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Human-induced effects on the distribution of species and communities of vertebrates at different spatial scales
No full textDifferent human activities have been observed and predicted to threat present-day and future patterns of biodiversity, with impacts ranging from global to local spatial scales. Anthropogenic impacts on biodiversity can be subdivided into two categories: impacts directly deriving from human activities and those mediated by other taxa, whose detrimental effect is however triggered and enhanced by human action. In particular, three major threats widely recognized as the most important factors affecting biological diversity were analyzed through different modelling approaches: climate change, habitat loss and degradation and invasive alien species.
A first case study evaluated the effect of climate change on Mediterranean bird communities through the application of the SESAM framework to model species assemblages. The results highlighted how the effect of climate change on the studied communities may consist in a relevant alteration of their properties, although different modelling implementation leaded to different predicted pathways for these effects to be exerted. While predictions driven by abiotic factors alone suggested a prevalent increase of most of the constituent species distribution, the inclusion of macroecological constraints and assembly rules into the projections leaded to successfully capture dynamics related to interspecific interactions, and provided consistent outcomes with the current knowledge on the studied species. Such discrepancy highlighted the importance of comparing the outcomes of multiple modelling techniques to assess the conservation implications of climate change for species assemblages.
The subsequent two case studies assessed the role of traditional forest management and wind farms industries in provoking habitat loss and degradation on vertebrate species in Central Italy. First, I tested the hypothesis that sustainable forest management mimics the dynamics of a natural forest succession more closely than does traditional forestry, causing a less severe long – term impact on the distribution of forest vertebrates. I proposed the first integration of the forest dynamic model “LANDIS – II” with species distribution models in a hybrid modeling framework. The framework was applied on four forest – specialist vertebrates (tiny salamander, slow worm, eurasian nuthatch, and Leisler’s bat) and included three components: Forest Dynamic Model (FDM), Species Distribution Models (SDMs) and Spatial Pattern Analysis (SPA). FDM was used to simulate spatially explicit patterns of forest succession for the current time and for 2050, imposing three alternative forestry scenarios. The simulated forest succession patterns were analyzed through SPA to calculate spatialized landscape metrics that were adopted as environmental predictors for SDMs. Landscape trajectories were calculated on current and future species distributions predicted with SDMs to evaluate the effect of alternative forestry practices on their extension and fragmentation. The results showed how forest management mainly affected the spatial configuration rather than the extension of the predicted species distributions. Sustainable forest management was more favorable than traditional forestry in increasing the extension and reducing the fragmentation of the studied species’ distributions. My results supported the conclusion that conservation – oriented forest management mimicked the dynamics of a natural forest succession more closely than did traditional practices, favoring elements, such as forest unevenness, species richness, aggregation of patches and variability in their distances, which emerged as fundamental characteristics for preserving the long – term persistence of forest vertebrates.
To evaluate the potential detrimental effect of wind turbines on bats, a regional-scale model was developed to assess the wind farm impact on bat migration and commuting routes. The model was implemented for the bat Nyctalus leisleri in a region of Central Italy currently undergoing considerable wind farm development. A Species Distribution Model for N. leisleri was generated using the MAXENT algorithm based on 47 presence records (reduced to 19 after the autocorrelation procedure) and 10 environmental variables derived from topographic and land cover maps. The SDM was used to create a map of connectivity using the software UNICOR to identify potential commuting corridors (PCCs). The incidence of each wind farm on bat flight corridors was assessed by overlaying the existing (380) and planned (195) turbine locations onto the PCCs. The results reported that most of the corridors were concentrated in the western part of the region, which hosts the largest suitable areas for the species; most of the existing (54 %) and planned (72 %) wind farms interfered with important corridors connecting the western and the eastern parts of the region.
The last two case studies analysed the impacts related to Invasive Alien Species (IAS) on different vertebrate species at different geographical scales, both emphasizing the relevant role of an appropriate level of knowledge to cope with this critical threat to biodiversity. The realized climatic niche of an invasive species can be used to predict its potential distribution in new areas, providing a basis for screening procedures in the compilation of black and white lists to prevent new introductions. I tested this assertion by modelling the realized climatic niche of the Eastern grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). MAXENT was used to develop three models: one considering only records from the native range (NRM), a second including records from native and invasive range (NIRM), a third calibrated with invasive occurrences and projected in the native range (RCM). Niche conservatism was tested considering both a niche equivalency and a niche similarity test. The results showed that NRM failed to predict suitable parts of the currently invaded range in Europe, while RCM underestimated the suitability in the native range. NIRM accurately predicted both the native and invasive range. The niche equivalency hypothesis was rejected due to a significant difference between the grey squirrel’s niche in native and invasive ranges. The niche similarity test yielded no significant results. My analyses supported the hypothesis of a shift in the species’ climatic niche in the area of introductions and leaded to the conclusion that SDMs appear to be a useful tool in the compilation of black lists, allowing identifying areas vulnerable to invasions. However, I advise caution in the use of SDMs based only on the native range of a species for the compilation of white lists for other geographic areas, due to the significant risk of underestimating its potential invasive range.
The usefulness of SDMs for the assessment of IAS risk of spread also emerged from the analysis of the potential distribution of the rose-ringed parakeet and the monk parakeet in Central Italy. Psittaciformes play a predominant role among the exotic species deliberately imported by humans all over the world, being the most popular bird pets. When released, they often establish naturalized populations, as they present a wide ecological plasticity and synanthropy. The final case study aimed to statistically reconstruct the actual extent of occurrence (EOO) of the rose-ringed and monk parakeets in Tuscany region through a fixed kernel method, and their potential distribution through a bioclimatic envelope (BIOCLIM), using variables selected from the WORLDCLIM database. BIOCLIM analysis suggested a possible expansion risk for the analysed species in Tuscany, as both were predicted with a huge amount of suitable but not occupied habitat. In particular, the rose-ringed parakeet may colonize the inner part of the region, while the southern part of the region may be exposed to a possible range expansion of the monk parakeet.Molteplici attività umane hanno mostrato di rappresentare una seria minaccia per la biodiversità presente e futura, con impatti esercitati a scala globale fino a quella locale. Gli impatti antropici sulla biodiversità possono essere suddivisi in due categorie: gli impatti direttamente derivanti dalle attività umane e quelli mediati da altri taxa, il cui effetto negativo è tuttavia innescato ed aggravato dall’azione umana. In particolare, la tesi è stata incentrata sull’analisi di tre grandi minacce antropiche alla biodiversità, attraverso l’utilizzo di molteplici approcci modellistici: cambiamento climatico globale, perdita e degradazione di habitat e specie aliene invasive.
Un primo caso studio ha valutato l’effetto del cambiamento climatico su comunità ornitiche mediterranee, attraverso l’utilizzo del framework modellistico “SESAM”, elaborato per modellizzare assemblaggi di specie. I risultati hanno evidenziato come l’effetto predetto del cambiamento climatico sulle comunità ornitiche oggetto di studio consista in una sostanziale alterazione delle loro caratteristiche, sebbene approcci modellistici diversi suggeriscano l’incidenza di effetti differenti. Le predizioni elaborate considerando esclusivamente i fattori abiotici suggeriscono un prevalente aumento della distribuzione delle specie costituenti le comunità. D’altro canto, l’inclusione nelle proiezioni di fattori macroecologici e di regole biotiche di composizione delle comunità hanno permesso di catturare in maniera più efficace alcune dinamiche strettamente legate alle interazioni interspecifiche, riportando risultati coerenti con l’attuale conoscenza dell’ecologia delle specie studiate. Tale divergenza nei risultati sottolinea l’importanza di comparare più tecniche modellistiche al fine di valutare le implicazioni di carattere conservazionistico del cambiamento climatico sulle comunità ornitiche in area mediterranea.
