Cumhuriyet Ä°lahiyat Dergisi - Cumhuriyet Theology Journal
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The Prophet\u27s Unification in Society in The Context of -We – in His Tradition
No full textHz. Peygamber hadislerinde yaptığı “biz” vurgusunu toplumsal bilinç haline getirmiştir. Sözde değil, özde oluşan bir bilinçtir. Bu sayede toplum îmân toplumu olarak aslına dönmüştür. Bunu “söz, fiil ve duygu” olarak anlatmaya çalışmıştır. Toplumun bütün seviyelerinin anlayabileceği ve onların tamamını kuşatıcı bir anlatımdır. Uygulamalarıyla da toplumsal birleşmeyi başarmıştır. Bu başarı günümüz asrına da ışık tutacak, şekilde bir başarıdır. ABSTRACT: In hadith of the Prophet his "we" has become an emphasis on social awareness. Not so-called, it is formed in a self-conscious. In this way, the original is returned to the community of faith-communities. This "words, actions and feelings" as he tried to explain. Understood by all levels of society and it is a narrative encompassing their entire. It has managed to social cohesion in the application. This success also shed light on the present century is such a success.SUMMARY: The Prophet adopted his Ummah as a single unity. He associated this unity with a number of characteristics and explained them. He said that point the person or persons who accept them, would gain ummah notion. This can be achieved with good values and bad values. All of them affect the whole of society. This consciousness is the same in the time he lived in the first century and the century of the last living member of humanity. In this context, "we" consciousness, has contributed to achieving the nation\u27s unity consciousness.The Prophet’s "we" is seen to be applied to a variety of metaphors to make it understood consciousness. In this context, it was resembled sometimes to a limb, sometimes a building, sometimes one man, sometimes to a rain.The Prophets also desired to establish a unity of faith-brotherhood among the people. He wanted them to live it firstly in his own life, then among the muslims all.The Prophet adopted unity consciousness in essence so that he saw who the other prophets a kind of unity as a building and he puts himself at the end of it like a brick. It does not stem from any lack of humility here.The Prophets stepped among the people through the life of individuals and society. One of the most important factors in creating public awareness of the Prophet is providing a sense of security. In this sense, he has established the neighborhood, trade and agricultural practice among them.Love-compassion, tolerance, awareness of the faith are the unifying elements of the Prophet\u27s life.Loving each other and compassion, they are like one body of believers. If one part of body is ill, other parts are ill too. When one mumin is under cruelty, others are the same. The Prophet "we" are trying to make sense of the judges in the words and deeds. has invited the tribes and nations where unity in faith as a priority. Then all the people have wanted to keep the faith in the unity of consciousness.In addition to the appeal to the order of steps based on unity, it gave priority to unity based on feelings. Feeling that this matter first opposed, to selfishness. Hayri believers to ask for his brother, not to help someone else, to pray for believers to etc. They occur as a result of selfish actions. The Prophet charity wants to count himself should ask for the faith of other believers, the imam of the congregation to pray for him and pray stated that betrayed the community. Prophet Prophet\u27s operational practices have been identified as "worship and social welfare" We tried to take the title.The Prophet, worship in the "we" gave importance to consciousness. "Sevad A‘zam" aimed at using the concept of the unity of this until doomsday. This concept is said to be a manifestation of his circumcision. They should be kept firmly in the ranks of his circumcision would show otherwise emphasis on differentiation of the hearts of believers literally "one heart", "single we" is to imply emphasis. like him who would win reward those who do good to signify mention are other factors that lead to the establishment of a sense of unity.The application forms of zakat and hajj are packed with factors leading to this union. The sacrifice, "circumcision of Muslims" has said that meant. In this prayer, "circumcision of Muslims" instead of "my Sunnah" statement points to this association.One issue that is also seen as a unifying element in the Prophet\u27s community is to provide assistance from community members. Till the end of the first prophecy is addressed to the revelation at Hira mountain, it took care to this unifying element.“When the neighbor is hungry the one who wakes up fed that morning is not from us." Ordination is an expression of unity consciousness is every night and day of making the necessary control. Will give your neighbor anything without sahâbîs the water of the little more than put the preaching of soup, to brotherhood established between the Companions, more vehicle or ration that\u27s the verdirt her brother, thirsty one of the water, although it is the Day of Resurrection the people who give water in the desert reporting would be people to talk should not always God himself, his brother to specify whether the aid is to help people as long as there are signs could be union solidarity.The opposite of helping others is selfishness. The one having these feelings do not want to benefit from someone else\u27s goods
Venn Scheme Presentation and Interpretation of Syllogism Patterns with Respect to Logic- Mathematics Relationship
No full text“Mantık - Matematik ilişkisi bağlamında geçerli kıyas kalıplarının Venn şeması ile gösterimi ve yorumlanması” adını taşıyan bu çalışmada kıyas kalıplarını matematiksel bir gösterim şekli ile daha sembolik hale getirmeye ve farklı bir bakış açısı sunmaya çalıştık. İlk olarak kısaca mantık matematik ilişkisini ele aldık. Ardından özetle kıyas üzerinde durduk. Daha sonra gösterim şeklinin sembolik olması sebebiyle ana hatlarıyla sembolik mantığın tarihçesi, yapısı, gelişimi ve Venn şemaları hakkında bilgi verdik. Son olarak önceki bölümde verilen örnekleri Venn şeması yöntemi ile göstermeye çalıştık. Sonuçta ise ulaşılan kanaatlere yer verdik.ABSTRACT: In this work that is titled ‘‘Venn Scheme Presentation and Interpretation of Syllogism Patterns with Respect to Logic- Mathematics Relationship’’, we try to make the Patterns of syllogism more symbolic using mathematical representation techniques and thus provide a different perspective. The first section is named as ‘‘Logic- Mathematics Relationship’’ and here, how the interaction between logic and mathematic scienses has taken place in the historic process has been summarized. Then we stand on syllogism briefly. Followingly shares the same name with the thesis since the proposed representations will be taken into consideration here. Since mathematical representation is symbolic, we outline the history of symbolic logic, its structure and historical progress. Then, we compile the necessary