was accepted around the world by many and found in writings of ancient 
civilization (Sterner, 1). The theory was later called the miasma theory of disease and helped the 
growth of medical science. This theory is centered around the bad air or miasma, the unpleasant 
surrounding.  Greco-Roman physician Galen (c. 130-201 C.E.) expanded upon the theory of bad air 
by tracing how much the presence of bad air would harm the human body and concluded the cause of 
any diseases is the corruption of air (Sterner, 2). The idea of the theory of bad air influenced in the 
medical field as an explanation for contagion during the Middle Ages. In fact, the concept of bad air 
was the primary explanations of diseases during those periods. A physician of Lerida in Catalonia 
named Master Jacme d’Agramont wrote about the disease plague in April of 1348 and he believed 
that most of the diseases raised from the bad air or corrupted air sounding a person. In his writings he 
describes the various qualities of air and what causes the air to become corrupt to cause a particular 
disease in a human body (Sterner, 2-3).  
 In 1349, Ibn Khatimah, a Spanish-Arab physician wrote a tract which he states that the direct 
cause of any disease is the corruption of the air surrounding people or the air, which people inhale. In 
his tract, he says the corruption of the air could be recognized from its foul smell. People who lived 
before 19th century strictly believed in the bad air theory (Sterner, 3). For example, “the British 
Parliamentary statute of 1388 prohibited the deposition of dung, offal, entrails and other ordure into 
ditches, rivers, waters, or other places, because it resulted in the putrefaction and infection of the air, 
causing many illnesses and other intolerable diseases (Jowl, 2016).” Various scholars concluded the 
corruption of air caused by various causes. The most common cause of the bad air that caused the 
disease were from the decaying of organic matter.  
Miasma theory had been successful to explain the reason, why cholera and other disease were very 
M
1
Kannadan: History of the Miasma Theory of Disease
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2018
42 
common in the places, where there are a lot of foul smell due to the decaying of organic matter 
during the 19th century. The explanations raised from the miasmic theory regarding the epidemic 
such as cholera and other diseases was avoiding the bad air or miasmic air the caused disease.  This 
all led to the sanitary reforms around the world. New practices were developed to reduce the spread 
of the disease and a new picture of disease transmission emerged. Also, it led to think of the germ 
theory of disease in many scientists. The improved sanitation system the decreased spread of cholera 
in U.K for limited period of time, but it was not a complete solution to solve the spread of cholera 
(Theodore, 2104). 
 In the mid of 19th century, the cholera was an epidemic and caused the death of many people 
in the U.K. The miasmic theory could not make much decrease in the spread of diseases such as 
cholera, even though people took many precautions and avoided the bad air according to miasmic 
theory. During that time, John Snow, one of the medical scientists in the mid of 19th century, came 
with the hypothesis that the main cause and spread of the cholera had not been bad air, instead, 
cholera could be spread in water, food or hand-to-mouth. Snow concluded that cholera was caused by 
a germ cell not by bad air. According his studies this germ was transmitted from one person to 
another person by drinking water. But snow’s hypothesis was not accepted in the 1850s because he 
was not a member of the medical elite, also, it supported the germ theory by rejecting the miasmic 
theory. William Farr was the dominant epidemiologist of the day in the mid of 19th 
century(Bingham,2104). He firmly stated in his annual report on vital statistics in Great Britain in 
1852 that “the inverse association of cholera mortality with elevation above sea level confirmed the 
miasma theory as its cause (Bingham,2104)”. Farr was able to reject the Snow’s hypothesis that 
supported the germ theory (Bingham,2104). 
 Many medical scientists supported the miasma theory to explain the cause of cholera, even 
though evidence mounted for germ theory. In London, The Water Supply (Metropolis) Act of 1852 
required companies to move their intakes from the River Thames by 31 August 1856 to above the 
tidal flow at Teddington lock. England was affected the further outbreak of cholera by 1866. By this 
time Farr realized the direct cause of chorea had not been the bad air, it was spread thorough the 
contaminated water supply (Bingham,2104). After that, the germ theory of disease was emerged and 
gradually it was able to replace the miasma theory by the second half of the 19th century. 
The germ theory of disease states that many diseases are caused by the presence and actions of 
specific micro-organisms within the body. In other word, diseases are caused and spread by the 
germs (Frerichs, 2002). According to this theory bad air is not the main cause of any disease, it is 
micro-organisms that spread the disease. These micro-organisms can be transited through mainly 
water, food, the contact with each other or the air. The germ theory was able to make clear 
understanding how disease was caused and spread in the society. This resulted in people moving 
away from the Miasma Theory to the Germ Theory. By the end of 19th century, the germ theory of 
disease became dominate over the miasma theory (Maia, 2013). 
 The miasma theory only stated the bad air or miasma was the main cause of every disease, 
but, according to germ theory, the diseases are spread and caused by the presence and actions of 
specific micro-organisms within the body through many mediums such as water, food, and contact. 
Therefore, miasma theory of disease was replaced by germ theory of disease by the end of 19th 
century. 
 