I due successivi casi studio hanno analizzato il ruolo della gestione forestale tradizionale e degli impianti eolici come fattori di perdita e degradazione di habitat per specie di vertebrati in Italia Centrale. E’ stata innanzitutto testata l’ipotesi secondo la quale la gestione forestale sostenibile possa implicare dinamiche più simili a quelle di una successione forestale naturale, rispetto alla gestione tradizionale, esercitando quindi un effetto meno impattante a lungo termine sulla distribuzione di vertebrati forestali. E’ stata proposta la prima integrazione del modello di dinamica forestale “LANDIS – II” con modelli di distribuzione di specie in un framework modellistico ibrido. Il framework, applicato su quattro vertebrati forestali (Salamandrina dagli occhiali, Orbettino, Picchio muratore e Nottola di Leisler), include tre componenti: modelli di dinamica forestale (FDM), modelli di distribuzione di specie (SDMs) e analisi dei pattern spaziali (SPA). FDM è stato usato per simulare scenari forestali spazialmente espliciti per il tempo presente ed il 2050, imponendo tre scenari alternativi di gestione forestale. I pattern forestali simulati sono stati poi analizzati con SPA, al fine di calcolare metriche di paesaggio che sono state utilizzate come variabili ambientali per SDMs. Traiettorie di paesaggio sono state calcolate sulle distribuzioni attuali e future prodotte da SDMs per le specie studiate, così da valutare l’effetto di diverse pratiche forestali sulla loro estensione e grado di frammentazione. I risultati hanno mostrato come la gestione forestale abbia impatti principalmente sulla configurazione spaziale delle distribuzioni predette, anziché sulla loro estensione. La gestione forestale sostenibile è risultata più favorevole di quella tradizionale nell’aumentare l’estensione delle distribuzioni predette e nel ridurne il grado di frammentazione. I risultati supportano la conclusione secondo la quale pratiche di gestione forestale orientate alla conservazione possano generare dinamiche più simili a quelle di una successione forestale naturale, rispetto alla gestione tradizionale, favorendo elementi quali la disetaneità delle foreste, la loro ricchezza specifica, l’aggregazione dei frammenti di bosco e la variabilità nelle loro distanze, che sono risultati fondamentali nel preservare a lungo termine i vertebrati forestali.
La valutazione del potenziale effetto nocivo esercitato dalle turbine eoliche sulle rotte di migrazione e di spostamento giornaliero dei chirotteri, è stata effettuata mediante un modello di distribuzione di specie a scala regionale. Il modello è stato implementato per la Nottola di Leisler in una regione dell’Italia Centrale attualmente soggetta a forte sviluppo di impianti eolici. Il modello di distribuzione di specie è stato sviluppato con l’ausilio del software MAXENT, utilizzando 47 punti di presenza della specie (ridotti a 19 dopo la correzione per l’effetto dell’autocorrelazione spaziale) e 10 variabili ambientali derivate da mappe topografiche e di uso del suolo. Il modello è stato usato per creare una mappa di connettività attraverso il software UNICOR, allo scopo di identificare potenziali corridoi di spostamento per la specie (PCCs). L’incidenza di ciascuna turbina sulle rotte di volo dei chirotteri è stata valutata sovrapponendo le turbine esistenti (380) e pianificate (195) sui PCCs. I risultati riportano che la maggior parte dei corridoi potenziali sono localizzati nella parte occidentale della regione, che ospita la maggior parte delle aree idonee alla specie; il grosso delle turbine esistenti (54 %) e pianificate (72 %) interferisce con importanti corridoi che collegano le parti occidentale e orientale della regione.
Gli ultimi due casi studio hanno analizzato gli impatti derivanti dalle Specie Aliene Invasive (IAS) su diverse specie di vertebrati a scale spaziali differenti, con enfasi da parte di entrambi circa l’importanza di un appropriato livello di conoscenza necessario ad affrontare tale rilevante minaccia alla biodiversità. La nicchia climatica realizzata di una specie invasiva può essere usata per predire la sua distribuzione potenziale in altre aree, fornendo la base per procedure di screening nella compilazione di liste nere e bianche, allo scopo di prevenire nuovi eventi di introduzione. Quest’asserto è stato testato modellizzando la nicchia climatica realizzata dello Scoiattolo grigio. Il software MAXENT è stato utilizzato per sviluppare tre modelli di distribuzione di specie: un primo considerando soltanto i punti di presenza dall’areale nativo (NRM), un secondo includendo punti sia dall’areale nativo che da quello d’invasione (NIRM) ed un terzo calibrato solo con punti dall’areale d’invasione e proiettato in areale nativo (RCM). Differenze tra la nicchia nativa ed invasiva sono state testate attraverso test di equivalenza e similarità. I risultati hanno mostrato che NRM non ha predetto accuratamente alcune parti del range d’invasione attualmente occupato dalla specie in Europa, mentre RCM ha sottostimato l’idoneità nel range nativo. NIRM ha predetto accuratamente sia il range nativo che quello di invasione. La nicchia nativa e quella invasiva sono risultate statisticamente non equivalenti, mentre i test di similarità non hanno riportato risultati significativi. Le analisi supportano la conclusione secondo la quale i modelli di distribuzione di specie si rivelano un utile strumento per la compilazione delle liste nere, permettendo di identificare le aree a potenziale rischio di invasione. Tuttavia, è necessario adottare cautela nell’utilizzare questi modelli includendo solo punti dall’areale nativo di una specie invasiva per compilare liste bianche, poiché tali tecniche presentano un rischio significativo di sottostimare il range potenziale di invasione.
L’utilità dei modelli di distribuzione di specie per la valutazione del rischio di invasione da parte di IAS è emersa anche nell’analizzare la distribuzione potenziale del Parrocchetto dal collare e del Parrocchetto monaco, in Italia Centrale. Gli Psittaciformi rivestono un ruolo fondamentale tra le specie aliene importate dall’uomo in tutto il mondo, essendo tra i più popolari uccelli di compagnia. Tali specie, se rilasciate, spesso creano popolazioni naturalizzate, essendo caratterizzate da ampia tolleranza ecologica. L’ultimo caso studio della tesi ha riguardato la ricostruzione statistica del range di occorrenza attuale (EOO) del Parrocchetto dal collare e del Parrocchetto monaco in Toscana attraverso il metodo del fixed kernel, oltre che della distribuzione potenziale di queste due specie attraverso l’algoritmo BIOCLIM, utilizzando variabili climatiche del database WORLDCLIM. L’analisi effettuata con BIOCLIM ha suggerito un possibile rischio di espansione per i entrambe le specie in Toscana, poiché entrambe presentano consistenti aree idonee e non ancora occupate. In particolare il Parrocchetto dal collare è risultato un potenziale colonizzatore della parte interna della regione, mentre le aree meridionali sono risultate esposte alla potenziale espansione del Parrocchetto monaco.Dottorato di ricerca in Management and conservation issues in changing landscapes (XXVI ciclo
Particulate matter dispersion in an urban-industrial environment and deposition on Quercus ilex leaves: laboratory and modelling analysis
No full textA number of studies have focused on urban trees to understand their mitigation capacity of air pollution. Present PhD project aims to describe Particulate Matter (PM) accumulation on tree leaves in a specific urban environment as case study, both in terms of quantity and quality. Furthermore, experimental data obtained from laboratory analysis are crossed with an air pollution model designed for urban environments, in order to relate PM deposition to main polluting sources.
PM deposition on Quercus ilex leaves was quantitatively analyzed in four districts of the City of Terni (Italy) for three periods of the year. Fine (between 0.2 and 2.5 µm) and Large (between 2.5 and 10 µm) PM fractions were analyzed. Mean PM deposition value on Quercus ilex leaves was 20.6 µg cm-2. Variations in PM deposition correlated with distance to main roads and downwind position relatively to industrial area. Epicuticular waxes were measured and related to accumulated PM. For Fine PM deposited in waxes we observed a higher value (40% of total Fine PM) than Large PM (4% of total Large PM).
Model chosen to perform the air quality simulation on the study area was the TAPM (The Air Pollution Model) and ran for 1 year period on study area (Jan 2012 – 2013). This model allowed describing PM dispersion pattern within the city, according to the main polluting sources position. TAMP implementation evidenced areas potentially more polluted in the case study city and the local effect of air pollution sources.
Qualitative analysis is obtained through the application of a monitoring and characterization protocol for PM deposited on Q.ilex leaves. Four trees were selected as representative of urban environments based on their proximity to a steel factory and a street. PM from quantitative analysis was characterized using scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, inferring the associations between particle sizes, chemical composition, and sampling location. Modeling of particle size distributions showed a tri-modal fingerprint, with the three modes centered at 0.6 (factory related), 1.2 (urban background), and 2.6 μm (traffic related). Chemical detection identified 23 elements abundant in the PM samples. Principal component analysis recognized iron and copper as source-specific PM markers, attributed mainly to industrial and heavy traffic pollution respectively.
A similar technique implemented for qualitative analysis is being used in the “European Sampling Campaign” a huge PM characterization project, in collaboration with Antwerp University within COST FP1204. Platanus sp. leaves were collected in 20 different cities and analyzed. SEM/EDX was supported by SIRM (Saturation Isothermal Remnant Magnetization) analysis. First results are reached, nevertheless the work is still in progress: the largest part of analyzed particles is fine PM; not direct association between site and PM dimension or density on leaves is found. PM quality is different between upper or lower leaf side. Iron is confirmed as “technology” marker. There is a relation between Fe concentration and SIRM results.
