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Svetimkalbių vaikų produkuojamos sakytinės lietuvių kalbos mokėjimo lygio nustatymas
Full text linkThe Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), widely recognized as one of the most important documents in foreign language teaching, defines the levels of communicative language proficiency. The common points of reference are primarily meant to assist foreign language teachers and test developers striving to adhere to a unified understanding of CEFR levels. Yet it is not uncommon among practitioners to claim a particular level of a task, text or sample of learner performance drawing merely on their individual experience and intuition, with only limited knowledge of the original descriptor scales. The main purpose of this paper is to describe general procedures for relating foreign language tests and learner performances to the CEFR as they are prescribed by the Association of Language Testers in Europe (ALTE). The five stages of the linking process are familiarisation, specification, standardisation training and benchmarking, standard setting and validation. While the full implementaion of the linking process is a complex undertaking mostly applied in the context of high stakes examinations, certain stages of the linking process could be implemented by individual language schools and programmes. Benchmarking is one of such stages. It involves identification of illustrative learner performances for different proficiency levels. This is a stage which also has its relevance in daily teaching practice and could be easily incorporated in routine assessment procedures thus increasing foreign language teachers\u27 awareness of CEFR levels. Therefore the discussion of the formal linking procedures in this paper is followed by a demonstration of an exercise in benchmarking. It is meant to acquaint the Lithuanian readers with the complexity of the linking process and encourage a more principled approach to level allocations. The exercise in alignment with CEFR level decribed here involves L2 spoken Lithuanian produced by five foreign learners of young age. Sample performances were taken from a corpus of L2 Lithuanian compiled within the XXX project. Since the subjects are children of 11–12 years, another important challenge in the alignment with the CEFR is children\u27s maturity and the necessary adaptation of CEFR descriptors for young learners. Qualitative analysis of five learner samples offers a number of insights into practicalities of linking procedures and discusses ways to ensure reliability and objectivity.Svetimųjų kalbų mokymo praktikoje „Bendrieji Europos kalbų metmenys“ (BEKM) yra vienas svarbiausių dokumentų, apibrėžiančių svetimųjų kalbų mokymui(si) ir vertinimui aktualius mokėjimo lygius. Bendrieji kalbos mokėjimo lygių aprašai turėtų padėti svetimųjų kalbų pedagogams ir testų rengėjams laikytis vienodos lygių sampratos. Tačiau aprašų interpretavimas ir gebėjimų aptarčių siejimas su empirine medžiaga, t. y. autentiškos kalbos pavyzdžiais, vis dar kelia nemažai aistrų ir ginčų. Šio straipsnio tikslas – aprašyti kalbos testų ir testų atlikčių siejimo su BEKM žingsnius ir remiantis lietuvių K2 mokinių sakytinės kalbos pavyzdžiais pademonstruoti, kaip nustatomas kalbos mokėjimo lygis. Straipsnyje aptariami įvairūs siejimo proceso aspektai ir faktoriai, leidžiantys užtikrinti BEKM lygių prieskyros patikimumą ir objektyvumą
Ar galime pakartoti tai, ko nesakome antrąja kalba?
