E-JOURNALS OF UNIVERSITY SULKHAN-SABA ORBELIANI
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Circumstances of Embassy in Spain of Niceforo Irbach according to the documents found at Simanca’s archive
No full textThe first half of the 17th century was marked by significant foreign policy crises in Georgian history. During this period, Georgia endured devastating attacks from Shah Abbas of Iran, who invaded the country repeatedly. The Georgian victory at the Battle of Martkopi on March 25, 1625, proved vital for national survival, as King Rostom’s report demonstrates: “The order from the Shah was to kill every man and settle Persians in Kakheti.” King Teimuraz I of Kakheti made several attempts to establish diplomatic relations with Russia, notably in 1618 and 1623, but these efforts proved unsuccessful. As a logical extension of this diplomatic strategy, contacts with Western European powers were also pursued. Between 1626 and 1628, Nikoloz Cholokashvili (Niceforo Irbach) was dispatched on a diplomatic mission to Western Europe.Niceforo Irbach’s European activities and contributions have been inadequately studied in Georgian historiography, with many details of this embassy remaining unknown for centuries. While J. Vateishvili discovered and published some documents related to this mission, the most significant breakthrough came with the publication by Luis Fernández and Ilia Tabagua of Fuentes para la historia de Georgia en bibliotecas y archivos españoles (siglos XV-XVIII) (Madrid, 1993), which contains documents from the Simancas Archive. These diplomatic correspondences and records of Spanish Council of the Kingdom meetings offer new opportunities to reassess established interpretations of this historical episode.The first half of the 17th century was marked by significant foreign policy crises in Georgian history. During this period, Georgia endured devastating attacks from Shah Abbas of Iran, who invaded the country repeatedly. The Georgian victory at the Battle of Martkopi on March 25, 1625, proved vital for national survival, as King Rostom’s report demonstrates: “The order from the Shah was to kill every man and settle Persians in Kakheti.” King Teimuraz I of Kakheti made several attempts to establish diplomatic relations with Russia, notably in 1618 and 1623, but these efforts proved unsuccessful. As a logical extension of this diplomatic strategy, contacts with Western European powers were also pursued. Between 1626 and 1628, Nikoloz Cholokashvili (Niceforo Irbach) was dispatched on a diplomatic mission to Western Europe.Niceforo Irbach’s European activities and contributions have been inadequately studied in Georgian historiography, with many details of this embassy remaining unknown for centuries. While J. Vateishvili discovered and published some documents related to this mission, the most significant breakthrough came with the publication by Luis Fernández and Ilia Tabagua of Fuentes para la historia de Georgia en bibliotecas y archivos españoles (siglos XV-XVIII) (Madrid, 1993), which contains documents from the Simancas Archive. These diplomatic correspondences and records of Spanish Council of the Kingdom meetings offer new opportunities to reassess established interpretations of this historical episode
Dispute Adjudication Board: Innovation in Georgia’s Alternative Dispute Resolution System
Full text linkThis article examines the Dispute Adjudication Board (DAB) as an innovative mechanism within Georgia’s alternative dispute resolution (ADR) system. As large-scale infrastructure projects proliferate globally, effective and timely dispute resolution becomes essential. While ADR mechanisms like arbitration and mediation are well-established, the DAB has emerged as a crucial tool, especially in projects backed by international financial institutions. Despite its growing importance, the DAB remains underregulated in Georgia, leading to challenges in its application. The study explores the evolution of the DAB, tracing its roots from the United States in the 1970s to its current international recognition, particularly within the FIDIC contract framework. It highlights how Georgia has begun integrating DABs into its legal landscape, despite the absence of a comprehensive regulatory framework. Through a comparative analysis of international and Georgian practices, the paper identifies key distinctions between the DAB and other ADR mechanisms, emphasizing the unique role of the DAB as a pre-arbitration step that ensures the continuation of project work while disputes are resolved. The research also addresses the enforceability of DAB decisions, examining contractual obligations and the challenges of ensuring compliance. By analyzing case law and arbitration practices, both globally and within Georgia, the paper underscores the need for clearer guidelines, and the potential for judicial and arbitration support to solidify the DAB’s role in the Georgian legal system. In conclusion, the paper advocates for the broader adoption of DABs in Georgia, recommending the development of a legal framework aligned with international standards to enhance the effectiveness of this dispute resolution method. This will not only benefit the country’s infrastructure development, but also strengthen its position in the global market by aligning with international best practices.This article examines the Dispute Adjudication Board (DAB) as an innovative mechanism within Georgia’s alternative dispute resolution (ADR) system. As large-scale infrastructure projects proliferate globally, effective and timely dispute resolution becomes essential. While ADR mechanisms like arbitration and mediation are well-established, the DAB has emerged