Results from this study allow to increase our understanding about air pollution interactions with urban vegetation and could be hopefully taken into account when guidelines for local urban green management are realized. Upscale of qualitative results on leaf area basis provided a useful indicator for strategic evaluation of harmful PM pollutants using tree leaves.Numerosi studi sono stati svolti sul ruolo degli alberi in ambiente urbano nella mitigazione dell’inquinamento atmosferico. Il progetto qui presentato ha come obiettivo di descrivere l’accumulo del Particolato Sottile (PM) in uno specifico ambiente urbano, sia da un punto di vista quantitativo che qualitativo. I dati di laboratorio sono stati confrontati con gli output di un modello progettato per ambienti urbani, al fine di collegare la deposizione del PM alle principali sorgenti di inquinanti.
La quantità di PM depositata su foglie di Quercus ilex (leccio) è stata analizzata in quattro quartieri della città di Terni (Italia), per tre periodi dell’anno. È stato analizzato sia il PM fine (0.2 e 2.5µm) che il grossolano (2.5 e 10µm). Il valore medio di deposizione sulle foglie è 20.6 µg cm-2. La variabilità di deposizione è legata a 2 fattori: distanza dalla strada e posizione sottovento relativamente all’area industriale. Le cere cuticolari sono state quantificate. Per il PM fine è stato osservato un valore maggiore di accumulo nelle cere (40% del fine totale) rispetto al grossolano (4% del grossolano totale).
Il modello utilizzato nell’area di studio è il TAPM (The Air Pollution Model; Australia). È stato applicato su un anno (Gen’12 – Gen’13). L’analisi ha permesso di descrivere la modalità di diffusione del PM nell’area di studio, in base alla posizione delle principali sorgenti inquinanti. L’applicazione di TAPM ha evidenziato le aree potenzialmente più inquinate e l’effetto delle sorgenti locali.
Per l’analisi qualitativa sono stati selezionati quattro alberi, come rappresentativi di differenti ambienti urbani. La scelta è basata su: distanza dalla strada, vicinanza all’acciaieria. Il PM raccolto tramite analisi quantitativa è stato analizzato attraverso microscopia elettronica a scansione e spettroscopia a raggi-X. La relazione tra dimensione del PM, composizione chimica e localizzazione dell’albero è stata evidenziata. La distribuzione delle dimensioni delle particelle è descritta tramite una struttura tri-modale: 0,6 (acciaieria), 1,2 (fondo urbano) e 2,6 (strada). Sono stati individuati 23 elementi come componenti del PM. L’analisi delle componenti principali (PCA) ha identificato il ferro e il rame quali traccianti di sorgenti specifiche: area industriale e traffico.
Una simile analisi qualitativa è ancora in uso nella “Campagna Europea di Campionamento”, ampio progetto di caratterizzazione del PM depositato su foglie di Platanus sp., in collaborazione con l’Università di Anversa. I campioni sono stati raccolti in 20 città. L’analisi SEM/EDX è supportata da quella SIRM (Saturazione Isotermica Magnetizzazione Rimanente). Il lavoro è ancora in corso, i primi risultati vengono presentati. C’è una generale omogeneità di PM all’interno di ogni città, e si può apprezzare una variazione dimensionale e di densità di particelle solo tra pagina inferiore e superiore della foglia. Il ferro è un probabile tracciante del traffico. È stata trovata una buona relazione tra % di ferro e dati SIRM.
I risultati di tale studio hanno permesso di approfondire la comprensione riguardo le interazioni tra vegetazione urbana e inquinanti atmosferici. È auspicabile che venga preso in considerazione per la realizzazione di linee guida per la gestione del verde urbano. L’upscale dei risultati qualitativi fornisce degli utili indicatori per eventuali progetti di mitigazione del PM tramite foresta urbana.Dottorato di ricerca in Management and conservation issues in changing landscapes (XXVII ciclo
Phytoremediation to recovery contaminated soil by metal(loid)s: possible interaction with soil bacteria and biochar
No full textThe industry development has improved living standards for much of the world’s population. At the same time, this growth has created environmental problems in the world by producing large amount toxic compounds. The lack of controlling systems and appropriate laws to govern the waste management has produced worrisome problems for environment. Environmental pollution consists in three basic types of pollution: air, water and soil. Air pollution is cause by the injurious smokes, which contains namely sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides, emitted by cars, public transportation (buses, and taxi), trucks and factories. These gases have slowly changed the atmosphere and depleted the ozone layer leading to global warming. Water pollution caused industrial waste products released into lakes, rivers, and other water bodies, has made the life no hospitable with high risks associated to its application in agriculture and for the human activities. Soil pollution is a result of acid rain, polluted water, fertilizers etc., which lead to land fertility loss. Industrial activity has been the biggest contributor to the soil solution problem in the last century, especially since the amount of mining and manufacturing has increased. Also the house wastes are equally dangerous because of use of products such as cleaning detergents and products for the body. Moreover,-as result of globalization- an increase of demand and the quality of agricultural products were observed, with consequence of the increase of pesticides and fertilizers use. They are hazards because of chemical compounds presence that are not present in soil and can not be broken down by it.
When the polluted are spilled in the environment, several dramatic effects could happen. All the ecosystems such as forests, wetlands, coral reefs, and rivers may be seriously impaired or destroyed by pollution. Moreover, because of the connection among the many types of vegetal and animal organisms that live in the ecosystems, environmental contamination may have far-reaching consequences that are not immediately obvious or easy to predict.
In the environment, soil has important role, since it supports plant growth, it is a nutrient reservoir, moreover, it is a site for many biological processes involved in decomposition and recycling of plant and animal products. It has important effects on the interactions with environmental elements, influencing air quality (interacting with the atmosphere) and acting as purification medium for water. The pollutants deposition induce soil degradation, which in turn produces soil acidification (change in the chemical composition of soil), eutrophication (change in the chemical composition of water) and fertility loss. The human activities induce a soil degradation on nearly 40% of the world’s agricultural land as a result of soil erosion, atmospheric pollution, extensive soil cultivation, over-grazing, land clearing, salinization, and desertification.
Among the compounds that are released into the soil, damaging its quality because it changes its physical and chemical characteristics, the metal(loid)s represent a great danger. Metal(loid)s are highly hazardous since persisting for long time and can damage human health and environment. They are often present as natural components of soils. Several environmental causes, such as rocks erosion, volcanic eruption and continental dust determine their presence in the environment, although their prevalence has increased recently as the result of different human activities. They become dangerous for two reasons: they are produced, by anthropogenic activities, more rapid relative to natural ones, and the chemical form (species), in which a metal(loid)s are found in the environment, may render it more bioavailable. Metal(loid)s have adverse effects on human health and therefore their contamination of food chain , through soil contamination, deserves special attention. Recently there is an ever-increasing awareness of declining soil quality and its protection by metal(loid)s, is the duty and it is necessary for the survival of future generation. Therefore, new and effective remediation methods are necessary. The traditional physical and chemical methods for clean-up and restoration of metal(loid)s-contaminated soils have serious limitations like high cost, irreversible changes in soil properties, destruction of native soil microflora and creation of secondary pollution problems. Although during the years, they have been improved, most of them are environmentally not sustainable since involve unavoidably other negative consequences that destroys, soil structure. Therefore, within the framework of the European Strategy for Soil Protection, the need to develop new and viable technologies cost effective, efficient and environment friendly remediation methods for soil protection and remediation is becoming a priority. One such novel approach is phytoremediation which is considered as a green alternative solution to the problem of heavy metal pollution. The phytoremediation techniques are eco-friendly, gentle remediation techniques using different plant species. It can be included inside the Green Infrastructure (GI). GI is defined as a strategically planned network of natural and semi-natural areas with other environmental features designed and managed to deliver a wide range of ecosystem services. This definition includes three important aspects: the idea of a network of areas, the component of planning and management, and the concept of ecosystem services. They represent an innovative approach since plants are used to recreate a habitat in a land marred by human activities. These phytotechnologies, named as phytoremediation, makes use of natural processes where the plants alone or in combination with their microbial rhizosphere degrade and take up pollutants or to render them harmless. It is based on the idea of using landscape architecture to recover contaminated environment. Simultaneously these plants are able to reduce the dispersion of pollutants, as they are able to absorb them through their root system and accumulate them within their tissues. These methods have been widely studied and applied for several advantages, are generally considered to be less expensive and invasive (the fact that it is carried out in-situ), restorative of soil structure and aesthetically pleasant, compared to conventional, civil-engineering technologies. It has shown to be effective in cleaning-up of both organic and inorganic pollutants. The revolution concept associated to phytoremediation consists in the landscapes recovery using the same landscapes, conserving the biodiversity, soil quality, defending the ecosystem
The plants used for the phytoremediation are called hyperaccumulator. Among them, the tree species have been identified as suitable for remediation of soil. The wood angiosperm plants, known as hardwood, that can process phytoextraction and they are frequently represented by willow, Populus, Acer, Atnus and Betula. In the 1990 have started the studies on Salicaceae useful for phytoremediation, which have involved various plant traits, such as pollutant uptake, accumulation and allocation in different organs, tolerance ability at root and leaf levels, including the physiological and biochemical mechanisms at the basis of these activities. The used of trees to phytoremediation is favoured by the possibility of long-term growth and high biomass for contaminants accumulation. This genus has specific features, such as the fast growth starting from whips and poles, the possibility of deep rooting at several metres of depth, over to be adapted to pollution environments that makes it suitable and a good candidate for the phytoremediation application. Moreover, they not only are able to grow in the presence of critical soil conditions, typical of the contaminated areas, but is also able to extract the metal(loid)s in the range of several parts per million of dry weight.