Full text linkThe paper analyzes the results of a sentence repetition task performed by Lithuanian L2 speakers of different language proficiency levels. This paper focuses on a set of targeted verb forms included in the task because they are less likely to occur in free production. The different forms the speakers produced are analyzed by considering their correspondence (or not) to the targeted form, by comparing the speakers among each other with respect to their learner variety and by comparing the task results to the repertoire of the same speaker in the free production data. In multiple cases of failed re-production, the analysis examines what the targeted forms were substituted with and tries to identify possible reasons for such substitution. This analysis confirms the general inability of the basic variety speakers to distinguish between morphologically different forms and the dominant trend showing that L2 learners are more meaning-focused than form-focused. The analysis also shows growing implicit knowledge, or at least gradual passive acquisition, of the less frequent forms as the speaker advances in the post-basic continuum. Straipsnyje analizuojama sakinių pakartojimo užduotis, kurią atliko Lietuvoje gyvenantys užsieniečiai. Natūraliai skambančiuose ir prasminguose lietuviškuose sakiniuose buvo įtraukta tokių formų, kurios mažiau tikėtinos spontaninėje negimtakalbių šnekoje. Straipsnyje nagrinėjamos skirtingos veiksmažodžių formos: tiesioginės nuosakos esamojo laiko vienaskaitos ir daugiskaitos antrojo asmens, trečiojo asmens sangrąžinė forma, būtojo kartinio laiko vienaskaitos ir daugiskaitos pirmojo asmens ir trečiojo asmens sangrąžinė forma, būsimojo laiko trečiojo ir daugiskaitos pirmojo asmens, būtojo dažninio laiko vienaskaitos pirmojo ir trečiojo asmens, liepiamosios nuosakos vienaskaitos antrojo asmens, tariamosios nuosakos trečiojo asmens, priešdėlinės bendraties, dalyvio, pusdalyvio ir padalyvio bei sudėtinių laikų. Straipsnyje atsižvelgiama ne tik į tai, ar konkreti forma buvo atkartota, ar ne, bet taip pat nagrinėjama, kuo pakartojant buvo pakeistos tos formos, kurių kalbėtojas negebėjo atkartoti. Tų pačių kalbėtojų šnekos duomenys rinkti platesniam lietuvių kalbos kaip antrosios (K2) tyrimui, todėl straipsnyje užduoties rezultatai lyginami su spontaninės šnekos duomenimis. Analizė patvirtina ankstesniais tyrimais nustatytą lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžio formų įsisavinimo seką, taip pat tai, kad bazinės atmainos kalbėtojai iš esmės nediferencijuoja formų pagal funkciją. Naujai paaiškėjo, kad K2 kalbėtojai naują pradedamą pastebėti formą, kurios funkcija dar jiems nėra visai aiški, pavartoja ten, kur reikia jų kompetenciją pranokstančios formos. Be to, trečiojo asmens formą, kadangi ji lietuvių kalboje vienaskaita ir daugiskaita sutampa ir dėl to yra dažniausia, linkstama įsisavinti kaip pirmą formą ne tik esamajame laike, bet ir kituose tiesioginės nuosakos laikuose. Analizė parodė, kad net ir tokioje ypač į formą nukreiptoje užduotyje kalbėtojai stengiasi perteikti suprastą atkartojamo sakinio prasmę, naudodamiesi savo turimais kalbiniais ištekliais, nors ir nukrypdami nuo tikslios formos. Palyginimas su spontaninės šnekos duomenimis atskleidžia tai, kad dauguma spontaniškai vartojamų, įsisavintų formų kalbėtojai gali atkartoti, o tų, kurių įsavinę nėra – negeba, bet keičia kitomis (paprastesnėmis) formomis iš savo repertuaro. Taip pat pastebėta, kad kai kurios formos, nors ir dažnos kalboje, kelia sunkumų K2 kalbėtojams (pvz., būtųjų laikų vienaskaitos pirmojo asmens), tačiau kai kurios – pusdalyvis ir padalyvis – nors spontaniškai nevartojamos, pobazinės atmainos kalbėtojams yra pakankamai skaidrios ir įmanomos pakartoti
L’évolution sémantique et syntaxique des conjonctions en français : le cas de ains