information regarding Venn schemes. Finally, we show the examples given in the previous section using Venn scheme representation. In the conclusion we are revaluated the datas.SUMMARY: Every discipline has its own subjects, principles and problems. Therefore it can be said that sciences has autonomy. However this should not mean that a science is completely unrelated to other sciences. There are connections and similarities between disciplines. Logic and Mathematics are such two disciplines that have common ground. Being both theoretical, logic and mathematics are in close relation considering the proof methods and their endpoints. Although these two disciplines have been considered separately until the modern age, this has changed since the 19th century. After this century, there have been studies on the assumption that mathematics and logic are interrelated.For example, British logicians such as De Morgan (1806-1876), George Boole (1815-1864) and Stanley Jevons (1835-1882) tried to rebuild logic by exemplifying mathematics but failed. The reason behind this should be that they neglected that logic has broader foundations than mathematics.A new approach with an opposite perspective than the above mentioned efforts was successful. According to this approach, logic serves as the foundation of mathematics and therefore a healthy relationship could be established between the two disciplines. This perspective was owned by Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) and Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947). They suggested this new approach in their book Principa Mathematica.Another approach involves the reduction of the two sciences to each other and there have been people even defending the equality of the two. These and similar studies lead to logic being more mathematics like and mathematics having logical properties. After all this process, logic and mathematics are unanimously accepted to be closely related. The foundation of this relation has the proof concept in its core. Because both disciplines aim proofs. For instance, the initial subject of logic is the realization of proofs. The most accepted and effective method of proof is syllogism. For this reason, the most important subject of logic is syllogism. Syllogism, on the other hand, is based on deduction. There is a similar situation in mathematics because in it too one can reach the absolute proof using deduction. However, while in logic the proof is made using verbal concepts, words and symbols; in mathematics it is done using numbers. Returning to syllogism, the founding subject of proof in logic, it is a reaching to a conclusion based on two or more premises that are accepted to be true. The most correct one of this is called the predicative absolute (categorical) syllogism. Aristoteles, the founder of logic science, and his followers especially considered this type of syllogism. This type of syllogism have 64 patterns based on the quality and quantity of the constructing premises and 256 patterns depending on 4 schemes and places of the middle term. Only 19 types are found to be valid considering the rules of the predicative absolute syllogism and the special conditions of the schemes.The subject of this survey is the Venn representation of these 19 patterns, which are quite important in showing the relation of logic and mathematics. Additionally, it is also mentioned how this method will help the logic education and how it can be interpreted based on this purpose. In our work, we observed the positive and negative aspects of our work in terms of education and teaching, just like any other method. Let\u27s first talk about its positive sides. In institutions where a verbal oriented education is dominant, there is a bias towards sciences that involve numbers such as mathematics. The syllogism patterns that the logic science has, by being symbolically represented can be important in reducing this bias. It can be useful that this method is graphically, and thus differently shown.The afore mentioned method will be a lot more helpful and easy to understand for the people that have undergone a quantitative education and have background in such fields. For the teacher as well this is useful to teach to such audience. Considering the teaching techniques, this method is more constructive compared to the classical memorization techniques and compatible to the existing teaching methods.Considering the downsides of the method, Venn representation requires extra drawings and information in contrast to the classical method. Thus it can be said that this method may result in some loss. Additionally the miscarriage resulted by the combination of sketches, scans and shapes can cause the final result to be wrong.To an audience with a verbal education who lacks a quantitative background with a bias towards mathematical representations and processes and used to a memorization based education system thus less conforming to the constructive education, this method may bring trouble and loss of time. For the teacher, this method may result in the loss of energy and time as well.As a result, this method may be valuable to be given alongside with the classical method. In this manner, the two methods will complement each other with respect to the understanding style of the student and thus may make teaching more successfu
Discussions of Naskh (Abrogation) in Modern Studies and Ibn Kathīr’s Perception of Naskh
No full textNesih, ihtilaflı yapısınarağmen İslâm ilimleri içinde ayrıntılı bir şekilde işlenmiştir. Ancak moderndönem/Cumhuriyet sonrası tefsir usûlüne dair eserlerde bu konunun tartışılmaşekli yüzeysel bir görünüm arzetmektedir. Oysa nesih sorunsalının sistematikbir bütünlük içinde ele alınması, gelenekteki nesih algısı üzerine yapılacakayrıntılı bir analizle mümkün olabilir. Bu tespit ve amaçtan hareketlemakalenin iki veçhesi bulunmaktadır. Makalede ilk olarak neshin kavramsalçerçevesi kısaca hatırlatılmakta ve modern dönem/Cumhuriyet sonrası tefsirusûlünde neshin ele alınış şeklini görebilmek için bahsi geçen tartışmalarınbir tasviri yapılmaktadır. Akabinde tefsir geleneğinin önemli bir temsilcisiolan İbn Kesîr’in (ö. 774/1373) metodolojik ve pratik boyutuyla neshe yaklaşımıele alınmaktadır. Neticede; rivâyetçi ve hadisçi müfessir İbn Kesîr’inöngörülenin aksine, nesih konusunda, akla/te’vîle dayalı açıklamalardabulunduğuna dair tespitler yapılmaktadır. Buradan hareketle, İbn Kesîr’inkonuyla ilgili izlediği bu yöntemin, tefsir usûlünde nesihle ilgiligeliştirilmesi gerekli metodolojiye katkı sağlayacağı iddia edilmektedir. Abrogation (naskh) is one of the controversialthemes of Islamic studies, especially in later period that of principle of exegesis(uṣūl al-tafsīr). However, the recent studies on abrogation (naskh) do not offer a comprehensive analysis on the concept. Infact, the problem of naskh(abrogation) is in need of a systematic and holistic approach, which would onlybe possible with a detailed study on how the concept of abrogation (naskh) is understood in Islamicinterpretive tradition (tafsīr). Withthis purpose in