as a crucial tool, especially in projects backed by international financial institutions. Despite its growing importance, the DAB remains underregulated in Georgia, leading to challenges in its application. The study explores the evolution of the DAB, tracing its roots from the United States in the 1970s to its current international recognition, particularly within the FIDIC contract framework. It highlights how Georgia has begun integrating DABs into its legal landscape, despite the absence of a comprehensive regulatory framework. Through a comparative analysis of international and Georgian practices, the paper identifies key distinctions between the DAB and other ADR mechanisms, emphasizing the unique role of the DAB as a pre-arbitration step that ensures the continuation of project work while disputes are resolved. The research also addresses the enforceability of DAB decisions, examining contractual obligations and the challenges of ensuring compliance. By analyzing case law and arbitration practices, both globally and within Georgia, the paper underscores the need for clearer guidelines, and the potential for judicial and arbitration support to solidify the DAB’s role in the Georgian legal system. In conclusion, the paper advocates for the broader adoption of DABs in Georgia, recommending the development of a legal framework aligned with international standards to enhance the effectiveness of this dispute resolution method. This will not only benefit the country’s infrastructure development, but also strengthen its position in the global market by aligning with international best practices
ECHOES OF SOVIET TRAUMA: CHURCH IN THE PROCESS OF TRANSITION FROM THE SOVIET UNION TO THE POST-SOVIET ERA
No full textThe trauma left by the totalitarian system of atheism is still alive and continues to try to generate itself. The reasons for this are quite complex and include not only the inhibition of structural changes in society and the church but also the lack of self-reflection and new experiences and the unwillingness to change the usual colonial lifestyle. While the church moved from the periphery of the political-social life to the center of events, it claimed not only to serve society and request holiness but also wanted to bring the whole society under its influence and thus possess the status of a protective institution that provides spirituality and ideological base for everyone. Thus, without self-renewal and re-understanding of its own mission, it turned into a space where Homo-Sovieticus saw the possibility of self-preservation and self-establishment. This had its political cost. The positive side brought by the new era and manifested in the activity of the church is the strengthening of the desire for freedom, bringing to light the ugliness accumulated in deep social, psychological and cultural layers and increasing the level of public awareness. Whether such a result was intentional on the part of the Church can be a matter of debate and can be judged according to one’s theological as well as value position. Especially the thinking horizon of the young generation has changed and the mechanisms of manipulation and violence have come to light, which unfortunately is not the merit of the church. If in the past the denial of the truth was done through open violence and terror, in the background of increased awareness, the fight against it is carried out through discrediting.And this again clearly shows the necessity of God’s mercy and the area of freedom in order to overcome the trauma of the past with a new experience, according to which God himself is the one who, by sharing his goodness, will open himself to be known and present a new opened horizon of life. The trauma left by the totalitarian system of atheism is still alive and continues to try to generate itself. The reasons for this are quite complex and include not only the inhibition of structural changes in society and the church but also the lack of self-reflection and new experiences and the unwillingness to change the usual colonial lifestyle. While the church moved from the periphery of the political-social life to the center of events, it claimed not only to serve society and request holiness but also wanted to bring the whole society under its influence and thus possess the status of a protective institution that provides spirituality and ideological base for everyone. Thus, without self-renewal and re-understanding of its own mission, it turned into a space where Homo-Sovieticus saw the possibility of self-preservation and self-establishment. This had its political cost. The positive side brought by the new era and manifested in the activity of the church is the strengthening of the desire for freedom, bringing to light the ugliness accumulated in deep social, psychological and cultural layers and increasing the level of public awareness. Whether such a result was intentional on the part of the Church can be a matter of debate and can be judged according to one’s theological as well as value position. Especially the thinking horizon of the young generation has changed and the mechanisms of manipulation and violence have come to light, which unfortunately is not the merit of the church. If in the past the denial of the truth was done through open violence and terror, in the background of increased awareness, the fight against it is carried out through discrediting.And this again clearly shows the necessity of God’s mercy and the area of freedom in order to overcome the trauma of the past with a new experience, according to which God himself is the one who, by sharing his goodness, will open himself to be known and present a new opened horizon of life. 