 
2
ESSAI, Vol. 16 [2018], Art. 18
https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol16/iss1/18
43 
  
 
References 
 
Theodore H. Tulchinsky MD, MPH, Elena A. Varavikova MD, MPH, PhD, 2014“Chapter 1 – A 
History of Public Health.” A History of Public Health - The New Public Health (Third 
Edition) - Chapter 1, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978012415766800001X. 
Bingham, P., et al. “John Snow, William Farr and the 1849 outbreak of cholera that affected London: 
a reworking of the data highlights the importance of the water supply.” Public Health, vol. 
118, no. 6, 2004, pp. 387–394., doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2004.05.007. 
Sterner, Carl, “A Brief History of Miasmic Theory” p;1-4. Web Nov. 15, 2017. 
http://www.carlsterner.com/research/files/History_of_Miasmic_Theory_2007.pdf 
Frerichs, Ralph R. “Competing Theories of Cholera”. UCLA, Department of epidemiology. 2002, 
www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/choleratheories.html. 
Maia, R. “Miasma Theory of Disease.” Prezi.com, 20 Sept. 2013, prezi.com/tia3v-ol3nqg/miasma-
theory-of-disease/. 
Jowl, “Living cheek by jowl: The pathoecology of medieval York - Documents.” Dokumen.tips, 15 
Dec. 2016, dokumen.tips/documents/living-cheek-by-jowl-the-pathoecology-of-medieval-
york.html. 
Demaitre, L 'Air, miasma and contagion - Epidemics in antiquity and the Middle Ages', Bulletin of 
the History of Medicine, 78/2 (2004), pp 466-468 
“Biomedicine and Health: The Germ Theory of Disease.” Scientific Thought: In Context, 
Encyclopedia.com, www.encyclopedia.com/science/science-magazines/biomedicine-and-
health-germ-theory-disease. 
 
 
 
 
3
Kannadan: History of the Miasma Theory of Disease
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2018


History of the Miasma Theory of Disease

Zapart Placek, Ewa

Dementia: Current Understanding and Prospects for the Future

Cote, Denise

McIntosh, Jennifer

Rondeau, Ann

O\u27Brien, Ali

Undetermined

Summit Opening Remarks

Van Zanten, Bryan

The Prairie Light Review
Volume 41 | Number 1 Article 18
Fall 12-1-2018
Doe in the Snow
Bryan Van Zanten
College of DuPage
Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.cod.edu/plr
This Artwork is brought to you for free and open access by the College Publications at DigitalCommons@COD. It has been accepted for inclusion in
The Prairie Light Review by an authorized editor of DigitalCommons@COD. For more information, please contact orenick@cod.edu.
Recommended Citation
Van Zanten, Bryan (2018) "Doe in the Snow," The Prairie Light Review: Vol. 41 : No. 1 , Article 18.
Available at: https://dc.cod.edu/plr/vol41/iss1/18
Doe in the Snow
Bryan Van Zanten
Fall 2018 Journal .indd   16 1/3/19   4:35 PM
1
Van Zanten: Doe in the Snow
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2018


Doe in the Snow

Johnson, Michael Lee

The Prairie Light Review
Volume 41 | Number 1 Article 55
Fall 12-1-2018
Leonard Cohen My Friend
Michael Lee Johnson
College of DuPage
Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.cod.edu/plr
This Selection is brought to you for free and open access by the College Publications at DigitalCommons@COD. It has been accepted for inclusion in
The Prairie Light Review by an authorized editor of DigitalCommons@COD. For more information, please contact orenick@cod.edu.
Recommended Citation
Johnson, Michael Lee (2018) "Leonard Cohen My Friend," The Prairie Light Review: Vol. 41 : No. 1 , Article 55.
Available at: https://dc.cod.edu/plr/vol41/iss1/55
Leonard Cohen My Friend 
 
Death is a bitch and a whore
comes with hat on or off,
Jewish, Christian or lover years ago called Nancy.
Death is a passport, a left behind baggage note.
My leverage sinks, I see you pass human.
These my fears, your fright, being broke, old-royalties stole Suzanne.
Now branches, extended limbs, point outward nowhere-
doors Montreal collapse tomb, dance with me,
end perfume love, a few dead flowers.
Michael Lee Johnson
Fall 2018 Journal .indd   24 1/3/19   4:36 PM
1
Johnson: Leonard Cohen My Friend
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2018


Leonard Cohen My Friend

Hipps, Shane

The Prairie Light Review
Volume 41 | Number 1 Article 65
Fall 12-1-2018
For All Acquaintances...
Shane Hipps
College of DuPage
Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.cod.edu/plr
This Selection is brought to you for free and open access by the College Publications at DigitalCommons@COD. It has been accepted for inclusion in
The Prairie Light Review by an authorized editor of DigitalCommons@COD. For more information, please contact orenick@cod.edu.
Recommended Citation
Hipps, Shane (2018) "For All Acquaintances...," The Prairie Light Review: Vol. 41 : No. 1 , Article 65.
Available at: https://dc.cod.edu/plr/vol41/iss1/65
For All Acquaintances…
It’s a gauntlet finding someone deserving of
my time.
Countless conversations conceived from half-thought remarks.
Most are stunted
from becoming close to interesting.
Always exhaustively preaching on the mundane, yet
taking a vow of silence pertaining to any free thoughts
placing them at risk of being ridiculed.
Like the superego,
drawing a curtain
on any defective light bulb that may be shining
too bright for the traditionalists.
The rambunctious who blurt the idiotic hold more of my respect than
the timid
potentially bright.
They are not troubled by invisible formulaic
models of behavior.
Trained dogs.
Perhaps it is not their fault
rather the demanding mind imposed upon them.
The cage to the bird.
Shane Hipps
Fall 2018 Journal .indd   35 1/3/19   4:36 PM
1
Hipps: For All Acquaintances...
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2018


College of DuPage

Not a member yet

Service Learning

Copernican Heliocentrism

The Silent Killer of the Periodic Table

History of the Miasma Theory of Disease

Dementia: Current Understanding and Prospects for the Future

Summit Opening Remarks

Doe in the Snow

Leonard Cohen My Friend

For All Acquaintances...

John Kness reads Those Winter Sundays and Frederick Douglass by Robert Hayden

7,467

11,908