mind, this article intends to examine two points regarding theterm abrogation: first, the article will offer a analytical reflection on thediverse views of naskh, and then itwill highlight how Ibn Kathīr (d. 1373) understood and applied this term to hishermeneutical framework. By doing so, the present study aims to show IbnKathīr’s position in Islamic interpretive tradition on the matter of naskh. The key conclusion of this studyis that although Ibn Kathīr is one of the representatives of the traditionalriwayah (sound transmission through a chain of exegetes) exegesis, he advanceshis interpretive hermeneutics with multiple aspects that also involves dirayah(personal opinion) exegesis (tafsīr).SUMMARYThe problem of naskh (abrogation) is one of the mostimportant and controversial themes of science and principle of exegesis (ʿilm wan a-l uṣūl al-tafsīr) in Islamic tradition. In order to understand naskh, which is claimed to be occurredin the Qur’ānic text, it is necessary to involve the time of the revelation ofthe Qur’ān. An analysis of this period reveals that first Muslims regard the naskh as a natural process of therevelation and do not dispute over this matter. In other words, thecontroversial theme naskh is perceivedby first addresses of the Qur’ān as a hermeneutical characteristic of theQur’ānic revelation. Therefore, naskhwas not considered as a controversial concept and debated its origins based onthe question whether it organically belonged to the revelation. It will beclear that the different views on naskh(abrogation), particularly after the time of the Companions is not a conceptualproblem; rather Muslim scholars differed in their methodological approaches to naksh. Naskh has not been questioned as a concept in early Islamictradition. Rather it has gradually developed over the centuries. Naskh has been elaborated with the termsof uṣūl al-fiqh (principles of Law), such as takhṣīṣ (specification) and taqyīd(restriction) and its conceptual meaning has been extended after, particularlyAbū ʿAbdullah Muḥammad b. Idrisb. ʿAbbas al-Shāfiʿī (d. 820). Tosum up, naskh is regarded with amethodological perspective. However, in the field of Turkish Islamic studies,especially after the Cumhuriyet, the term naskhis not regarded as a natural consequence of the process of tanzīl (revelation of the Qur’ān) neglecting the gradual aspect ofrevelation and the disputes over the term has been concluded either rejectingor simply accepting this concept without providing a satisfactory result on thematter.This articleexamines one of the most prominent Muslim exegete Ibn Kathīr’s (d. 1373)approach to the problem of naskh inthe context of previous modern scholarship on naskh (abrogation). However, the analysis of Ibn Kathīr’sperception of naskh does not claim tobe exhaustive on the matter. This requires a more comprehensive study on theconcept of naskh, which is clearlybeyond the scope of this article. Therefore, the present study intends tospecifically focus on general aspect of Ibn Kathīr’s understanding of naskh and how his perception ispresented in modern studies.When IbnKathīr’s commentary is analysed, it becomes clear that his understanding of naskh is significant and not necessarilyin line with his riwayah (sound transmission through a chain of exegetes) tafsīr (exegesis). For example, he notesthe dates between abrogating and abrogated Qur’ānic verses and claims that itis necessary to find certain proofs to validate the claim of abrogation (naskh) for particular legal judgmentsand verses, which clearly shows that Ibn Kathīr approaches to the problem of naskh with a methodological perspective.Ibn Kathīr’s interpretation of the well known Qur’ānic verse Q 2.106 in adifferent sense and most importantly his consideration of the matter only inthe Qur’ānic context are clear examples of his methodological approach. Hisinterpretation of Q 2.106 simply shows that he meticulously distinguish betweenthe acceptance of naskh as a conceptand as an interpretive method. The modern studies on naskh, on the contrary, consider the matter only on the base of aconceptual analysis. Ibn Kathīr prefers to transmit the traditionalopinions based on personal interpretation and interprets some Qur’ānic verses.This is clearly his method of re-interpretation based on rational thinking (taʾwīl). His way of rational reasoning leads Ibn Kathīr to the rejection of naskh (abrogation) and the restrictionof Qur’ānic verses that are related to the theory of abrogating and abrogatedverses (nāsikh-mansūkh). This clearly proves that Ibn Kathīr does not merelyadopts and employs the method of riwayah, which is contrary to the suppositionthat he is the exegete of a commentary that heavily draws on hadith reports andtransmitted traditional reports. In fact, this most importantly shows that IbnKathīr’s Qur’ān commentary can also be regarded as a dirayah (personal opinion)tafsīr (exegesis) and that there are enough material in traditional MuslimQur’ānic exegesis to re-analyse the problem of naskh (abrogation). Relying on this last point, this article arguesthat a comprehensive analysis of naskhrequires a research on the traditional interpretive sources. Therefore, itmight be helpful to reconsider the matter of naskh with its conceptual background in the works of traditionalMuslim exegetes rather than focusing only on whether the concept naskh exits or not in the origins of theQur’ānic revelation. At this point, an analysis of Ibn Kathīr’s perception of naskh and his rational reasoning that isemployed in his commentary will contribute to the understanding of the theoryof naskh (abrogation) in thetradition of Qur’ānic exegesis
13. Tefsir Akademisyenleri Koordinasyon Toplantısı ve Akademik Tefsir Çalışmaları Sempozyumu (27-28 Mayıs 2016 Ankara)
No full textThe eveluation of Meeting of Tafsir Academics which held on 27-28 May 2016 in Ankara and Symposium of The Studies of Academic Tafsir/Ecegesis.27-28 Mayıs 2016 tarihinde Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Tefsir Anabilim Dalı\u27nın organizasyonu ile yapılan XIII. Tefsir Akademisyenleri Koordinasyon Toplantısı ve Akademik Tefsir Çalışmaları Sempozyumu toplantısının tanıtım yazısı
Qiraāt Arguments about Merging “Rā” Letter into “Lām” Letter in Chapter al- Baqara 284