Missionary report of Father Louis Grange, the first Jesuit in Georgia, sent to Claudio Aquaviva, General of the Order
No full textAt the beginning of the 17th century, Georgia–Rome relations began to intensify, driven by political, economic, and religious factors. Major upheavals in both Western Europe and Georgia shaped the Vatican’s foreign policy, at the center of which stood the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). For Pope Urban VIII – an accomplished diplomat and realist politician – Georgia, particularly the Kartli-Kakheti region, was a significant factor in the Catholic missions’ Eastern strategy. Georgia was expected to become a stronghold for spreading Catholicism throughout the Caucasus and the Near East. For their part, Georgian kings and nobles hoped for support from Christian European states and the Pope of Rome in their struggle against Iran and the Ottoman Empire. One notable example is Nikifore Irbakhi’s embassy to European countries between 1625 and 1629. From this, we can infer that both sides had equal interest in mutual assistance and rapprochement. Economically, the goal of the anti-Ottoman coalition was to defeat the Ottoman Empire and open Eastern countries to commercial capital. The Pope and Western leaders aimed to secure Eastern markets for Western capital and to discover new trade and transit routes. Georgian rulers also viewed their relations with Europe through an economic lens. Their vision included the restoration of the old “Silk Road,” which would connect Europe and Asia via Georgia.From a religious perspective, missionary work was extremely valuable for Georgia, which was isolated in a Muslim-dominated region. These missionaries were the only representatives of the Christian world from the West. It should also be noted that it was largely through missionaries that Europe became acquainted with Georgia. Their reports were compiled with careful observation and strong knowledge of the region’s history, geography, and customs. While some inaccuracies existed, these were likely due to limited access to information. For this reason, the missionaries’ reports are considered primary historical sources.A notable example in this context is the missionary report by the first Jesuit father in Georgia, Louis Grange (Ludovico Grangerio), addressed to the Jesuit Order’s General, Claudio Acquaviva. The report is dated March 2, 1615, and was written in Mokvi. It was published in Lyon in 1616. The report provides a detailed account of the difficult mission work undertaken by Grange and his companion, the coadjutor Etienne Vie, in Guria and Samegrelo. However, the report is especially important for its focus on issues related to apostolic governance, posed in the form of eight questions for which Grange awaited answers from Rome: 1. If no other help is possible, should we accept the Orthodox rite? 2. If we do accept their rite, should we also adopt their monastic dress and way of life?3. If Orthodox believers approach us for communion, should we allow the Franks to approach the Orthodox in return? 4. If Orthodox believers come to us for confession, should we explain the filioque to them or allow them to remain in their own beliefs? 5. Should we dissuade the Greeks from rebaptizing Armenians who have come to them, given that they doubt the Armenians were properly baptized in the name of the Holy Trinity? 6. Are Greek bishops who pay bribes to the Turks to be appointed guilty of simony? 7–8. What should be done with Latins who collaborate with the Turks? The content of this letter suggests that it outlines the strategy of the Jesuit Order. Cardinal Bellarmine in Rome responded negatively to Grange’s questions, saying: “It is impossible; if we, Latins, accept the Greek rite, we repeat the Greeks’ error, which holds the Latin rite to be incorrect.” In his correspondence with Rome, Louis Grange expressed bold ideas, such as conducting liturgy in Georgia without using the Latin rite. He requested permission from the Pope to use local churches and monasteries for Mass while reserving the Latin rite for daily personal use. The Pope’s response was: “If the Jesuits change the rite, it will be said that we no longer wish to convince these people of the need to pass from schism to unity, from falsehood to truth.” In his work Jesuits and Georgia, Vincenzo Poggi comments on this response from Rome, noting: “The issue posed by Father Grange is close to the modern Catholic concept, which does not prioritize one rite over another, as was believed during Bellarmine’s time.” Thus, through the above examples, I have attempted to analyze the plans and strategies of these intelligent and pragmatically minded Catholic missionaries. Were these parts of a unified strategy or merely attempts to advance their own interests? Especially if we recall the successful strategy and tactics of the Jesuits in the New World – where they founded the state of Paraguay – or in Japan, where they founded the city of Nagasaki, or the achievements of Matteo Ricci in China, which were ultimately curtailed by policies like Bellarmine’s… It is also worth considering why the Jesuits ceased their