However, the high metal(loid)s concentration in soils harmfully influence the plant growth, and consequently the yields of crops for the several cell damages caused, and disrupting the physiological process. For an efficient phytoremediation is important and fundamental an effective plant growth associated to a huge biomass production. Two are the principal natural strategies, toward which the research is focused: the use of specific soil bacteria and soil amendments.
In the soil is defined rhizosphere the portion of the soil that surrounds plants roots, here essential nutrients and water needed to grow are absorbed. In it several microorganism live and develop. The interaction between bacteria, also called rhizobacteria, and plant is named symbiotic process that consists of plants which provide nutrients necessary for the microbes to flourish and the microbes which provide a soil quality and/or plants grown. Some of these bacteria are phytopathogenic by having a negative influence; they can cause diseases and inhibit plant growth; others, called plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB), can facilitate the growth of plants using a wide range of different mechanisms (nitrogen fixation, solubilization of phosphate, production of siderophores, phytohormone, and ACC deaminase). These PGPB are earning special attention because play a key role also in the adaptation to a polluted environment; they can positively affect plants by improving growth and health, enhancing root development, or increasing plant tolerance to various environmental stresses. The symbiosis provide microorganisms which degrade the pollutant, while the plant roots provide the substrate and nutrients that support the growth of the microbial community. They can alter plant cell metabolism, so that upon exposure to metal(loid)s stress, the plants are able to tolerate high concentrations and thus can better withstand the challenge. Indeed, the PGPB can release different metabolites such as siderophores, biosurfactants, organic acids, plant growth regulators, that can alter the uptake of metal(loid)s indirectly and directly: directly, through acidification, chelation, precipitation, immobilization, and oxidation–reduction reactions in the rhizosphere; indirectly, through their effects on plant growth dynamics.
For example, siderophores play an important role to improve the plant grown. The metal(loid)s accumulated in plant tissues can have negative effects on iron assimilation. Under such conditions, the siderophores are capable of chelating Fe3+. Consequently, the roots could then up take iron from siderophores–Fe complexes. These substances can induce a metal mobilization in soil. They solubilize unavailable forms of metal(loid)s-bearing Fe that can be assimilated by root. So these plant-associated bacteria can potentially improve phytoextraction by altering the solubility, availability, and transport of metal(loid)s by reducing soil pH, release of chelators, P solubilization, or redox changes, accelerating phytoremediation in metal-contaminated soils by promoting plant growth and health.
To improve the plant health in a contaminated soil during the phytoremediation process, the research is considering using natural substances, amendment, for a better plant growth. These substances are defined as natural (mineral or organic) products able to modify and improve the properties and the chemical, physical, biological and mechanical properties of land, they are mainly used to increase and maintain the soil fertility. Recently, among several amendements, biochar is stimulated a broad scientific interest.
Biochar is a carbonaceus product, fine-grained and porous structure, which is produced by thermal decomposition of organic material (wood, manure or leaves and animal waste) under limited-or-zero supply of oxygen (O2), and at different temperatures (pyrolysis process). One of biochar properties is its highly porous structure, responsible for improved water retention and increased soil surface area reducing the amount and frequency of irrigation for the crops. Furthermore, the biochar addition increases nutrient use efficiency, either through nutrients bring by biochar, than a soil physic-chemical characteristics improvement that allow better nutrients availability. Another important consequence of biochar amended soil is its effects on climate change. Through biochar production is possible to reduce the CO2 amount release in the atmosphere. Indeed, plants absorb CO2 for their physiological processes; they can be used to obtain biochar (the pyrolysis process do not release CO2), so to incorporate the carbon into the soil. Moreover, during pyrolysis is possible that the energy production (bio-oil and syngas) does not burn fossil fuels. Therefore, the whole process becomes “carbon negative”. In conclusion, with biochar use three aims for environmental management: soil improvement, waste valorisation, and energy production can be achieved.
Biochar, beyond to supply a range of agronomic benefits, such as increase nutrient and fertility, recent studies have also highlighted its ability to retain organic and inorganic contaminants. Its soil modification can reduce metal(loid)s solubility by raising the pH, and/or through retention on cation exchange sites. To avoid increasing the pollutant load of the soil or the availability/mobility of contaminants. So the biochar application to contaminated soil allows to achieve two important results: simplify the plants grown and reducing the metal(lid)s leaching in the environment (groundwater).
In conclusion, the plants use allows intervening without further damage, to territory, but preserving and/or recreating a landscape run-down. For this reason the research is focused on the identification of native plants for phytoremediation, and characterization of the different proteins involved in cross-membrane transport and vacuolar sequestration of metal(loid)s; to help in understanding the mechanism and enhancing the efficiency of phytoremediation.
The main goals of this work are:
• to gain additional insights on poplar responses to metal (loid)s stress and to improve the knowledge of poplar phytoremediation application. We assess the vaccum-infiltration system as possible experimental method for analysing the short-term response of poplar leaf to cadmium;
• to elucidate the effect of metals on the growth of poplars inoculated with and without rhizosphere associated bacteria strains;
• to evaluate the influence of biochar on physical-chemical parameters of contaminated mining (La petite Faye and Pontgibaud) and smelting (Mortagne du Nord) technosols, its effects on metal(loid)s mobility and availability in the soil and its potentials to be combined with phytoremediation analysing the plant growth and metal(loid)s uptake of two species Phaseolus vulgaris and Populus Dorskamp.
The results presented indicate that investigation of short-term (1 h) effects of Cd treatments on detached leaves by means of vacuum-infiltration can afford significant information about molecular mechanisms activated to counteract Cd stress. Cadmium treatment brought about the up-regulation of different proteins involved in the defense responses to stress that include the proteins involved in the ROS-scavenging or molecular chaperones to protect cells from oxidative damage (production of H2O2) arising from metals stress. In addition, the involvement of plant hormones in the perception and downstream response to Cd treatment was confirmed. Indeed, changes in the hormonal balance may represent potential signals initiating plant responses to Cd stress, and integrating different pathways involved in the stress response, among which ROS signalling. The increase of ABA may mediate tolerance expression mainly by reducing the leaf transpiration rate, which could be important to reduce the translocation of Cd from the roots to the shoot. Whereas the ethylene plays a pivotal role in the mitigation of Cd stress on photosynthesis, via modulation of sulfur metabolism and glutathione (GSH). Proteomic analysis indicated that upon short-term Cd challenge, specific components of the cellular stress response machinery, such as ROS-scavenging enzymes or molecular chaperones, were early activated to face Cd stress conditions.
However, the poplar ability to overcome growth limitations in polluted soils, associated to changes of the chemical-physical parameters followed by metal(loid)s presence, is fundamental in order to assess the real potential in terms of phytoremediation in open-field applications. The synergistic activity between poplar and soil microorganisms may contribute to the implementation of strategies in the stabilization of contaminated sites through improvement of poplar development. The inoculum of S. marcescens had positive effects on the plant growth also with excess Cd. Moreover, the bacteria in the rhizosphere can variably alter bioavailability of contaminants by promoting the stabilization of Cd. Indeed, the Cd content was higher in root of non-inoculated than inoculated plants, indicating that the bacteria association probably defined specific processes to diverge Cd uptake, by roots, thus promoting the growth and survival of plants under excess Cd in the substrate. The study confirms the plant–bacteria–substrate system as a biological tool for the reclamation of Cd-contaminated sites. This system provided a promising framework for testing phytotechnologies, underlining a more appropriate remedial approach for the phytostabilization of metal-contaminated sites. Although the restoration of polluted sites with poplars-bacteria system requires the selection of rhizosphere bacteria that are able to resist the high toxicity of metal(loid)s, to presence of several kind of metal, reduce their toxicity and promoting the growth of plants.