No full textBiz bu makalemizde genelde kıraat olgusu etrafında yapılan tartışmalardan ziyade başlıkta da belirttiğimiz gibi Bakara sûresi iki yüz seksen dördüncü âyeti ilgili tefsirlerde yer verilen tartışmaları kıraat açısından ele alıp bir değerlendirme yapacağız. Bu âyeti seçmemizin özel nedeni sâkin râ harfini lâm harfine idgam yaparak okuyan kıraat âlimlerinin, Kur’an sûrelerinin resmi sıralamasına göre karşılaştıkları ilk örnek olmasından dolayıdır. Her ne kadar çalışmamız bir âyet üzerinde odaklanmış olsa da bununla kıraat tartışmalarının temelinde yatan nedenleri bulmak ve kıraatin oluşmasına zemin hazırlayan etkenin ne olabileceği olgusuna bir katkı sağlayabilmektir.ABSTRACT: In this article -as stated in the title- we will make an assessment in terms of taking over qıraât in surah al-Baqara about two hundred and eighty fourth verseplace, instead of debates around the qıraât cases. Special reason for choosing this verse is that recitation scholars who read letter of quiet râ by idgam letter to lâm, because of that it is the first sample according to the official ranking of the Qur’an surah. Although our study focused on a verse, we purpose to find the reasons underlying in the debates of qıraât and we purpose to find the factors that predispose to the formation of qıraât to be able to make a contribution to what could be the case.SUMMARY: In this article we will deal with the argumentations given in the commentary books about the recitation/qiraat of surah al-Baqarah, two hundred and eighty fourth verse and will make an evaluation rather than the argumentations about the concept of qiraat as it stated in the title. Special reason for choosing this verse is its being the first sample according to the official ranking of the Qor’an surah for the recitation scholars who read letter of quiet râ by idğâm letter to lâm. Although our study focused on a verse, we purpose to find the reasons underlying in the debates of qiraat and we purpose to find the factors that predispose to the formation of qiraat to be able to make a contribution to what could be the case.Origin of the recitation issue has been a topic of discussion in sciences of Tafsir since the first period. This debate has continued its actuality among the people of science. We can easily say that the element which formed the basis of the argument is the hadith which declares that Qor’an has revealed on seven letters. Especially, the focus of the discussion has linked in the matter of seven letters because of the real meaning of the revelation of Qor’an on seven letters cannot fully known. This topic has occupied scholars all along, even if it has become the subject of individual studies. Studies could not produce absolute solutions on the explanation of topic; they just served in the gathering of some evaluations. Besides, whether the recitation is mutawatir or not, and its relying on the Prophet are the other side of the discussion, and it took its place as a distinct title in the hadith, recitation and the history of the commentary resources. Likewise, informations about this subject are given in the first commentary resources.The number of readings inspired by the seven letters license number increased considerably in the recitation issues, this number is declared as seven, ten, twenty, twenty-five, forty and fifty in the sources. Some studies have done to restrict this number and it has disciplined by Qurra. Finally, the number of recitation is determined as seven relying on mutawatir recitation number and after that it has limited by ten, and the recitations out of this number considered as exceptional/shaz. However, almost all commentary books which give the recitations, has benefited from the exceptional/shaz recitations on the explanation of the verses. In our this article we will deal with the argumentations given in the commentary books about the recitation/qiraat of surah al-Baqarah, two hundred and eighty fourth verse and will make an evaluation rather than the argumentations about the concept of qiraat as it stated in the title.We determined as a result of our investigation that the recitation of râ letter with idğâm to lam letter and its application by Qurra is a discussion topic between linguists and commentators. From linguists; Khalil b. Ahmad (d. 175/791) and Sibawayhi (d. 180/796) and scholars who think like them had not seen permissible idğâm of râ letter to lam letter because râ has takrir quality in itself. From the commentators Zamakhshari (d. 538/1144) and Baydawi (d. 685/1286), did not see this appropriate also. Although the commentators who give the recitation differences did not make any explanation about this verse, they did not give any information about the different kinds of recitation of this verse. Also it is known that, amongst the recitation Imams, just Abu ‘Amr (d. 154/771) has read these words with idğâm with the narration of Sûsi (d. 261/874). The others have read with izhar. According to our opinion, in the period the recitation concepts have not been disciplined, and the exits of lam and râ letters are close to each other and it’s hard to read with izhar so it has been read with idğâm. Or these words were using as such in the language of the people of the region. It’s understood that the type of recitation which has no effect on the meaning, is come from language. It is difficult to claim that all types of recitation which gains legitimacy relying on its recitator, based on the Prophet. Actually, the differences in the recitation do not exceed a few samples when the Prophet was alive. Whether the quality of the differences in recitation is not identified in hadith books, it is easily understood that these differences has not an effect which will change the essence of the Qor’anic text. Thus, it is inconceivable that there would be a semantic shift in the verses which have changes due to different kinds of recitations. In the context of recitation, it just can be perceived as a kind of recitation which comes from dialect, in other words language.As a result, it can be said that; the reason behind the license of different recitations is the usage of language. We can explain the restriction of the recitation with seven as; whether the recited verse is read in the dialect or language of the one tribe differently, it is aimed that the recitations will not exceed the type of recitation which has determined with the hadith; however it is vogue in the hadith and scholars deduced it from hadith and has disciplined it. According to this, the difference in names, tasrif, i\u27râb differences, hazf and addition, taqdim and ta’hir, letter change (tafhîm-tarqîq, imalah, fath, etc.). Dialect / language differences can be collected in the rules, including seven titles. As a result, seven letters does not mean recitation by seven imams, maybe it means seven letters that we have pointed out that what the seven letters. It is known that seven letters are referred to the names of imams who constitute an authority in the recitation subject, because firstly they originated and applied and disciplined this. The most effective reason which constitutes the basis of the recitation is dialect and language usage. If this is not so, recitation school which remain alone in some recitation differences is not considered good, as making idğâm of Abu ‘Amr in this verse. This shows that recitation is a sunnah which must be followed. The purpose is to provide the recitation of the Qor’an by their followers as convenient to their own dialect and be subject to it.In short, as long as the Qor\u27an is eternal, issue of seven letters will remain and continue with it. Because Qor’anic text which multiplied in the period of ‘Uthman and continued up to the present day, it is the most reliable source which different recitations takes its reference. As tajwid is the inseparable part of Qor’an and a branch of science which belong to it, recitation will continue its existence dependent on the Qor’anic text