Full text linkThe present study is part of the current of diachronic research on conjunctions. All linguists confirm that in Old French two opposing conjunctions were used: ains / mais. However, in modern French, only one contrast conjunction provides an opposing connection, namely mais. The reasons for the rapid decline of the ains conjunction are not clear, and the time of its disappearance is not precise. In this article, the author focuses on the semantic analysis of ains from Old French until the 17th century, i.e. until the time where this conjunction passed into archaism and when the Academy declared: “it is old” (Dictionary of the French Academy 1694). The study deals with the specific syntactic uses of the conjunction in question in various literary texts. By referring to descriptive, semantic and functional analyses, it is possible to identify specific features of the ains conjunction, as well as to reveal the conditions under which its disappearance took place. The study is also trying to answer the question why this Old French conjunction, very common in the past, disappeared.L’étude que l’on voudrait présenter ici s’inscrit dans le courant des recherches diachroniques consacrées aux conjonctions. En ancien français, tous les linguistes attestent l’usage courant de deux conjonctions adversatives ains/mais. Mais en français moderne, le lien adversatif n’est assuré que par une seule conjonction adversative, à savoir : mais. Les raisons du déclin rapide de la conjonction ains ne sont pas claires et le temps de sa disparition n’est pas précis non plus. Dans le cadre de cet article, l’auteur focalise son attention sur l’analyse de l’évolution sémantique de ains à partir de l’ancien français jusqu’au XVIIe siècle, c’est-à-dire jusqu’à l’époque où cette conjonction sombre dans l’archaïsme et où l’Académie déclare : “il est vieux” (Dictionnaire de l’Académie française 1694). On propose également l’étude des emplois spécifiques syntaxiques de la conjonction en question dans différents textes littéraires. Le recours aux analyses descriptive, sémantique et fonctionnelle permet de dégager les traits spécifiques de la conjonction ains ainsi que de présenter les conditions dans lesquelles son déclin a eu lieu. On cherche aussi à apporter des éléments de réponse à la question, pourquoi la conjonction, très courante en ancien français, a disparu
Collocation nomino-adjectivale dans la production écrite en FLE
Full text link The acquisition of lexical competence is complex, since it is not enough for learners to distinguish the form and the meaning of a lexical element in order to know how to correctly integrate it into the language context. Learners prefer some lexical combinations to others. Generally speaking, these combinations are determined by usage and by frequency of use in the target language. The question of frequency leads to characterizing the particular cases of co-occurrences as collocations (Anctil, Tremblay 2016). According to Tutin and Grossmann, “one often characterizes collocations by the fact that the meaning is transparent in reception (it is “guessed”), whereas, for a non-native speaker, it is difficult to produce the appropriate lexemes” (Tutin, Grossmann 2002). We will try to verify this statement and define the regularities of lexical combinations in L2 French interlanguage of Lithuanian learners. The aims of this presentation is to take stock of the frequencies and particularities of nomino-adjectival collocations in the written productions of non-native French learners, without claiming to be exhaustive. Thanks to the corpus at our disposal, we have extracted certain characteristics of nomino-adjectival collocations specific to interlanguage. Nomino-adjectival collocations are characterized by the structure (Adj) + N + (Adj) in the corpus. Collocations of the N + Adj type are more frequent than that of the Adj + N type. The corpus also reveals that the combination of words is not always characteristic of the general language. The process of interference and hybridization can be seen as an essential contamination of collocations, both lexically and syntactically. However, partially set phrases, in other words collocations, are an important way of expressing themselves for learner with B1 level. The results of this study demonstrate that the analysis of collocational constructions can reveal the relationship between competence and performance of speakers. This type of data could also form the basis of various scientific approaches relating to teaching and learning of foreign languages.D’après Tutin et Grossmann, « on caractérise souvent les collocations par le fait que le sens est transparent en réception, alors que, pour un locuteur non-natif, il est difficile de produire les lexèmes adéquats » (Tutin, Grossmann 2002). Nous tenterons de vérifier cette affirmation et de définir les régularités des combinaisons lexicales dans l’interlangue du FLE des apprenants lituaniens. Nous nous fixons ainsi comme tâche, sans prétendre à l’exhaustivité, de faire le point sur les fréquences et particularités des collocations nomino-adjectivales dans les productions écrites des apprenants. Le corpus révèle que la combinaison des mots n’est pas toujours typique du français standard. Le processus d’interférence et d’hybridation peut être vu comme une contamination essentielle des collocations, tant au niveau lexical que syntaxique. Cependant, les expressions partiellement figées, autrement dit les collocations, sont un moyen important de s’exprimer pour les élèves en atteinte du niveau B1