mission in Georgia and chose to step back, ceding space to other orders that played a much greater role in missionary work. Was there perhaps an invisible Jesuit hand still at work in the Caucasus in general? We hope that answers to these questions will gradually emerge through new research. In general, it can be said that the Jesuits have never completely severed their relationship with Georgia. Among them, we can name Michel van Esbroeck, Mikel Aranzadi, and Vincenzo Poggi.At the beginning of the 17th century, Georgia–Rome relations began to intensify, driven by political, economic, and religious factors. Major upheavals in both Western Europe and Georgia shaped the Vatican’s foreign policy, at the center of which stood the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). For Pope Urban VIII – an accomplished diplomat and realist politician – Georgia, particularly the Kartli-Kakheti region, was a significant factor in the Catholic missions’ Eastern strategy. Georgia was expected to become a stronghold for spreading Catholicism throughout the Caucasus and the Near East. For their part, Georgian kings and nobles hoped for support from Christian European states and the Pope of Rome in their struggle against Iran and the Ottoman Empire. One notable example is Nikifore Irbakhi’s embassy to European countries between 1625 and 1629. From this, we can infer that both sides had equal interest in mutual assistance and rapprochement. Economically, the goal of the anti-Ottoman coalition was to defeat the Ottoman Empire and open Eastern countries to commercial capital. The Pope and Western leaders aimed to secure Eastern markets for Western capital and to discover new trade and transit routes. Georgian rulers also viewed their relations with Europe through an economic lens. Their vision included the restoration of the old “Silk Road,” which would connect Europe and Asia via Georgia.From a religious perspective, missionary work was extremely valuable for Georgia, which was isolated in a Muslim-dominated region. These missionaries were the only representatives of the Christian world from the West. It should also be noted that it was largely through missionaries that Europe became acquainted with Georgia. Their reports were compiled with careful observation and strong knowledge of the region’s history, geography, and customs. While some inaccuracies existed, these were likely due to limited access to information. For this reason, the missionaries’ reports are considered primary historical sources.A notable example in this context is the missionary report by the first Jesuit father in Georgia, Louis Grange (Ludovico Grangerio), addressed to the Jesuit Order’s General, Claudio Acquaviva. The report is dated March 2, 1615, and was written in Mokvi. It was published in Lyon in 1616. The report provides a detailed account of the difficult mission work undertaken by Grange and his companion, the coadjutor Etienne Vie, in Guria and Samegrelo. However, the report is especially important for its focus on issues related to apostolic governance, posed in the form of eight questions for which Grange awaited answers from Rome: 1. If no other help is possible, should we accept the Orthodox rite? 2. If we do accept their rite, should we also adopt their monastic dress and way of life?3. If Orthodox believers approach us for communion, should we allow the Franks to approach the Orthodox in return? 4. If Orthodox believers come to us for confession, should we explain the filioque to them or allow them to remain in their own beliefs? 5. Should we dissuade the Greeks from rebaptizing Armenians who have come to them, given that they doubt the Armenians were properly baptized in the name of the Holy Trinity? 6. Are Greek bishops who pay bribes to the Turks to be appointed guilty of simony? 7–8. What should be done with Latins who collaborate with the Turks? The content of this letter suggests that it outlines the strategy of the Jesuit Order. Cardinal Bellarmine in Rome responded negatively to Grange’s questions, saying: “It is impossible; if we, Latins, accept the Greek rite, we repeat the Greeks’ error, which holds the Latin rite to be incorrect.” In his correspondence with Rome, Louis Grange expressed bold ideas, such as conducting liturgy in Georgia without using the Latin rite. He requested permission from the Pope to use local churches and monasteries for Mass while reserving the Latin rite for daily personal use. The Pope’s response was: “If the Jesuits change the rite, it will be said that we no longer wish to convince these people of the need to pass from schism to unity, from falsehood to truth.” In his work Jesuits and Georgia, Vincenzo Poggi comments on this response from Rome, noting: “The issue posed by Father Grange is close to the modern Catholic concept, which does not prioritize one rite over another, as was believed during Bellarmine’s time.” Thus, through the above examples, I have attempted to analyze the plans and strategies of these intelligent and pragmatically minded Catholic missionaries. Were these parts of a unified strategy or merely attempts to advance their own interests? Especially