In order to optimize the benefits provided by the establishment of a plant cover for phytostabilization purposes, could be considered an essential and cheap solution application of soil amendments. Poplar phytoremediation process may improve/enhance also, by the use of amendments which favour plant growth and/or immobilize metal(loid)s. Biochar is gaining a growing interest to its potential effect on metal immobilization, on soils quality and plant growth while sequesters carbon. The results presented highlighting the biochar positive effect on soil parameters (pH, Ec, SPW) that increase after its application on control and contaminated soil. Especially evident are the results observed for the acid soils, La petite Faye and Pontgibaud, where was recorded a higher amelioration than the alkaline soil of Mortagne du Nord. As regarding the interaction between biochar and metal(loid)s, were observed differences depending to contaminant. For the Cd, Pb and Zn availability was found a their reduction in the soil pore water due to effect the metal shift into the carbonate-bound pool of biochar and/or their precipitation as insoluble compounds. On the contrary, it has demonstrated ineffective to immobilize As and Sb, which levels in the soil and plant organs increase after biochar amended. Associate to these improvements of soil parameters, we observed a biochar beneficial influences on plants growth (both beans and poplar), not only on garden soil but especially for the contaminated soils. Obviously, this is not true for La petite Faye where the plant development reduction was observed after biochar amended. As regarding the metal(loid)s concentration in the beans organ, the reduction of metals leaching in the soil, after biochar application, determines a low uptake. For the poplar, a tolerant plant, was observed, instead, a metals uptake increased consequently at biochar addiction in the mining soil. They showed a remarkable ability to bio-concentrate metal(loid)s in the root system where were recorded the highest values, avoiding their translocation in the aerial part (especially leaves). These results confirm what is reported in literature, proving the poplar phytostabilization ability to limit metal(loid)s percolating in contaminated site.
Therefore, biochar and phytoremediation techniques may be potentially combined in the remediation of metal(loid)s polluted soils. Even if, its effects on soil, metal(loid)s and plants are strictly associated to kind of soil and pollutants present. Therefore, more field studies are necessary to examine the biochar interaction on soil structure and composition, polluted species and plants to obtain a maxim efficacy of soil remediation, metal(loid)s immobilization and plants covering.
In conclusion, although the results presented in this work confirm the good poplar tolerance to metal stress and the beneficial interaction between poplar with rhizobacteria and biochar, many questions remain open. The time required for clean-up a contaminated soil. The phytoremediation application only to sites with low to moderate levels of metal contamination because plant growth is not sustained in heavily polluted soils. The possible interactions among bacteria strains presented in the soil and plant root on phytoremediation process. The rhizobacteria responses to presence of more metals in the soil, combined with biochar. To define a threshold concentrations of metal(loid)s toxicity in poplar.
Research in phytoremediation is interdisciplinary and needs background knowledge in soil chemistry, plant biology, ecology and soil microbiology. Therefore, a possible study may be done to combine the bacteria and biochar effects on poplar growth/development and phytoremediation potential. To assess the tree tolerance (morphological and molecular responses), to improve and increase the phytoremediation knowledge, reducing its limits. Hopi
Development of nitrogen fertilizers with nitrification inhibitor of plant origin
No full textLe proprietà di inibizione della nitrificazione di sostanze naturali offrono potenziali benefici per l’agricoltura e l’ambiente. Al fine di valutare le performance di oli estratti da Mentha spicata e Artemisia annua e di Acque di Vegetazione delle Olive come inibitori della nitrificazione per regolare la trasformazione dell’azoto dal Solfato Ammonico. Questi effetti sull’efficienza dell’uso dell’azoto sono stati testati su sedano (Apium graveolens). I risultati di questa ricerca suggeriscono che le Acque di Vegetazione delle Olive potrebbero essere impiegati come potenziali inibitori della nitrificazione per incrementare l’efficienza della fertilizzazione azotata.Nitrogen inhibitory properties in plant materials offer potential benefits for agriculture and environment. In order to evaluate the relative performance of Mentha spicata and Artemisia annua oils and Olive mill wastewater as natural nitrification inhibitors to regulate transformation of N from Ammonium Sulphate. Their effect on the efficiencies of use of N by celery (Apium graveolens) was tested. The results of this research suggest that Olive mill wastewater could be potential nitrification inhibitors for increasing fertilizer N use efficiency.Dottorato di ricerca in Difesa e qualità delle produzioni agro-alimentari e forestali (XXIII ciclo
Improvement medicinal plants production in Molise: climatic characteristics and cultivation strategy can affect on growth, yield and the ecophysiology
No full textAlcune colture erbacee possono variare le rese quali-quantitative in risposta a particolari condizioni ambientali e alla tecnica colturale. Per ogni essenza vegetale deve essere individuato, quindi, un ambiente di coltivazione e delle tecniche colturali adatte a valorizzare la resa e la qualità dell’essenza prodotta. L’innovativo obiettivo di tale studio è: quantificare gli effetti della tecnica agronomica e dell’ambiente pedo-climatico sull’accrescimento, l’ecofisiologia e la resa quali-quantitativa di diverse specie officinali. La sperimentazione è avvenuta su cinque essenze vegetali: elicriso, lavanda, melissa, rosmarino e salvia. La coltivazione è stata effettuata in diversi ambienti molisani caratterizzati da un clima tipico dell’areale costiero, collinare e pedomontano. Le tecniche colturali adottate in tutti i campi sono state le seguenti: aratura, preparazione del letto di trapianto, trapianto, concimazione pre-semina (50 unità per ettaro di azoto, 90 di fosforo e 50 di potassio), concimazione in copertura (50 unità per ettaro di azoto), scerbature, sarchiatura ed irrigazione. A fine ciclo colturale e nel periodo balsamico sono stati misurati parametri agronomici (resa in cimette e fiori, accumulo di sostanza secca ecc), parametri eco-fisiologici (fotosintesi, conduttanza stomatica ecc) parametri biochimici (attività della Rubisco ecc). Sulle stesse foglie su cui sono state effettuate le misure eco fisiologiche, sono stati misurati i principali costituenti dell’olio essenziale mediate GC-MS. I risultati evidenziano un influenza positiva dell’irrigazione e della regimazione delle acque in eccesso sulla resa delle specie oggetto di studio. La tecnica colturale, soprattutto negli ambienti più marginali ha dato i risultati migliori, dimostrando che semplici investimenti in termini di accorgimenti colturali, come la sarchiatura e la scerbatura, possono incrementare le rese stimolando l’efficienza fotosintetica. Interessanti sono stati i risultati ottenuti in ambienti difficili del basso Molise, a testimonianza di una elevata adattabilità, delle specie studiate, in tutti gli ambienti molisani provati. Dal punto di vista qualitativo i siti migliori per il contenuto in terpeni per unità di sostanza secca, sono quelli presenti in alta collina, dove le condizioni ambientali stimolano il metabolismo secondario. Lo studio, inoltre, ha evidenziato che è possibile modulare la presenza o meno e la quantità di molecole caratteristiche variando la tecnica colturale e/o l’ambiente di coltivazione in maniera opportuna. In futuro sarà possibile pianificare la qualità di un olio essenziale semplicemente scegliendo un ambiente adatto e una strategia agronomica adatta.The environmental and the crop production strategy can influence the yield of production and mostly the quality of the economically important organic compounds.
These study was interested to examine how some officinal plant can grow, and produce characteristic organic compounds in response to the environment and to the production crop strategy.
The screening was conducted on five officinal plants typically of the Molise : Helicrisum, lavender, common balm, rosemary and common sage. Three different natural environments were chosen for the cultivation on the territories of Molise region: marine climate, hill climate and mountain climate. The production crop strategy was planned using normal agronomic techniques: the tillage, bed preparation, transplanting, planting, fertilizing pre-sowing (50 units per acre of nitrogen, 90 phosphorous and 50 potassium) fertilizer (50 units nitrogen per hectare), weeding and irrigation.
To evaluate the growing, the physiology and the oil production, during the balsamic period, agronomical (leaf area, dry matter etc), physiological ( photosynthesys, stomata conductance etc), biochemical ( Rubisco activity etc) parameters were assayed on the same samples. In the same time was monitored also the quality of the essential oil production by GC-MS.
The results showed that good agronomic practice as continuously weeding and water regulation improved the crop yield stimulating the photosynthetic activity. The plant species monitorated were showed a great adaptability mostly in marine climate region. The more productive region for the yield and quality of essential oil was the hill climate, where the climate environmental can stimulate the secondary plant metabolism. The most important result evidences that the agronomical practice can regulate the physiological dynamic and can modulate the amount and the presence of the constituent characteristic of each essential oil; in future will be possible to plan the quality of an essential oil simply choosing an appropriate enviroment and a suitable agronomical strategy.Dottorato di ricerca in Difesa e qualità delle produzioni agro-alimentari e forestali (XXIV ciclo
La revisione "europea" alla luce delle sentenze CEDU
No full textLa Corte europea dei diritti dell’uomo è l’unico organo giurisdizionale previsto ai sensi dell’art. 32 CEDU che tutela i diritti e le libertà dell’uomo ed alla quale i privati cittadini, oltre che gli Stati, possono ricorrere qualora ritengano di essere vittime di una violazione riconosciuta dalla Convenzione.
