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AI and the Global North/South Divide
Get PDFAI can bring benefits globally, but it is energy intensive and, combined with existing inequalities in infrastructure, could reinforce power imbalances. Here, researcher in people environment studies and behavioural modelling, Antonio Ballesteros-Figueroa, reflects on this and on the need for increased participation of local communities in how AI is produced
Complement peptide receptors in GtoPdb v.2025.3
Get PDFComplement peptide receptors (nomenclature as agreed by the NC-IUPHAR subcommittee on Complement peptide receptors [116]) are activated by the endogenous ~75 amino-acid anaphylatoxin polypeptides C3a and C5a, generated upon stimulation of the complement cascade. C3a and C5a exert their functions through binding to their receptors (C3a receptor, C5a receptor 1 and C5a receptor 2), causing cell recruitment and triggering cellular degranulation that contributes to local inflammation
Metabotropic glutamate receptors in GtoPdb v.2025.3
Get PDFMetabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors (nomenclature as agreed by the NC-IUPHAR Subcommittee on Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors [354]) are a family of G protein-coupled receptors activated by the neurotransmitter glutamate [141]. The mGlu family is composed of eight members (named mGlu1 to mGlu8) which are divided in three groups based on similarities of agonist pharmacology, primary sequence and G protein coupling to effector: Group-I (mGlu1 and mGlu5), Group-II (mGlu2 and mGlu3) and Group-III (mGlu4, mGlu6, mGlu7 and mGlu8) (see Further reading).Structurally, mGlu are composed of three juxtaposed domains: a core G protein-activating seven-transmembrane domain (TM), common to all GPCRs, is linked via a rigid cysteine-rich domain (CRD) to the Venus Flytrap domain (VFTD), a large bi-lobed extracellular domain where glutamate binds. mGlu form constitutive dimers, cross-linked by a disulfide bridge. The structures of the VFTD of mGlu1, mGlu2, mGlu3, mGlu5 and mGlu7 have been solved [203, 278, 271, 406]. The structure of the 7 transmembrane (TM) domains of both mGlu1 and mGlu5 have been solved, and confirm a general helical organisation similar to other GPCRs, although the helices appear more compacted [89, 436, 63]. Recent advances in cryo-electron microscopy have provided structures of full-length mGlu receptor homodimers [220, 193], heterodimers [92, 163], and new insights into activation mechanisms [47, 48, 201]. Studies have revealed the possible formation of heterodimers between either group-I receptors, or within and between group-II and -III receptors [90]. First characterised in transfected cells, co-localisation and specific pharmacological properties suggest the existence of such heterodimers in the brain [273, 443, 146, 286, 262, 221]. Beyond heteromerisation with other mGlu receptor subtypes, increasing evidence suggests mGlu receptors form heteromers and larger order complexes with class A GPCRs (reviewed in [141]). The endogenous ligands of mGlu are L-glutamic acid, L-serine-O-phosphate, N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) and L-cysteine sulphinic acid. Group-I mGlu receptors may be activated by 3,5-DHPG and (S)-3HPG [29] and antagonised by (S)-hexylhomoibotenic acid [238]. Group-II mGlu receptors may be activated by LY389795 [272], LY379268 [272], eglumegad (also refered to as LY354470) [358, 437], DCG-IV and (2R,3R)-APDC [359], and antagonised by eGlu [172] and LY307452 [428, 106]. Group-III mGlu receptors may be activated by L-AP4 and (R,S)-4-PPG [131]. An example of an antagonist selective for mGlu receptors is LY341495, which blocks mGlu2 and mGlu3 at low nanomolar concentrations, mGlu8 at high nanomolar concentrations, and mGlu4, mGlu5, and mGlu7 in the micromolar range [187]. In addition to orthosteric ligands that directly interact with the glutamate recognition site, allosteric modulators that recognise distinct sites primarily within the TM domain have been described. Negative allosteric modulators are listed separately. Positive allosteric modulators potentiate orthosteric agonist responses solely, or may also possess intrinsic agonist activity
Opioid receptors in GtoPdb v.2025.3
Get PDFOpioid and opioid-like receptors are activated by a variety of endogenous peptides including [Met]enkephalin (met), [Leu]enkephalin (leu), β-endorphin (β-end), α-neodynorphin, dynorphin A (dynA), dynorphin B (dynB), big dynorphin (Big dyn), nociceptin/orphanin FQ (N/OFQ); endomorphin-1 and endomorphin-2 are also potential endogenous peptides. The Greek letter nomenclature for the opioid receptors, μ, δ and κ, is well established, and NC-IUPHAR considers this nomenclature appropriate, along with the symbols spelled out (mu, delta, and kappa), and the acronyms, MOP, DOP, and KOP [127, 103, 94]. However the acronyms MOR, DOR and KOR are still widely used in the literature. The human N/OFQ receptor, NOP, is considered \u27opioid-related\u27 rather than opioid because, while it exhibits a high degree of structural homology with the conventional opioid receptors [313, 94], it displays a distinct pharmacology. Currently there are numerous clinically used drugs, such as morphine and many other opioid analgesics, as well as antagonists such as naloxone. The majority of clinically used opiates are relatively selective μ agonists or partial agonists, though there are some μ/κ compounds, such as butorphanol, in clinical use. κ opioid agonists, such as the alkaloid nalfurafine and the peripherally acting peptide difelikefalin, are in clinical use for itch
SLC22 family of organic cation and anion transporters in GtoPdb v.2025.3
No full textThe SLC22 family of transporters is mostly composed of non-selective transporters, which are expressed highly in liver, kidney and intestine, playing a major role in drug disposition. The family may be divided into three subfamilies based on the nature of the substrate transported: organic cations (OCTs), organic anions (OATs) and organic zwiterrion/cations (OCTN). Membrane topology is predicted to contain 12 TM domains with intracellular termini, and an extended extracellular loop at TM 1/2
RAS subfamily in GtoPdb v.2025.3