A Key Concept in Understanding of Esoteric Sects: The Theory of Shadows
No full textBâtınî mezheplerle alakalı pek çok çalışma yapılmışve bu çalışmalarda konu farklı açılardan ele alınmıştır. Ancak bâtınî düşüncesisteminde ezılle anlayışının yeri ve önemine dikkat çeken bir çalışmayapılmamıştır. Bu makalede ezılle anlayışının ne olduğu tespit edildikten sonrakavramın bâtınî düşünce sistemini anlamada merkezi bir yerinin olduğu önesürülmüştür. Bu çerçevede ezılle anlayışının bâtınî ekollerin temelfikirlerindeki belirgin etkisi açığa çıkarılmaya çalışılmıştır.There are numerous studies on the esoteric sects inIslam. Though in these studies they have been discussed from differentrespects, none of them draws attention to the place and importance of thetheory of shadows (aẓilla) in the esoteric sects. In this article, after the identification of themeaning of the theory of shadows, it has been argued that the concept ofshadows has a central role in understanding the esoteric system of thought. Inthis context, it has been tried to reveal the central effect of the theory of shadowson the basic ideas of esoteric sects. SUMMARYThere are numerous studies on the esoteric sects inIslam. Though in these studies they have been discussed from differentrespects, none of them draws attention to the place and importance ofthe theory of shadows (aẓilla) in the esoteric sects. In this article,after the identification of the meaning of the theory of shadows, it hasbeen argued that the concept of shadows has a central role in understanding theesoteric system of thought. In this context, it has been tried to reveal thecentral effect of the theory of shadows on the basic ideas of esoteric sects.The theory of shadows can be defined as thereflection of the shadows or non-material beings, which appear in the divineworld, in this world in a material form. The origins of this view go back tothe Plato’s theory of ideas that he formulated as ideas and forms and to hisallegory of cave that he used to explain this theory. This theory which wasformulated and developed by the pre-Islamic various religious and philosophicaltraditions took an Islamic form through the bāṭinī/esoteric schools.The theory of shadows was first developed by theextremist groups of shiʿa. Though the earlyclassical works referred the theory of shadow to the extremist shiʿas, they do not give any detail thereof. Nevertheless, it is possible tofind in some views of theirs and in the esoteric sects such as Ismailites,Nusayrites, Druzes and Yazidites some clues about the character of this theory.In addition, the later works like Kitāb al-Haft wa al- ʾAẓilla directly articulating thetheory of shadows were composed. Although the theory of shadows was not mentionedsufficiently in the works produced within the bāṭinī/esoteric circles, it is witnessed that theirunderstandings of religion were based, to a large extent, upon the theory ofshadows. The most basic feature of this unnamed understanding is the claim thatevery being in the divine world has been reflected in this world in a materialform. Since the essence of God generally was kept out from the manifestation (tajallī), reflection was not startedwith his essence. However, the first beings emanating from Almighty Creatorbrought the divine world into being and that world was reflected to this worldin a material form. With this perception, a Gnostic understanding wasdeveloped that the material has no reality and the ultimate reality should besought in the non-material. According to this, the material beings consistingof only reflection of reality are not possible to have an ultimate reality. The only truth is the meaning, inner (bātin) or shadow which reflects to theworld in a material form. Naturally what a bāṭinī should do is to seek the non-materialultimate truth hidden behind the material form.The theory of shadows in this point arguedcompulsorily the distinction of ẓāhir-bātin (outer-inner). Accordingly, ẓāhir consists of a shell orreflection in which hides the truth. The duty one should do is to go beyond theouter meaning of religious text and to get the inner truth hidden behind theouter meaning. The theory of shadows made a dualist view pointobligatory, because every being has an inner aspect which includes the truthand an outer respect in which the ultimate truth is reflected in a materialform. God has the inner attributes through which the truth appears spirituallyand material attributes to which they are reflected. Universe has a dualistcharacter, a spiritual universe consisting of non-material realities andmaterial universe consisting of its reflections. Human beings have a dualistcharacter, a soul belonging to the divine world and a body belonging to thisworld. Religious texts which were sent for the salvation of mankind also havetwo aspects, the inner (bāṭin) belonging to the divine world and the outer (ẓāhir) belonging to this world.Since the Bāṭiniyya considered the divineworld to be composed of sevenfold and each fold to be a divine being, theysought, as a result of the theory of shadow, to find in the material world thecounterparts or reflections of these beings. Even if their names show differences, the bāṭinī/esoteric groups regarded in certain timessome figures as the reflections of the divine world in the material world.Divine beings called al-ʿAql al-Kullī (the Universal Intellect), al-Nafs al-Kullī (the Universal Soul), al-Kalima, Sābiq and Tālī werereflected in the world as the material forms like the Prophet Muhammad, Ali,Salman al-Farisī, Miqdāt b. al-Aswad, Ammār b. Yāsir.This understanding resulted in the divinization ofsome figures in the world, because it was held that through the manifestationthese figures differ from the ordinary people, thus having some divinefeatures. These figures gaining a bipolar identity were outwardly human beings,while inwardly regarded as the forms of divine beings reflected in the world.In this point, what the other people should do is to comprehend, with referenceto the figures and their forms, the divine truth reflecting them. This approachbrought about a religious understanding in which an individual salvation wasnot possible and some figures were perceived as charismatic leaders. As a result, the religious understanding developedby the Bāṭiniyya schools is under the ultimate influence ofthe theory of shadows. With reference to this theory, they developed a newunderstanding of Islam called Esotericism. At the core of this perception liesthe theory of shadows and dualism as its inseparable part. In this sense,Esotericism represents a religious understanding developed in this directionand having a wholeness and deepness. In order to understand this religiousunderstanding correctly, the theory of shadows must be taken into considerationand the esoteric texts be read in this direction. This kind of way of reading,in which the outer is seen as the unique reality, fails to realize the dualitybehind it, will not enable us to comprehend the inner wholeness of Esotericismand cause to see it as a mass of contradictions.