if we recall the successful strategy and tactics of the Jesuits in the New World – where they founded the state of Paraguay – or in Japan, where they founded the city of Nagasaki, or the achievements of Matteo Ricci in China, which were ultimately curtailed by policies like Bellarmine’s… It is also worth considering why the Jesuits ceased their mission in Georgia and chose to step back, ceding space to other orders that played a much greater role in missionary work. Was there perhaps an invisible Jesuit hand still at work in the Caucasus in general? We hope that answers to these questions will gradually emerge through new research. In general, it can be said that the Jesuits have never completely severed their relationship with Georgia. Among them, we can name Michel van Esbroeck, Mikel Aranzadi, and Vincenzo Poggi
Georgian, Greek, and Russian Sources (17th-18th Centuries) on Perceptions of Roman Catholic Teachings and their Dissemination
No full textThis article examines Catholic missionary activities and the responses they provoked in Georgia, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire during the 17th and 18th centuries, analyzing the effects on local Orthodox churches resulting from varying attitudes toward Catholic influence in these regions. In Russia, both ecclesiastical and governmental authorities regarded Catholicism as a significant threat. The Orthodox Church progressively lost its cultural dominance in education, particularly following Peter the Great’s secularizing reforms. The growing influence of Western education introduced Latin vocabulary and concepts into Russian theology. The Russian Church intensified its anti-Catholic stance, culminating in the 1621 Church Council, which sought to protect Orthodoxy from Catholic influence. Despite prevailing anti-Catholic sentiment, several Russian theologians adopted Catholic doctrines to combat Protestantism, illustrating a complex relationship with Western intellectual traditions. In the Ottoman Empire, the Greek Orthodox Church exhibited a more accommodating stance toward Catholicism. Despite constraints imposed by Muslim authorities, Greek Orthodox clergy maintained strong connections with Latin Catholics, particularly in education. During the 17th century, numerous Greek Orthodox theologians studied in Europe, resulting in the integration of Latin theological concepts into Orthodox doctrine. Scholars such as Peter Mogila incorporated Catholic elements into Orthodox theology, especially in resistance to Protestant influence. In the 17th century, the relationship between Greeks and Latin Catholics was notably harmonious, evidenced by interfaith marriages and instances of Catholic clergy officiating in Orthodox churches. Catholic priests were permitted to hear confessions and administer the Eucharist to Orthodox believers. By the 18th century, these relations deteriorated due to Ottoman political pressure, concerns regarding Catholic proselytism, and Pope Benedict XIII’s 1729 decree declaring Orthodox sacraments invalid.Catholic missionary efforts proved particularly influential among various Eastern Christian populations. In Syria and Iraq, Catholic influence expanded from the 1630s, resulting in conflicts among local Christian factions. Some Orthodox and Nestorian communities harbored concerns about Catholic missionary proselytizing efforts, while others secretly embraced Catholicism. The Chaldean Church established communion with Rome in the latter half of the 18th century, following the earlier precedent set by the Maronites. Overall, attitudes toward Catholic influence varied significantly by region. Greek Orthodox populations under the Ottoman Empire experienced markedly closer relations with Catholics in the 17th century; however, this dynamic shifted in the 18th century. Among numerous Eastern Churches, Catholic influence was primarily shaped by Ottoman governmental objectives and missionary activities, creating a complex mosaic of religious interaction and resistance across the Orthodox world.This article examines Catholic missionary activities and the responses they provoked in Georgia, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire during the 17th and 18th centuries, analyzing the effects on local Orthodox churches resulting from varying attitudes toward Catholic influence in these regions. In Russia, both ecclesiastical and governmental authorities regarded Catholicism as a significant threat. The Orthodox Church progressively lost its cultural dominance in education, particularly following Peter the Great’s secularizing reforms. The growing influence of Western education introduced Latin vocabulary and concepts into Russian theology. The Russian Church intensified its anti-Catholic stance, culminating in the 1621 Church Council, which sought to protect Orthodoxy from Catholic influence. Despite prevailing anti-Catholic sentiment, several Russian theologians adopted Catholic doctrines to combat Protestantism, illustrating a complex relationship with Western intellectual traditions. In the Ottoman Empire, the Greek Orthodox Church exhibited a more accommodating stance toward Catholicism. Despite