Get PDFThe RAS proteins (HRAS, NRAS and KRAS) are small membrane-localised G protein-like molecules of 21 kd. They act as an on/off switch linking receptor and non-receptor tyrosine kinase activation to downstream cytoplasmic or nuclear events. Binding of GTP activates the switch, and hydrolysis of the GTP to GDP inactivates the switch.The RAS proto-oncogenes are the most frequently mutated class of proteins in human cancers. Common mutations compromise the GTP-hydrolysing ability of the proteins causing constitutive activation [38], which leads to increased cell proliferation and decreased apoptosis [49]. Because of their importance in oncogenic transformation these proteins have become the targets of intense drug discovery effort [2]
The Role of Hate Speech in Inciting Genocide: A Case Study of Radio Television Libre des Mille Collines in Rwanda by Rawnak Miraj Ul Azam
Get PDFThis research investigates the critical role of Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines (RTLM) in inciting the 1994 Rwandan genocide. Examining the station\u27s establishment, programming, and rhetoric within the historical and political context of pre-colonial, colonial, and post-independence Rwanda, this study argues that RTLM functioned as a powerful instrument of propaganda, directly contributing to the mass violence. The research analyzes how RTLM systematically dehumanized the Tutsi population through derogatory language and stereotypes, portraying them as "cockroaches" and enemies of the state, thus lowering psychological barriers to violence. By combining popular music, talk shows, and news broadcasts, RTLM effectively disseminated hate speech to a broad audience, particularly the youth, who were later mobilized as perpetrators. This study further explores the correlation between specific RTLM broadcasts and outbreaks of violence, demonstrating the station\u27s direct role in triggering and escalating the genocide. Through an examination of key International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) judgments, including the Nahimana et al. and Ruggiu cases, this research analyzes the legal implications of RTLM\u27s actions, emphasizing the responsibility of media actors in inciting genocide. Finally, the research discusses the implications for international law and policy on hate speech, genocide prevention, and media regulation, highlighting the crucial lessons learned from the Rwandan tragedy and suggesting future directions for preventing similar atrocities
Collective Risk Allocation and Restorative Justice in the Age of Artificial Intelligence Dr. Maria Carla Canato
Get PDFThis essay investigates the “responsibility gap” introduced by artificial intelligence (AI) within the criminal justice system and examines potential shifts from traditional punitive models to restorative justice frameworks. It begins by outlining the challenges AI poses to conventional concepts of criminal liability, focusing on issues of moral agency and accountability. The discussion progresses to collective risk allocation mechanisms in the context of AI development and deployment, highlighting the ethical and legal dilemmas that arise. Finally, the essay explores the potential for restorative justice to address harm caused by AI-related errors, proposing a justice model that prioritises dialogue, accountability, and the repair of harm. The essay argues that a shift from individual criminal liability to collective responsibility is essential to adapt justice systems to the complexities of AI while ensuring the effective protection of fundamental rights. By expanding on the interplay between technological advancements, ethical governance, and justice, this work proposes a comprehensive framework to address the profound societal implications of AI, offering a forward-looking perspective on justice systems in an increasingly AI-driven world
Changing the Carceral Course: How the Carceral Shift in Human Rights Met the Good Friday Agreement and Northern Ireland’s Abolitionist Imperative by Nate Johnson
Get PDFNorthern Ireland faces a growing police use of force, increased imprisonment of individuals suffering from mental ill-health, the lowest minimum age of criminality in Europe, and high reports of abuse against marginalised communities. Despite a decades-long movement for carceral abolition in the United Kingdom and a robust Northern Irish civil society human rights apparatus, reliance on police and prison as means of social control remains robust in Northern Ireland, as both the immediate custody and remand populations in prison have climbed to the highest they have been in almost 9 years. Why have carceral systems, such as police and prisons, persisted in Northern Ireland? This article argues that the carceral ‘turn’ in international human rights and historic marginalisation of economic, social, and cultural rights were incorporated into the Good Friday Agreement with the effect of anchoring reliance on carceral responses to social harms. This has continued well into the twenty-first century, despite growing criticism of such responses at the local and international levels. In response, this article suggests strengthening the alternatives to criminal legal systems that are already being pursued by carceral abolitionist and anti-carceral human rights advocacy organisations in Northern Ireland
The Capacity of Indonesia as a Source Country in Enabling Trafficking in Person by Devina A Millenia
Get PDFThis paper examines the analytical discussion that Indonesia, as an origin or source country, has an enabling role in trafficking in person (TIP). It argues that the failure of the government’s institutional and social dimensions in the source countries is the main reason which facilitates the widespread acts of TIP in Indonesia. This article consolidates insights from the extensive literature on the combination of the sociology, criminology, politics, economy and cultural aspects of TIP to find the key drivers of TIP in the source country. In this regard, it asserts that the institutional factors, failure of effective bureaucracy, the lack of fiscal capacity, and weak border-security management can create a permissive situation for TIP and maintain the prevalence of trafficking flows. While the social aspects, with the government’s ineffective social assistance policy, can pertain acts of TIP as it is unable to address the root causes of economic viability at the individual levels.