The Idea Of Human Perfection In The Collection Of Sheikh Halid Effendi
No full textMutasavvıf birşair olarak Şeyh Hâlid’in muhatabı insandır. O insanın kemalini gaye edinmiş veirfan mektebinde insanlık öğretisi ortaya koymuş bir sûfîdir. İnsanın sadecemaddi yapısıyla ele alındığı asrımız öncesinde o, insanı madde ve mana, dünyave ahiret, fert ve toplum, beden ve ruh cihetleriyle ele alıp bütüncülyaklaşmış bir gönül eridir. Makalede Şeyh Hâlid Efendi’nin varlık felsefesinive varlıklar mertebesinde insanın konumuna bakışını ele almak istiyorum. Kâmilinsanın arayışı içerisinde olan Şeyh Hâlid Efendi, insanın süflî duygulardansıyrılıp fıtratına yolculuk yapmasını istemektedir. Küntü kenzen sırrına ermekiçin insanın safiyet kazanmasını önermektedir. Bir sûfî şair olarak insanınkemal kazanabilmesi için seyr u sülûk eğitimini gerçekleştirmesini, tasavvufîahlaka bürünmesini, irfanî kimliğe sahip olmasını ve aşk estetiği kazanmasınıönemsemektedir.Sheikh Halid Sufi, as a Sufipoet, addresses human being as the main subject of his sufist dicourse. He isan important figure of our recent history as he primarily adopted the goal ofhuman perfection and revealed a doctrine of humanity in the school ofknowledge. In advance of our current century, when human is seen just inphysical respect, he lived as a man of heart who handled human being with anintegrated approach within the aspects of matter and spirituality, the worldand the hereafter, individual and community, body and soul. In this communiqué,I will discuss Sheikh Halid Effendi’s ontology and his point of view on theplace of human being in the realm of existence. He seeks human perfection andwishes people to free themselves of shabby desires and regain theirdisposition. He recommends people to achieve purity in order to reach the rankof being a mirror to God’s reflections. As a Sufi poet, he attaches importance tocarrying out the education of divine journey, wrapping up in mystical ethics,having the identity of wisdom and gaining the aesthetics of love so as to reachthe perfection.SUMMARYSheikh MehmedHalid was born in 1273/1856 in Sivas. He graduated from Ottoman Junior HighSchool. He attended the 1893 War. In 1880, he started his professional careerat a state office. Until 1899, he served in several positions, as assistantjudge in Erbaa Lower Court, as Prosecuting Deputy Attorney in Sivas, asProsecuting Judge assistant in Lower Court and head clerk in Darende, as headclerk in Lower Court in Tonus/Altınyayla, and as prosecuting judge in Kuruçay.He died in 1931 and was buried in Sivas Yukarı Tekke Graveyard. Sufism(tasawwuf) is an education for integrity towards maturity, in a way to prufiythe self from evils of nafs (self) and to reach the love of Allah. Thisspiritual educational journey is called ‘Seyr-u Suluk’. Sheikh Mehmed Halidcompleted his Seyr u Suluk as a dervish (student) of murshid (mentor)Kastamonulu Ganizade Mehmed Sadık Baba. Sheikh Mehmed Halid wrote three bookscalled Hilafetnāme, Mektubāt, and Divan.He deals with issues of Sufism (mysticism) in these works. Primarily, his worksdwells into the matters of morals, worship, good manners (adab), customarypractices, ingenuity, existence, and love. Sheikh Mehmed Halid’s sole attempt is to explain the relationship amongAllah, man and universe in an understandable way. According to Sheikh MehmedHalid’s conception of Sufism, existence is unique and that existence is only Allah.The existence of Allah is absolute while the existence of assets is relative.Things do not exist on their own. Universe is like a mirror. What is reflectedin the mirror of universe are the shadows of Allah the Omnipotent. The gracesof The Divine are reflected in this mirror. All the things that exist in theuniverse proves the Self of Allah and his properties. Each of the things in theuniverse are the words of Allah. The existence of the universe is a result ofAllah’s mercy. Man is the fruit of the tree of the Universe.Man is both theembodiment and the reflection of Allah. We want to discuss the position of manin between Allah and the universe with Sheikh Halid’s verses. Perceivingplurality in unity and unity in plurality, Sheikh Mehmed Halid attributes thevariety of things and existence in the universe to the Divine beauties ofAllah. For those who can comprehend, theplurality/ abundance in existing objects in the universe indicates singularityand uniqueness of Allah. According to Sheikh Halid, Allah is independent fromand beyond all the entities that exist in the universe. However, Allah,manifests Himself in the things that he creates and the actions he takesthrough His divine names and properties. According to Sheikh Halid, each objectis a reflection of Allah’s divine properties. Every entity in the universeglorifies Allah with all their existence. For Sheikh Halid, Seyr u Suluk is thejourney from weakness to perfection, from substance to meaning, and from thingsto reality.ConsideringSeyr u Suluk education as distancing one’s self from other beings, reachingpurity of heart, disposing of all signs explains these concepts with pilgrimagemetaphor. As a response to those who asks him what he meant by seyr u suluk, hesays seyr u suluk is servitude and submission to Allah. In order for Seyr uSuluk to be meaningful, a person should enter the way of a murshid-i kāmil(perfect religious mentor), and should have sincerity, purity (being deprivedof all sins) and dhikr. According toSheikh Halid, someone who is not in trouble is not given a remedy. So as tobother is necessary for remedy to be arisen. Nuisances of the universe are alsoephemeral as the universe itself. Therefore, it is unnecessary to bother thingsthat are ephemeral. Because remedy is not available without being mature.According to Sheikh Halid, the procedure of gaining advantage from beingmature; getting rid of the ego, feeling the love, being pioneer of the mission,being modest, to attain soul pleasure, escaping from fame, leaving the claim,the glory of salvation, proceeding dhikr, reaching the conquests and escapingfrom friendship of worldly things. According to Sheikh Halid, being mature isnot setting about affiliation ceremony. Asceticism cannot be a show and claimauthority. Sincerity is needed on the basis of seyr u suluk education.Asceticism