constraints imposed by Muslim authorities, Greek Orthodox clergy maintained strong connections with Latin Catholics, particularly in education. During the 17th century, numerous Greek Orthodox theologians studied in Europe, resulting in the integration of Latin theological concepts into Orthodox doctrine. Scholars such as Peter Mogila incorporated Catholic elements into Orthodox theology, especially in resistance to Protestant influence. In the 17th century, the relationship between Greeks and Latin Catholics was notably harmonious, evidenced by interfaith marriages and instances of Catholic clergy officiating in Orthodox churches. Catholic priests were permitted to hear confessions and administer the Eucharist to Orthodox believers. By the 18th century, these relations deteriorated due to Ottoman political pressure, concerns regarding Catholic proselytism, and Pope Benedict XIII’s 1729 decree declaring Orthodox sacraments invalid.Catholic missionary efforts proved particularly influential among various Eastern Christian populations. In Syria and Iraq, Catholic influence expanded from the 1630s, resulting in conflicts among local Christian factions. Some Orthodox and Nestorian communities harbored concerns about Catholic missionary proselytizing efforts, while others secretly embraced Catholicism. The Chaldean Church established communion with Rome in the latter half of the 18th century, following the earlier precedent set by the Maronites. Overall, attitudes toward Catholic influence varied significantly by region. Greek Orthodox populations under the Ottoman Empire experienced markedly closer relations with Catholics in the 17th century; however, this dynamic shifted in the 18th century. Among numerous Eastern Churches, Catholic influence was primarily shaped by Ottoman governmental objectives and missionary activities, creating a complex mosaic of religious interaction and resistance across the Orthodox world
THE INVESTIGATION OF KILLINGS MOTIVATED BY DISCRIMINATION UNDER GEORGIAN LAW AND PRACTICE
No full textThe article examines whether Georgia’s legal framework and practice governing the investigation of homicides committed with a discriminatory motive comply with the standards of the European Convention on Human Rights. Drawing on those standards, the article analyzes Georgian legislation and practice. Based on this analysis, it presents conclusions and offers recommendations for further improving Georgia’s laws and practice.The article examines whether Georgia’s legal framework and practice governing the investigation of homicides committed with a discriminatory motive comply with the standards of the European Convention on Human Rights. Drawing on those standards, the article analyzes Georgian legislation and practice. Based on this analysis, it presents conclusions and offers recommendations for further improving Georgia’s laws and practice
THE LEGAL SCOPES OF PERSONAL LIABILITY OF THE MANAGEMENT BODY OF A LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANY TOWARDS CREDITORS
No full textThe issue of a director’s personal liability towards creditors remains a significant challenge for both Georgian judicial practice and legal scholarship. This paper examines the liability of directors of limited liability companies in relation to third-party claims under Georgian legislation. With the entry into force of the new Law of Georgia “On Entrepreneurs” in 2022, the question of directors’ personal liability has become even more topical. The paper focuses on the director’s external liability towards third parties, namely creditors. It identifies the legal basis for imposing such personal liability, in particular the general tort provision set out in Article 992 of the Civil Code of Georgia, and analyzes the prerequisites for establishing tortious liability. Given the absence of established case-law following the adoption of the new Law of Georgia “On Entrepreneurs,” the recommendations offered in this paper are intended to contribute to the proper development of judicial practice. For this purpose, the paper conducts a comparative legal analysis of both continental European and Anglo-American approaches and evaluates the contemporary relevance of Georgian judicial practice developed prior to the new law.The issue of a director’s personal liability towards creditors remains a significant challenge for both Georgian judicial practice and legal scholarship. This paper examines the liability of directors of limited liability companies in relation to third-party claims under Georgian legislation. With the entry into force of the new Law of Georgia “On Entrepreneurs” in 2022, the question of directors’ personal liability has become even more topical. The paper focuses on the director’s external liability towards third parties, namely creditors. It identifies the legal basis for imposing such personal liability, in particular the general tort provision set out in Article 992 of the Civil Code of Georgia, and analyzes the prerequisites for establishing tortious liability. Given the absence of established case-law following the adoption of the new Law of Georgia “On Entrepreneurs,” the recommendations offered in this paper are intended to contribute to the proper development of judicial practice. For this purpose, the paper conducts a comparative legal analysis of both continental European and Anglo-American approaches and evaluates the contemporary relevance of Georgian judicial practice developed prior to the new law