Tradicinių aiškinamųjų žodynų antraštyno atnaujinimo būdas
Full text linkIn the paper the method is presented how to update traditional digitalised dictionaries based on comparison of the dictionary lemmas and a big corpus. Hunspell platform is used for generation of all the word forms from the dictionary lemmas. 6th edition of The Dictionary of Modern Lithuanian was chosen for its comparison with the lexical data from The Joint Corpus of Lithuanian. The outcome of the comparison was two lists of non-overlapping lexis: the list of the dictionary lemmas unused in the present-day Lithuanian and the list of the dictionary gaps, i.e., frequently used words and word forms ignored by the dictionary. The latter is discussed in greater detail to give lexicographers a clue for updates. Straipsnyje pristatomas būdas, leidžiantis atnaujinti tradicinius suskaitmenintus žodynus, pasirėmus žodynuose pateiktų lemų palyginimu su dideliuose tekstynuose vartojama leksika. Tokiam lyginimui galimybę suteikia Hunspell platforma, kuri leidžia generuoti visas žodžio formas pagal lemą ir jai priskirtas darybos taisykles. Atlikus Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodyno 6-osios laidos leidimo skaitmeninės versijos lemų analizę ir palyginus ją su Jungtinio lietuvių kalbos tekstyno leksiniais duomenimis, buvo gauti du sąrašai: žodyne pristatytos, bet tekstyne neaptiktos leksikos, ir žodyne nepateiktos, bet tekstyne dažnai vartojamos leksikos. Pastarasis sąrašas pristatomas detaliai tam, kad išryškėtų, kokia leksika turėtų būti papildomi nauji žodyno leidimai
Studentų nuostatos bendrinės lietuvių kalbos ir norminimo atžvilgiu
Full text linkLithuania’s national language policy has been a frequently discussed topic in the broad Lithuanian society over the recent years. Due to this, it has been made known that Lithuania’s national language policy is an issue that is currently significant to various members of the speech community. Understanding how a speech community views and accepts their country’s national language policy is crucial in developing that policy well and having the community embrace it. The aim of the research presented in this article was to assess Lithuanian students’ attitudes towards the country’s current national language policy and the standard Lithuanian language. A qualitative questionnaire, which 125 respondents participated in, was conducted to reach this aim. The analysis of the students’ language attitudes revealed that they tended to view the standard language as highly prestigious and to associate the use of this language variant with socially admirable cognitive qualities (especially with formal education though preconceptions about the personality qualities of such speakers were differentiated, either negative or positive. The students tended to associate the use of non-standard written language forms (colloquially called ‘language mistakes’) with socially unadmirable cognitive qualities (especially a lack of formal education) though they also tended to normalise it and not express strong negative attitudes towards such persons. The students tended to express neutral attitudes towards the current national Lithuanian language standardisation; however, they also named more negative aspects of the current national standardisation practices than positive ones, mainly centered around a perceived dissonance between standard forms and language forms widely used by the speech community, stagnation of national language standardisation processes, as well as excessive or unfunctional translation of foreign terms. The students’ attitudes towards national language standardisation were found to be positively related to their aesthetic attitudes towards the standard language. Positive attitudes regarding the matter were also more prevalent in female research participants and philology students (especially in students of Lithuanian philology). However, the students that had had experience in professional