which is an effort of making the religion a specific of Allah is tomake intimacy with Allah. Sheikh Halid wants his murids who take part in ṭarīqa (sufī path) to decide on the sincerity.Sincerity is said to be the unique factor that makes sense the membership. Seyr u sulukwhich begins with being membership of mature murshid, which makes sense withproceeding worship and respecting the sincerity arises by teaching manners tosoul. Seyr u suluk is trying to reform the soul. Teaching manners to soul is achallenging and significant task. The most important factor that ensureteaching manners to the soul to be achieved is dhikr. Dhikr practice whichmakes successful the teaching manner to the soul of seyr u suluk trainingincreases the prudence and foresight of dervish. The unique task that murshidexpects from his murid during the membership process is to adjust his soul andparlance to the dhikr of Allah. Dhikr of Allah is a product of fondness.According to Sheikh Halid, one who wants to be remembered in heaven shouldhimself learn to remember Allah. Sheikh Halidgives too much importance to disciplining the tariqa where sufi training takesplace. A murid should qualify his murshid whom he intimated to. Followersshould gain sufficient advantage from the spiritual atmosphere in the dergāh oftheir murshid. The murid must be at the service of the murshid who trains himand should obey tariqa manners.Salik whoachieves seyr u suluk, who maturates the sufi ethics and who gains sinceritythrough dihkr of Allah tries to achieve the Gnosis. The intent of being a humanis to know Allah. The biggest disaster for human is to come upon unawareness.Sheikh Halid who assumes the the Arifs as sultans of walayah makes a comparisonbetween the Arifs and the Zahids and prefers the Arifs. He thinks that theZahids pay attention to the appearance, cannot reach the basis and cannot gobeyond Allahliness show. Sheikh Halid, who encourages the Zahids to avoidcomparing themselves with the Arifs, warns the ones who combat with the Arifsand reminds that Allah proclaims warfare to those who has hostility towardsthose surrendering themselves to Allah. Sheikh Halid lines up the ways of being mature and having wisdom asgodly grace, asceticism, love, the mind of leaving, battle with the self,humility, dikhr and being woeful.Salvation process which Marifetullah will guide isto achieve the love of Allah. Love is the way of achieving the reunion. Thereality can just be gained through love. However, gaining the divine loverequires to be loved. Because, the way of gaining the divine love is to removeeverything except Allah from one’s heart.
A Review of el-Muddaththir 11-26 in the Framework of the Social Psychology Theories
No full textel-Müddessir sûresi nüzulsırasına göre Kur’an’ın ilk sûrelerindendir. Bu sûrenin 11-26. âyetlerindeMekkeli müşriklerin Kur’an’a karşı sert muhalefeti Velîd b. Muğîre üzerindenanlatılır. Biz bu âyetleri sosyal psikoloji disiplini tarafından geliştirilensosyal kimlik, gerçekçi çatışma ve stereotip (kalıp yargı) kavramlarıçerçevesinde anlamaya çalıştık. Bu bağlamda çalışmamız disiplinler arasıyardımlaşmayı içermekte olup beşerî disiplinlere müracaat etmenin Kur’an’ıanlamada faydalı olacağını ortaya koymaktadır. Çalışmamız iki kısımdanoluşmaktadır. Birinci kısımda sosyal psikolojinin ilgili kavramlarıyla alakalıteorik bilgi verdik. İkinci kısımda âyetleri bu kavramlar vasıtasıylaaçıklamaya çalıştık.The surah ofel-Muddaththir is one of the first surahs of the Qurʾān according to thechronological order of the revelation. In this surah, between the verses 11-26,the story of the harsh opposition by polytheists of Mecca is told through thestory of Walīd ibn al-Mughīrah. In this study, we tried to examine these versesin the framework of the social psychological models named “social identitytheory”, “realistic conflict theory” and “stereotype psychology”, which aresubgroups of the discipline of social psychology. This study includes theinterdisciplinary collaboration between theology and social science andsupports that using social science as a tool to understand the Qurʾān will beinsightful. This study consists of two parts. The first part includes thetheoretical background information about the relevant concepts of socialpsychology. The second part explains the Qurʾānic verses in the light of thesesocial psychology concepts.SUMMARYAccording to the social identity theory that was developed under the disciplineof social psychology, every individual has two types of identities; onepersonal identity and one social identity. Personal identity refers toindividual’s specific qualities such as his/her psychological characteristicsor physical and mental capacities. On the other hand, an individual’s socialidentity takes form as a result of his/her involvement in groups with the samerace, religion, or political views as himself/herself. In this context, when anindividual expresses his/her social identity, that individual actually reflectshis/her involvement in such groups. The phenomenon of which identity wouldgovern on individual’s behavior highly depends on his/her mental or socialstate.The realisticconflict theory proposes competition may arise as a result of conflicting goals betweendifferent group members. This competition to reach similar goals would resultin an intergroup hostility. The competition between groups would create to abiased positive view for the group that the individual is a part of andnegative view about the other group. This would lead to creating stereotypesagainst the other group.In social psychology, stereotype is describedas images in an individual’s mind, which are partially constructed by theindividual’s social environment and partially constructed by the individual’spersonality. These stereotypes determine our behavior and expectations againstthe outside world, so that they help us filter out the objective reality andshape the way that we perceive the events, other individuals or other groups.The stereotypes created against the other group are not created by only acouple crazy or neurotic members. In contrast, in the case of a fight betweentwo groups, the stereotypes are created by the members of each groups, who areknown to be the most reliable and influential