Public Perception of Innovation and Technology Investments/Products During Economic Hardships
Full text linkThis study investigates public perceptions of innovation and technology during economic hardships, with a focus on discussions on the social media platform Reddit. Utilizing advanced data mining and natural language processing (NLP) techniques, this research analyzes Reddit posts to uncover sentiment trends, thematic patterns, and levels of public engagement related to technology investments during economic downturns. By methodically gathering and processing user-generated content, the study aims to map out variations in public attitudes towards innovation in response to economic shifts. The analysis employs sophisticated NLP techniques, including sentiment analysis, topic modeling, and semantic analysis, to interpret the rich and diverse discussions occurring on Reddit. The findings reveal a predominantly positive sentiment towards technology investments, with significant discussions centered around public perception, technological strategies, and environmental impact. The study also identifies key themes that dominate conversations at various stages of economic movement, providing insights into the effectiveness of technological tools and products during challenging times. This research not only contributes to the academic understanding of public discourse on innovation and technology, but also offers valuable insights for organizations, policymakers, and social media strategists aiming to promote innovation amidst economic adversity. The study’s detailed sentiment timeline and thematic analysis provide a comprehensive overview of how public perceptions evolve in response to economic conditions, offering practical implications for fostering technological advancements in difficult economic climates.This study investigates public perceptions of innovation and technology during economic hardships, with a focus on discussions on the social media platform Reddit. Utilizing advanced data mining and natural language processing (NLP) techniques, this research analyzes Reddit posts to uncover sentiment trends, thematic patterns, and levels of public engagement related to technology investments during economic downturns. By methodically gathering and processing user-generated content, the study aims to map out variations in public attitudes towards innovation in response to economic shifts. The analysis employs sophisticated NLP techniques, including sentiment analysis, topic modeling, and semantic analysis, to interpret the rich and diverse discussions occurring on Reddit. The findings reveal a predominantly positive sentiment towards technology investments, with significant discussions centered around public perception, technological strategies, and environmental impact. The study also identifies key themes that dominate conversations at various stages of economic movement, providing insights into the effectiveness of technological tools and products during challenging times. This research not only contributes to the academic understanding of public discourse on innovation and technology, but also offers valuable insights for organizations, policymakers, and social media strategists aiming to promote innovation amidst economic adversity. The study’s detailed sentiment timeline and thematic analysis provide a comprehensive overview of how public perceptions evolve in response to economic conditions, offering practical implications for fostering technological advancements in difficult economic climates
Georgia’s European Choice During the First Democratic Republic (1918-1921)
Full text linkFor Georgian politicians, the future development of a free country has always been closely linked to the European states. The vision of Georgia’s alignment with Europe and its integration into European frameworks dates back to 1918-1921. Considering this fact, Georgia’s current aspirations for European integration reflect a desire to return to its natural political and cultural environment. During the period of 1918-1921, Europeanization was seen as a means of achieving peaceful coexistence, embodying European norms, values, and ideas, while also implementing various structural reforms through cooperation.The paper aims to analyze, through the study of existing documents, the efforts of Georgia’s political leaders to establish security and democratic values in partnership with Europe. This goal was clearly understood, and, for this reason, immediately following the declaration of Georgia’s independence on May 26, 1918, the Act of Independence, developed by the National Council of Georgia, became a foundational document. This act outlined the main priorities of the country, rooted in elements of classical European principles, from the form of government to the broad