text editing tended to express more negative attitudes. The research presented in this article may be useful in the efforts to improve Lithuania’s national language policy, as well as in the development of further research on the Lithuanian speech community members’ language attitudes.Valstybinė kalbų politika pastaruoju metu yra dažnai visuomenėje aptariama tema, svarbi įvairiems kalbinės bendruomenės nariams. Šiame tyrime siekta nustatyti, kokias nuostatas studentai reiškia bendrinės lietuvių kalbos bei lietuvių kalbos norminimo atžvilgiu, ar jų nuostatos sutampa su viešojoje erdvėje išsakomomis nuostatomis. Tyrime kiekybinės apklausos būdu apklausti 125 studentai. Ištyrus jų nuostatas, paaiškėjo, kad jie linkę suteikti bendrinei lietuvių kalbai aukštą prestižą, o norminimą vertina neutraliai. Tačiau studentai taip pat buvo linkę kritikuoti kai kuriuos norminimo aspektus, pavyzdžiui, jų žodžiais tariant, per didelį skirtumą tarp bendrinės kalbos ir įsitvirtinusios realiosios vartosenos, kalbos norminimo stagnaciją, prastą svetimžodžių lietuvinimą. Pažymėtina, kad filologijos programų studentai buvo linkę norminimą vertinti palankiau, o lietuvių filologijos studentai – dar palankiau. Taip pat išryškėjo, kad studentai, kurie turėjo tekstų redagavimo patirties, norminimą vertino prasčiau
Neišplėtotoji lietuvių vaikų kalba ikimokykliniame ir priešmokykliniame amžiuje: būdvardžio laipsnio kategorijos įsisavinimas
Full text linkThe aim of the study is to examine Lithuanian children’s with developmental language disorder abilities in forming comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives. We report the data from a Sentence Completion Study with 80 Lithuanian children with developmental language disorder (age range 4;6-6;5) and 80 typically developing Lithuanian children (age range 4;6-6;5). For the picture-based comparative and superlative formation task, 30 adjectives were selected to control for the following variables in Lithuanian: obligatory morphonological palatalisation of root-final dentals, the variables syllabic length (bisyllables vs. trisyllables) and underived vs. derived adjectives.The results confirmed our first hypothesis that correct production of both comparatives and superlatives is influenced by several factors: the general length effect, morphological complexity of the adjective (whether derived or not), morphotactic transparency/opacity (opacifying morphonological palatalization). The results confirmed our second hypothesis that Lithuanian children with developmental language disorder faced more difficulties in performing the adjective gradation task than typically developing children. In addition, the results have shown that children’s performance on comparatives was better than on superlatives. The better performance of comparatives could be explained by the fact that the superlative is morphosemantically and morphotactically more marked than the comparative. On the other hand, it could be, according to Layton and Stick’s hypothesis (1979), that the later acquisition of the superlative suffix is due to limitations in cognitive and perceptual abilities, which may be seen as one cause of morphosemantic markedness.Tyrimo tikslas – ištirti 4;6–6;5 metų vaikų, kuriems nustatytas kalbos neišsivystymas, gebėjimą vartoti būdvardžio aukštesniojo ir aukščiausiojo laipsnio formas. Prieš tyrimą buvo iškeltos dvi hipotezės. Pirmoji – lingvistiniai būdvardžio požymiai (morfeminė sudėtis, skiemeninė struktūra, morfonologiniai pokyčiai) lemia laipsnio formų įsisavinimo sunkumus. Antroji – sudėtingesnė morfeminė žodžio sudėtis, keliaskiemenė žodžio struktūra ir morfonologiniai pokyčiai laipsniuojant būdvardžius kelia daugiau problemų vaikams, turintiems kalbos neišsivystymą. Tyrimo rezultatai atskleidė, kad gramatinei laipsnio kategorijai įsisavinti svarbūs visi aptarti lingvistiniai būdvardžio požymiai (morfeminė sudėtis, skiemeninė struktūra, morfonotaktinis skaidrumas) ir kad vaikai, turintys kalbos neišsivystymą, patiria statistiškai reikšmingai daugiau sunkumų, susijusių su minėtomis būdvardžių ypatybėmis
La construction du sens pour les termes en ostéopathie biodynamique dans la pratique de la traduction