Gli innumerevoli interventi della CEDU in Europa e in modo particolare in Italia, richiedono a gran voce l’attuazione di misure idonee a conformarsi al cd. diritto europeo. Il nostro bel Paese è tra i principali attori europei a rendersi protagonista dell’inosservanza dei principi sanciti dalle Carte internazionali. Il confronto e la presa di coscienza del diritto vivente europeo da parte dei giudici nazionali è un fattore imprescindibile ed ineludibile dato il superamento di una visione prettamente nazionale del diritto. La globalizzazione, la eterogeneità dei rapporti e dei diritti umani coinvolti, richiede da parte di tutti gli Stati europei, direttamente coinvolti o meno, uno sforzo unanime, nel disciplinare in modo specifico e dettagliato, i diritti inviolabili di ogni essere umano, senza soluzione di continuità.
La certezza del diritto deve oggi cedere di fronte alla garanzia dei diritti.The European Court of Human Rights is the only jurisdictional body provided from the article 32 ECHR which protects rights and freedom of man to which private citizens as well as the states may be used whenever they need or believe to be victims of a violation recognized by the Convention. Numerous interventions of the ECHR in Europe, in particolar in Italy, requires appropriate mesaures to conforme to the so-called european law. Our beatiful country is among the main european actors to be the main protagonist of inosservance of principles enshrined by international charters. The comparison is the consciousness of european living law by national judges it is an essential factor and unavoidable giving the over coming of strict vision of the national law right. The globalizzation,the heterogenity relation and the human rights involved, requires from part of all european states, involved directly or less directly an unanimous effects to regulate in a specific and detailed way, the invoilable rights of all human beings without solutions of continuity.
The certainty of the law must now give way to guarantee rights
Risk Expanded. A Qualitative Study of Youth and Mental Health Research
No full textThe Saving and Empowering Young Lives in Europe (SEYLE) health promotion study sought to evaluate the outcomes of different preventive programs through a randomized controlled trial (RCT) in ten European Union countries. The twofold aims were to improve adolescent health by means of a decrease in risk-taking and suicidal behaviors and to collect epidemiological data on risk behaviors and psychiatric symptoms. The Youth Aware of Mental health (YAM) program reduced the number of suicide attempts and severe suicidal ideation with approximately 50% and was hence the most successful of the intervention programs.
In addition to the RCT, two qualitative studies were performed with YAM youth and instructors respectively. In 32 semi-structured interviews with YAM participants in Estonia, Italy, Romania and Spain, mental health topics including risk and their experience of YAM was discussed. Drawing on both qualitative and quantitative methods to better understand the everyday practices of youth, risk is here investigated as an experience rather than behavior. The main focus of inquiry is how the research questions posed define and limit our findings.
Mental health research carries a lot of expectation about youth, often placing the youth of today in relation to future moments, behaviors and health outcomes, more or less positive ones. In youth mental health research, risk behaviors are considered a major public health concern. Risk and youth are primarily studied through the lens of behaviors and attitudes within a developmental framework. Attached to risk are various correlations and future outcomes such as that of psychopathology.
Risks are everywhere. They take the form of threat, disease, accident, war, climate, finance, relationships and affect us in different ways. In everyday life, risk is experienced quite differently than in terms of statistical links between risk factors and mental health outcomes. Risk decisions do not occur in isolation, but are performed in the context of the many shared and perhaps contradictory norms and practices that surround that particular individual. Cultural beliefs, habits, power relations, social acceptability, scientific knowledge, personal experience and more, all influence risk perception and management. Defining risk is steeped in value, for individuals and the scientific community alike and classifications change over time.
Risk cannot be considered as primarily negative or with only negative outcomes, instead, risk can be neutral, or even positive. The relationships between behaviors and mental health outcomes are more complex than is frequently suggested. Much of the risk studied in mental health research takes as point of departure that of objective risks and dangers, yet what is considered a hazard in one historical or cultural context may not be identified as such elsewhere.
In the YAM program, by putting the participating youth in focus beyond the paradigm of risky/protective behaviors, a more fluid approach to their everyday lives and mental health topics takes center stage. Here mental health promotion is not connected to morality or deciding exactly which activities are healthy and positive. Based on empathy building and finding solutions as a group, the YAM youth reflect and analyze their actions through play and discussion.
In this dissertation a call is made for a more reflexive research practice, maintaining a critical approach to the meaning of categories and methods in all steps of the research process. Specifically, collaborations with youth in study design and analysis, cultural adaptation of assessment tools and mental health promotion programs, the use of different research methods to explore similar topics and a more nuanced and less normative stance on risk will hopefully lead to research results reflecting the complexities of everyday life.Dottorato di ricerca in Scienze per la salute (XXVIII ciclo
Vincenzo Tiberio. La scoperta degli antibiotici e la mancata produzione industriale del farmaco
Full text linkRicordo in memoria dello scienziato molisano, Vincenzo Tiberio, che per primo scoprì il potere battericida e batteriostatico di alcune muffe dando vita alla prima sostanza antibiotica. Una grande scoperta che avrebbe cambiato il senso della vita umana. La scoperta di Tiberio, datata 1895, e pubblicata negli "Annali di igiene sperimentale" della Regia Università di Napoli, dal titolo "Sugli estratti di alcune muffe", non ebbe però, all'epoca, la giusta risonanza. La mancata produzione industriale degli antibiotici, a fine Ottocento, fu, molto probabilmente, da imputare all'arretratezza della società, non solo civile, ma anche [email protected] nel convegno "Vincenzo Tiberio da Sepino (CB). Lo scienziato che precede Fleming" organizzato dal Comune di Sepino e dall'Università degli Studi del Molise - Sepino 7 gennaio 2016
Effect of gastrointestinal stress conditions on the viability of "healthy lactic acid bacteria"
No full textNumerose formulazioni probiotiche sono reperibili sul mercato e vendute sotto forma di integratori alimentari in grado di migliorare il benessere fisico del consumatore. In realtà, per molti preparati probiotici esistono specifici health claims, preventivamente approvati dall’EFSA, che vengono utilizzati per indirizzare il consumatore al loro impiego nella prevenzione o la cura di differenti malattie. Dunque, in presenza di un effetto salutistico dichiarato, il formulato probiotico dovrebbe contenere particolari ceppi, con adeguate cariche di microrganismi vivi e vitali, in grado di agire a livello intestinale per alleviare i sintomi o coadiuvare la cura di specifiche patologie. Non a caso, fra i criteri dettati per l’uso appropriato del termine “probiotico”, c’è l’accertamento dello specifico effetto benefico che il microrganismo, o il pool di microrganismi, è in grado di apportare al consumatore. Altro importante criterio di valutazione è rappresentato dalla capacità di sopravvivenza al transito gastroenterico per arrivare nel colon con elevate cariche di microrganismi vivi e vitali. Tuttavia, a differenza dei farmaci, che sono intensamente ispezionati dagli organismi di controllo per verificarne la sicurezza d’uso e l’efficacia, i probiotici sono controllati con minore rigore. Di conseguenza, è molto più semplice approfittare della lacuna legislativa esistente in tale ambito per immettere sul mercato nuovi prodotti probiotici la cui sicurezza ed efficacia sono state spesso solo sommariamente testate.
Alla luce di tali premesse, la prima parte del lavoro di tesi di dottorato ha inteso valutare la corrispondenza dei ceppi dichiarati in etichetta con quelli realmente presenti in differenti formulati probiotici farmaceutici, valutandone anche la sopravvivenza quando sottoposti agli stress tipici del transito gastrointestinale. Tale valutazione, a differenza di quanto riportato in numerosi studi consultati, è stata condotta eliminando la fase preliminare di rivitalizzazione delle preparazioni liofilizzate, dal momento che la loro ingestione da parte del consumatore, e il successivo passaggio lungo il tratto gastrointestinale, non prevede questa condizione.