individuals.In this study, the verses 11-25 ofel-Muddaththir are studied using the framework explained above. The verses11-17 mention the worldly goods that are given by Allah to Walīd ibnal-Mughīrah, without mentioning his name explicitly. However, Walīd continuesto be greedy and obstinate toward the verses revealed by Allah. Therefore, theverses mention that he will be obliged to climb a slippery mountain, his life inthe world will turn to a misery, and he will suffer in the afterlife. If thestory is evaluated in the framework of the social psychology theories, it canbe concluded that the verses actually refer to the group ofdisbelievers/polytheists for which Walīd was a prominent figure, as well asWalīd himself. Obviously, he was not alone and the verses indicated that thepolytheists of Mecca formed an opposition group; therefore, they formed adifferent social identity. As a conclusion, there were one group of disbelieversand another of group of believers which were going to be the subject of thefollowing verses of the Qurʾān. The social identity of the polytheists wouldalso play a significant role in their daily decisions. The two circumstancesthat were believed to be the asbābal-nuzūl (occasions of revelation) of the verses that were reviewed abovesupports this conclusion. The verses 18-26 discuss what Walīd ibn al-Mughīrah’stribe would prefer him to say about the Qurʾān. These verses not only simplyrepeat his words “This is not but magic imitated (from others), this is not butthe word of a human being", but also reflect the way he thinks with hisstrong negative attitude; i.e., the grimace on his face, the way he reacts withfrowning and turning his back... In social psychology, the expressions of Walīdibn al-Mughīrah can be described as “stereotypes.” These expressions areconsidered as one of the first stereotypes about the Qurʾān because it isdiscussed in some of the early verses according to the chronological order ofrevelation. Walīd ibn al-Mughīrah must have said these words under theinfluence of his social identity. In other words, these expressions must be aproduct of the intergroup conflict between the believers and the disbelieversagainst the believers’ claim of the Qurʾān being the words of Allah.The behavior of ʿUmar against the Qurʾān is also as important as thebehavior of Walīd ibn al-Mughīrah. Both of them were deeply affected by thecharm of the Qurʾān; however, ʿUmar chose to believe in the Qurʾān hile Walīd ibn al-Mughīrah ended upwith denial. We believe that different behaviors of these two individuals aredue the influence of their personal and social identities on their decisions.The choice of ʿUmar can be explainedby his personal identity being dominant than his social identity. On the otherhand, Walīd’s choice was a result of his social identity suppressing hispersonal identity, as well as stereotypes being more influential on him. Inother words, ʿUmar made a choicewith his personal identity rather than the disbeliever social identity. Thiswould fit better with his personality because he was a clever, independentthinker that would help him make rational choices. The social group that he wasa member of was not powerful enough to have an influence on him. In addition,he was not in a leadership position in Mecca. On the other hand, Walīd ibnal-Mughīrah was a poet and he was rich, as well as he was a prominent figure inMecca. He was even one of the people that the polytheists of Mecca claimed thatthe Qurʾān could have been revealed to. Therefore, it was more likely for Walīdibn al-Mughīrah to behave under the influence of his social identity because hehad more dominant and strong ties to his social identity compared to ʿUmar.
Akdag, Ozcan. "Divine Freedom in al-Ghazâlî and Thomas Aquinas". Phd. dissertation, Erciyes University Institute of Social Sciences, Kayseri 2015.
No full textBu çalışmanın temel amacı, Tanrı’nın fiillerinde özgür olup olmadığı meselesini Gazâlî ve Thomas ekseninde ele almak ve onların iddialarını, haklılık ve iç tutarlılık açısından incelemektir. Bu amaç doğrultusunda Giriş bölümünde soruna dair genel bir bilgi verilmiş ve bu konuda yapılmış çalışmalardan bir kısmı ele alınarak değerlendirilmiştir. Tezin birinci bölümünde, özgürlük kavramından ne anlaşıldığı, determinizmle ilişkisi, Tanrı’nın özgürlüğü sorununun ontolojik ve semantik boyutu ele alınmış ve meselenin tarihsel süreçte nasıl algılandığı tasvir edilmiştir. Çalışmanın ikinci bölümünde, Thomas’ın Gazâlî’nin fikirlerinden nasıl ve ne şekilde etkilendiği ortaya konulduktan sonra her iki düşünürün uluhiyet anlayışı ele alınmış, bu bağlamda onların benzeştikleri ve ayrıştıkları noktalar tespit edilmiştir. Üçüncü bölümde ise, Gazâlî ve Thomas’ın Tanrı-Âlem ilişkisine dair görüşlerine yer verilmiş ve Tanrı’nın özgürlüğünün tezahürü olarak değerlendirilebileceğini düşündüğümüz yaratma, mucize, ahlakî değerlerin ilahî emirlerle ilişkisi gibi konular ele alınmıştır.The main purpose of this study is to examine whether God can be free in His actions according to al-Ghazâlî and Thomas Aquinas, whether their assessment on divine actions has legitimacy and internal consistency. For this purpose, in the Introduction, it was given some general explanations on the problem and some works were done about this matter are taken into consideration and evaluated. In the first part of the dissertation, I tried to analyze the concept of ‘freedom’ and its relation to determinism. I also tried to give some explanations in terms of ontological and semantical aspects of the divine freedom. After these explanations, I pictured historical panorama of the problem of divine freedom and how to be understood divine actions in the historical period. In the second part of the dissertation, I tried to demonstrate how interaction took place between al-Ghazâlî and Thomas Aquinas. After this step, I took into consideration the concept of God in al-Ghazâlî and Thomas Aquinas, and I tried to give their resemblances and differences about this matter. In the third part of the dissertation, I considered their ideas about God-World relationship. In this context, I took in to consideration the issue of indicators of God’s freedom, like creation, miracles, relation between moral truths and God’s commands