Full text linkThis article belongs to the interface of terminology and translation studies and aims to describe the principles of meaning construction in the translation of field-specific terms in biodynamic osteopathy. The central problem of the study presented in this paper deals with identification and analysis of measurable components of meaning of terminological units. The data for the study comprises a corpus of 210 English terms in the field of biodynamic osteopathy translated into French, Italian, Russian and Latvian. Following the analysis of the meanings of the terms through their contextual uses, it is possible to assess other factors that contribute to the content of these units.Methodologically, we built a definition for each term based on its context. Next, we investigated the notion of semantic resonance that is relevant for terminological units derived from general language. The study suggests that even in the field of neology where the concepts are borrowed together with the terms, resonance can vary from one language to another, which, as a consequence, highlights the problem of cross-linguistic equivalence in the translation of texts in this field.Cet article se place à l’interface de la terminologie et de la traductologie afin d’observer des principes de construction du sens pour les termes de l’ostéopathie biodynamique.Après un aperçu théorique, on effectue un examen approfondi de la terminologie biodynamique sur la base d’un corpus de 210 termes en anglais traduit en français, en italien, en russe et en letton.La problématique centrale de cette étude consiste à examiner comment le sens des unités terminologiques est construit et à identifier ses composantes mesurables.En clarifiant le sens des termes à travers leur contexte, on peut par la suite évaluer d’autres facteurs qui contribuent à l’appréciation de ces unités.Méthodologiquement, nous construisons une définition pour chaque terme en nous fondant sur le contexte. Ensuite, nous étudions la notion de résonance sémantique qui survient pour les unités terminologiques issues de la langue générale.On voit que, même dans le domaine de néologie où les concepts sont empruntés conjointement aux termes, la résonance peut varier d’une langue à l’autre, accentuant notamment le problème d’équivalence pour la traduction des textes dans ce domaine
Rédaction technique comme tralangue au profit d’une compétence traductionnelle et productosémique du mot
Full text link In translation and traductology, specialists recognize the undeniable relationship between the act of transiting, technical writing and the meaning of the words. However, considerations regarding the problems presented by culture and realia (untranslatable terms) in particular are frequent. It is at the same time the raison d’etre of translation and the source of difficulties. In other words, building a sense of a word or even producing it in case of a failure in the target language is not easy, but is this exercise impossible? If not, what should be done to overcome these pitfalls and cultural difficulties for realia via a translation operation in general and a legal one in particular? Answers to these questions can be found in a proposal entailing a strategic approach, calling on four major factors that the “trauthor” should take into account for the production of the meaning of a word. Finally, a reflection on said factors is made to access the process of ways of teaching for the production of word meaning. En matière de traduction et de traductologie, les plus grands spécialistes en la matière s’accordent pour reconnaitre une indéniable relation entre l’acte de traduire, rédaction technique et le sens des mots. Cependant les considérations sur les problèmes que pose la culture et notamment certains realia (termes intraduisibles) en arabe juridique sont fréquentes : c’est à la fois la raison d’être de la traduction et la source des difficultés qu’elle comporte. Ceci dit, construire le sens d’un mot ou encore le produire en cas de défaillance en langue cible n’est pas facile, mais cet exercice, est-il impossible ? Si ce n’est pas le cas, que faudrait-il faire pour surmonter les écueils et les difficultés d’ordre culturel pour des realia de par une opération de traduction en général et celle du juridique en particulier ? Des éléments de réponses à ces questions pourront se trouver dans une proposition concrète, consistant en une démarche stratégique faisant appel à quatre facteurs majeurs dont le trauteur doit tenir compte pour l’opération de production de sens d’un mot. L’article se termine par une réflexion sur lesdits facteurs pour accéder au parcours d’une piste didactique au profit de la production du sens d’un mot