L’attività successiva ha quindi previsto la valutazione della sopravvivenza alla conservazione e al transito gastroenterico simulato di alcuni ceppi probiotici commerciali quando integrati in una matrice alimentare, al fine di valutarne le capacità protettive. Da questo punto di vista, gli alimenti possono essere in grado di influenzare positivamente la sopravvivenza dei microrganismi nel tratto gastrointestinale, svolgendo pertanto un ruolo importante di veicolo dei probiotici con la dieta. Il loro impiego può divenire un approccio vincente dal punto di vista economico e lodevole per il carattere nutrizionale, a patto che la scelta dell’alimento ricada su matrici adeguatamente presenti nelle diete dei consumatori e che, eventualmente, siano già in possesso di componenti di interesse salutistico nonché accattivanti per le più ampie fasce di età. In tale ottica, la scelta è ricaduta sul cioccolato fondente. I risultati ottenuti hanno tuttavia evidenziato che tale matrice alimentare, nonostante la ricchezza in ingredienti di pregio dal punto di vista nutrizionale, emozionale e salutistico, non può costituire un veicolo preferenziale per proteggere i microrganismi durante il loro viaggio verso l’intestino.
Da questa considerazione è scaturita un’ultima attività di ricerca, caratterizzata dalla valutazione dell’influenza di ciascun fattore di stress gastroenterico sulla sopravvivenza di ceppi di Lactobacillus rhamnosus isolati da matrici alimentari, campioni fecali e probiotici del commercio. Tale indagine ha restituito risultati particolarmente interessati non solo con riguardo alle condizioni che maggiormente influenzano la vitalità dei ceppi durante il transito ma anche alle matrici di origine alimentare (caseina) in grado di svolgere un ragguardevole effetto protettivo contro le ingiurie dovute a tali condizioni.Many probiotic formulations are available on the market and sold in the form of food supplements that can improve physical health of the consumer. In fact, for many probiotic preparations, there are specific health claims, previously approved by EFSA, that are used to direct the consumer to their use in the prevention or treatment of different diseases. Therefore, in presence of a healthy effect stated, the formulation should contain particular probiotic strains, with appropriate amount of live and viable microorganisms, able to act in the intestine to relieve symptoms or assist the treatment of specific pathologies. Not surprisingly, among the criteria dictated by the appropriate use of the term "probiotic", there is the determination of the specific beneficial effect that the microorganism, or the pool of microorganisms, is able to give to the consumer. Another important evaluation criterion is represented by the ability to survive to the gastrointestinal transit, in order to arrive to the colon with high amount of live and viable microorganisms. However, unlike drugs, which are intensively inspected by the inspection authorities to ensure safe use and efficacy, probiotics are controlled less rigorously. As a result, it is much easier to take advantage of the existing legislative gap in this area, to bring to the market new probiotic products whose safety and efficacy have been often only slightly tested.
In light of these circumstances, the first part of the PhD research was aimed to the identification of microorganisms composing different lactic acid bacteria based pharmaceutical formulations and the ascertainment of their ability to survive gastrointestinal (GI) stresses, the main requisite to produce beneficial effects. This evaluation, unlike what is reported in numerous studies available in literature, was conducted without a preliminary rehydration step, since their ingestion by the consumer, and the next step through the gastrointestinal tract, does not contemplate this condition.
The next activity was focused on the evaluation of viability, after the conservation and simulated gastrointestinal transit, of some commercial probiotic strains integrated in a food matrix, in order to evaluate the protective capacity. From this point of view, food may be able to positively affect the survival of microorganisms in the gastrointestinal tract, thus playing an important role as a vehicle of probiotics in the diet. Their use can therefore become a winning approach from an economic and nutritional standpoint, as long as the food choice falls on matrices that are not only adequately present in consumers' diets, but also already have healthy interesting components and are appealing enough to the widest age range of people. In this context, our choice fell on dark chocolate. However, the results showed that this food matrix, although is rich in valuable ingredients from the nutritional, healthy and emotional point of view, can not be a preferential vehicle to protect the organisms during their passage through the intestine.
From this consideration, in fact, derived one last activity: the assessment of the influence of each gastrointestinal stress factor on the survival of Lactobacillus rhamnosus strains isolated from food matrices, fecal samples and probiotics pharmaceutical formulations. That analysis furnished results particularly interesting not only with regard to the conditions that mostly affect the viability of the strains during transit but also to food-borne matrices (casein) that are able to play a substantial protective effect against the injuries caused by these conditions.Dottorato di ricerca in Biotecnologia degli alimenti (XXVIII ciclo
The interpretative methodology in the constitutional judgement between preparatory works and hermeneutical skepticism: the Swedish experience
No full textL'affermazione delle cosiddette “democrazie costituzionali” dotate di costituzioni rigide, ha portato a compimento un complesso processo storico ed ha condotto alla realizzazione quasi completa del “costituzionalismo”, dove la legge, per la prima volta, viene sottoposta ad un giudizio di tipo assiologico. In tale contesto è di notevole importanza il complicato e delicato lavoro del giudice costituzionale, il quale deve interpretare la Costituzione, nel cui tessuto sono introdotti direttamente una serie di principi contenenti valori etico-politici , la cui applicazione non assume più la forma classica sillogistica della sussunzione, bensì della ponderazione. Le più note teorie giuscostituzionaliste e dell’argomentazione giuridica hanno dedotto che i principi sono delle norme di ottimizzazione che descrivono un valore da realizzare il più possibile, con riguardo a quanto risulta effettivamente realizzabile, sia sotto il profilo fattuale che giuridico, talché il loro adempimento non dipende soltanto dalle possibilità reali, ma anche da quelle giuridiche, oltre che da regole e da principi controversi.
Nell’interpretazione costituzionale, seguendo il metodo argomentativo, la gerarchia assiologica, la scala di priorità tra i principi costituzionali diversi si rende necessaria, perché essa si riferisce a particolari tipi di norme date da una stessa fonte del diritto, ossia la Costituzione: nel balancing test tra diritti concorrenti la Corte Suprema americana parla di preferred position per taluni diritti riconducibili ad un valore costituzionale primario, come la libertà di espressione e di associazione, la libertà religiosa, i diritti della personalità e di partecipazione politica. Ma anche la nostra Corte Costituzionale è continuamente costretta a scegliere nel caso da decidere, con ragionevolezza e proporzionalità, non solo nell'ipotesi di giudizi di eguaglianza, alla luce dell'art. 3 della costituzione, ma anche quando, nel reperire la norma parametro, deve scegliere tra principi, diritti e valori contrastanti, come ad esempio tra diritto di libertà individuale e diritto alla salute o tra diritto di proprietà e di impresa e riconoscimento del valore “primario” del paesaggio.
La difficile ricerca di una gerarchia tra i valori costituzionalmente tutelati esige un'opera continua e incessante di ridefinizione e di ri-armonizzazione dei principi costituzionali sulla base degli elementi specifici forniti dai casi da decidere. Gli enunciati costituzionali debbono perciò tener fermo un nucleo identificativo del valore originariamente tutelato, domandando, nel contempo, attraverso una ragionevole varietà di interpretazioni e di applicazioni, di essere continuamente rimodellati ed adeguati alla storia e alla politica, nonché al mutare delle assunzioni di senso e dei significati sociali. I principi che si trovano alla base delle costituzioni, e attorno ai quali i documenti costituzionali si sono formati, con l'aprirsi di nuovi orizzonti e di nuovi problemi, debbono continuamente essere aggiornati, rielaborati e ricomposti in un insieme dotato di senso. Essi hanno bisogno di rinnovata giustificazione da un interprete dotato di un peculiare ed elevato habitus giuridico, idoneo a rendere un giudizio complesso e articolato come quello di costituzionalità. . Dal punto di vista della metodologia ermeneutica, l'habitus del giudice costituzionale corrisponde alla precomprensione critica, attraverso la quale si può individuare se il giudizio costituzionale sia stato effettuato da un giudice privo di habitus e invalidare tale giudizio, anche a prescindere dalla corretta motivazione del giudice stesso.
Se poi si tiene presente che la Costituzione è essa stessa il risultato dell'interpretazione dei principi costituzionali, risulta di tutta evidenza l'importanza di un “circolo ermeneutico” tra i principi conformatori della società e valutazioni della società stessa. Nel giudizio costituzionale la circolarità ermeneutica è molto accentuata, infatti, tra il giudice interprete, la collettività e la Costituzione, oggetto interpretato, si instaura un intimo rapporto circolare diacronico, dal momento che la Costituzione contiene dei principi e dei valori appartenenti alla società della quale lo stesso giudice costituzionale fa parte.
Nell’attività giudiziale della Corte costituzionale italiana è possibile riscontrare l’accezione scettica dell’interpretazione giuridica, tipica dei sistemi di common law: laddove, sul piano della creatività, le sentenze interpretative di rigetto, sentenze additive e sentenze manipolative sono tutte varianti suggerite o imposte dalla necessità nei singoli casi di un unico modello di pronuncia del giudice delle leggi, che in presenza di determinate condizioni, consente di superare i confini prestabiliti dai canoni legali dell’interpretazione giudiziaria per addentrarsi verso una funzione che non è solo etero-integrativa del diritto ordinamentale e costituzionale, ma anche suppletiva del potere legislativo.