recognition of human rights. Georgia’s Constitution, which followed shortly after, was similarly grounded in European ideals, and clearly demonstrated the country’s commitment to democratic development. This constitution is viewed by both foreign and domestic scholars as one of the most progressive of its time. Despite the varied and often inconsistent trajectories of development in the modern world, Georgia’s political and civil approach has remained steadfast and unchanged. Over a century ago, the country sought to preserve and strengthen its political course and direct it towards European political and legal unity. It is an effort that continues to this day.For Georgian politicians, the future development of a free country has always been closely linked to the European states. The vision of Georgia’s alignment with Europe and its integration into European frameworks dates back to 1918-1921. Considering this fact, Georgia’s current aspirations for European integration reflect a desire to return to its natural political and cultural environment. During the period of 1918-1921, Europeanization was seen as a means of achieving peaceful coexistence, embodying European norms, values, and ideas, while also implementing various structural reforms through cooperation.The paper aims to analyze, through the study of existing documents, the efforts of Georgia’s political leaders to establish security and democratic values in partnership with Europe. This goal was clearly understood, and, for this reason, immediately following the declaration of Georgia’s independence on May 26, 1918, the Act of Independence, developed by the National Council of Georgia, became a foundational document. This act outlined the main priorities of the country, rooted in elements of classical European principles, from the form of government to the broad recognition of human rights. Georgia’s Constitution, which followed shortly after, was similarly grounded in European ideals, and clearly demonstrated the country’s commitment to democratic development. This constitution is viewed by both foreign and domestic scholars as one of the most progressive of its time. Despite the varied and often inconsistent trajectories of development in the modern world, Georgia’s political and civil approach has remained steadfast and unchanged. Over a century ago, the country sought to preserve and strengthen its political course and direct it towards European political and legal unity. It is an effort that continues to this day
“I AM THE LESSER BROTHER”: SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN A PERIOD OF CRISIS
No full textThe question of the nature of the Church can be asked and answered in a variety of ways. The text examines people’s reactions in crises, looking for answers from the State and the Church. It highlights that the Church is not just a charitable organization but a total society of believers, and their responsibility is collective. From a theological point of view, every historical period, whether in crisis or not, constitutes an episode in the course of the Church within the framework of the Divine Economy. Its social mission is permanent, based on Tradition and the examples of saints, such as Grigorios of Nyssa, who saw refugees as a “treasure”. The theology of the person also highlights the unique value of each person as a creation of God. The Christian teaching on social responsibility is also analyzed concerning the Parable of the Judgment, in which God identifies himself with the “least” brothers, emphasizing that their care is a fundamental duty of believers. The Church recognizes its social responsibility and practically supports society through charitable actions. However, true Christianity is not limited to charity; it seeks the salvation and sanctification of the world. The Church’s duty is collective, with each member contributing what they can.The question of the nature of the Church can be asked and answered in a variety of ways. The text examines people’s reactions in crises, looking for answers from the State and the Church. It highlights that the Church is not just a charitable organization but a total society of believers, and their responsibility is collective. From a theological point of view, every historical period, whether in crisis or not, constitutes an episode in the course of the Church within the framework of the Divine Economy. Its social mission is permanent, based on Tradition and the examples of saints, such as Grigorios of Nyssa, who saw refugees as a “treasure”. The theology of the person also highlights the unique value of each person as a creation of God. The Christian teaching on social responsibility is also analyzed concerning the Parable of the Judgment, in which God identifies himself with the “least” brothers, emphasizing that their care is a fundamental duty of believers. The Church recognizes its social responsibility and practically supports society through charitable actions. However, true Christianity is not limited to charity; it seeks the salvation and sanctification of the world. The Church’s duty is collective, with each member contributing what they can