L'utilizzo dell'ermeneutica giuridica, come metodo d'interpretazione, trova particolare rilievo dinanzi alle Corti de-statalizzate operanti in ambiti giuridici ad ordinamento pluristatale come la Corte di Giustizia dell'Unione Europea e dinanzi alle Corti Costituzionali di diversi Stati, riconoscendo l’attività creativa ed etero-integrativa da parte del giudice costituzionale di civil law. Tramite la precomprensione critica e la circolarità tradica e diadica, l’ermeneutica giuridica si pone sempre più come metodo interpretativo indispensabile per l’interpretazione dei principi fondamentali, preesistenti al testo Costituzionale, e per la costruzione e l'impiego dei cosiddetti “parametri non scritti”, utilizzati, a volte, dai giudici costituzionali italiani, al di là dei limiti tracciati dal metodo giuridico argomentativo: dove il punto di partenza del ragionamento deduttivo-assiologico dovrà sempre esser il testo scritto, dal quale l’interprete potrà denotare il valore del principio.
Pur riconoscendosi nell’alveo delle teorie scettiche dell’interpretazione giudiziale, la metodologia ermeneutica offre una valutazione della decisione di costituzionalità capace di non lasciare alla discrezionalità del giudice uno spazio illimitato, dal momento che precomprensione critica e circolarità ermeneutica, dalle quali discende la canonistica ermeneutica, garantisce un metodo per la controllabilità del giudizio, senza che possa sfociare in decisioni arbitrarie o di opportunità politica.
Dopo la riforma del titolo V, con il novellato art.117, primo comma, della Costituzione, la dottrina giuscostituzionalista ha parlato di una possibile estensione della legalità costituzionale, qualora i principi discendenti dal diritto comunitario-europeo ed internazionale andrebbero ad integrare i parametri ermeneutici utilizzati nel giudizio di costituzionalità: nel caso in cui il giudice a quo, in via incidentale, e lo Stato e le Regioni, in via diretta, sollevassero la questione di costituzionalità, per violazione del suddetto articolo della Costituzione. L’estensione della legalità costituzionale, tuttavia ha, anche, il suo risvolto “inverso”, nel caso in cui fossero i principi esterni a ledere i principi fondamentali dell’ordinamento Costituzionale Repubblicano.
Nel contemporaneo costituzionalismo europeo, che accomuna più vicende ordinamentali diverse, risulta essere di peculiare interesse l’esperienza giuridica della Svezia, una delle più solide ed efficienti democrazie mondiali, caratterizzata da un’ antica tradizione costituzionale e da una lunga vaganza del controllo di costituzionalità delle leggi. Quest’ultime, fino a poco tempo fa, venivano interpretate dalle Corti nell’assoluto rispetto e subordinazione alla volontà storica del legislatore. Ultimamente, con l’entrata della Svezia nell’Unione Europea, a seguito delle recenti riforme costituzionali ed attraverso l’introduzione di un controllo di costituzionalità diffuso, le corti svedesi stanno gradualmente cambiando i loro tradizionali criteri interpretativi, per una più ampia ed efficace tutela dei diritti umani, nell’ambito giuridico costituzionale ed europeo.The claim of so-called "constitutional democracy" with rigid constitutions has completed a complex historical process and has led to the almost complete implementation of "constitutionalism", where for the first time the law is submitted to a value judgment. In this context, it is of great importance to the complicated and delicate work of the Constitutional Judge, who must interpret the Constitution, whose tissue directly holds a set of principles containing ethical and political values, and whose application does have the classic syllogistic form of subsumption, but that of weighting. Most of the Laws are rules, i.e. require something to run to the occurrence of specific conditions, and, therefore, one can refer to them as "conditional rules”. In addition, rules can take a categorical form, such as total ban on access. If the rule is valid and applicable, it is absolutely crucial to impose the exact performance means that the rule prescribes. If this happens, one can determine whether the provisions were complied with or not. For the theories of constitutionalism and of the legal argumentation, principles, however, are rules that require that some value shall be fully accomplished with regard to what is actually feasible, both at the legal and factual levels. Consequently, principles are "rules of optimization", thus characterized by the fact that these can be viewed in differing degrees, and because the measurement of their performance depends not only on real possibilities, but also on legal ones, as well as issues on rules and principles.
Following the method of the legal argumentation, in the constitution interpretation, hierarchy, the priorities among the various constitutional principles, is necessary so that it refers to specific types of norms laid down by the same source of law, the Constitution: in the balancing test between competing interests, the U.S. Supreme Court talks about preferred position for certain rights related to a primary constitutional value, such as freedom of expression and association, religious freedom, personal rights, and political participation. But even Italian Constitutional Court is constantly forced to choose according to what is being decided on, not only in the event of equality judgments according to Article 3 of the Constitution, but also when, in raising the standard parameter, it must choose - for example - between the right to individual freedom and right to health, or between property and company rights and recognition of the value of "primary" value of the context.
The difficult search for a hierarchy of constitutionally protected values requires constant work and constant redefining and re-harmonizing of constitutional principles on the basis of the details provided by the cases to be decided upon. The statements should therefore take constitutional firm identification of an originally protected core value, requiring at the same time, through a variety of reasonable interpretations and applications, to be continually reshaped and adapted to history and politics, and to the effect of changing assumptions and of social meanings. The principles that lie at the heart of constitutions and upon which constitutional documents were formed, with the opening of new horizons and new challenges, must be continually updated, revised and put back together reasonably. They require renewed justification by judge with particular juridical habitus and critical pre-understending: he/she must have acquired, throughout his/her legal career, technical skills needed to make appropriate assessments in constitutional judgment.
From the prospective of hermeneutic methodology, the habitus of the Constitutional Judge corresponds to critical pre-understanding through which one can identify whether the constitutional judgment was conducted by a judge lacking a habitus and invalidate that judgment, even regardless of proper motivation presented by the Judge.
If one bears in mind that the Constitution itself is the result of the interpretation of constitutional principles, the importance of a "hermeneutic circle" between the principles in accordance with assessments of society and society itself is quite evident. In Constitutional judgement, hermeneutic circularity is highly stressed, in fact, between the court interpreter and the Constitution, the subject interpreted; it establishes a circular diachronic relationship, since the Constitution contains the principles and values belonging to the society which the constitutional Judge is part of.
In the activity of the Italian Constitutional Court, it is possible to find the skeptical conception of legal interpretation, typical of common law systems: where, in terms of creativity, the Constitutional Court, through the “manipulative decisions”, exceeding the legal boundaries of legal interpretation, integrates the constitutional law and carries a substitute function of the State legislature.
The use of the “juridical hermeneutic” as a method of interpretation is particularly relevant before de-nationalized courts operating in legal fields having multi-state regulations, as the Court of Justice of the European Union and before the Constitutional Courts of several countries, recognizing the creative activity by the constitutional judges of civil law. Through the pre-comprehension and the circularity triadic and dyadic , the juridical hermeneutic, has became an indispensable element for interpretation of fundamental principles and for the construction and use of so-called "unwritten parameters" used, sometimes, by Italian constitutional Judges, leaping the methods based on logical argumentation techniques, for which the judge-interpreter must begin his/her legal reasoning always from the written text, to denote the value of the principle.
Although the methodology hermeneutic belongs to the skeptical theory of the judicial interpretation, it provides an assessment of constitutional decision without leaving unlimited space to the will of the Judge, since hermeneutics secures a method for the controllability of the interpretive process, to prevent to the judgment of constitutionality is arbitrary or political.
After the constitutional reform of 2001, the doctrine has spoken of a possible extension of constitutional legality, because the new Article 117, first paragraph, of the Constitution allows the principles descendants from European Union law and international conventions of integrate parameters of the constitutional control on the State laws.
The extension of constitutional legality could have its inverse implication in the case some international law violates the fundamental principles of Italian Republican Constitution.
In the contemporary European constitutionalism, that unites various juridical cultures, it appears to be of particular interest the juridical experience of Sweden: one of the most solid and efficient democracies in the world, characterized by an old constitutional tradition and a long absence of a control of constitutionality over state laws. Until recently, all the laws were interpreted by the swedish courts in full compliance and subordination to the will of the historical legislator. Lately, with the entry of Sweden in the European Union, following the recent constitutional reforms and through the introduction of a more stronger “widespread” control of constitutionality, the Swedish courts are gradually changing their traditional interpretation criteria for a more comprehensive and effective protection of human rights.Dottorato di ricerca in Persona, impresa e lavoro: dal diritto interno a quello internazionale (XXVIII ciclo