Respectus Philologicus
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Fundamentalizm językowy
No full textThe term fundamentalism was first used in 1910 in the United States with reference to the American Protestants who had literal understanding of the Bible and rejected the theory of evolution. The term fundamentalism can be as well used to denote extreme orthodox attitudes to language, which are characterised by the irrational, radical, strictly emotional approach to linguistic phenomena. Such phenomena are not analysed sine ira et studio, and the authors of normative verdicts have insufficient knowledge of linguistics. It is about the purist attitudes (nationalist, orthodox, egocentric, elitist), perfectionism and applications of logics to the language.Even though emotional and very subjective attitudes to the language phenomena can be partly justified if they are represented by the average users of the Polish language, it is hard to find justification of it when it comes to linguists. Each science (including linguistics) should strive to rationally recognise and describe the reality, and the linguists’ objective is to make efforts to find the judgements about language which are logically strict and methodologically justified.„Człowiek jest nie tyle zwierzęciem racjonalnym, ile raczej zwierzęciem ideologicznym”. Karl Popper
„Prawda, którą żyję, jest prawdą tylko dzięki temu, że się z nią utożsamiam”. Karl Jaspers
„Człowiek z powodu słabości intelektu i braku prawości moralnej jest zmuszony do wybierania rozwiązań skrajnych”. Stefan SwieżawskiArtykuł jest poświęcony analizie ortodoksyjnych postaw wobec języka, które można określić jako fundamentalistyczne. Termin „fundamentalizm” został użyty po raz pierwszy w 1910 roku w Stanach Zjednoczonych na określenie amerykańskich protestantów, którzy rozumieli Biblię dosłownie i odrzucali teorię ewolucji. Jednak na gruncie polskim jest pojęciem stosunkowo nowym. Nie notują go słowniki języka polskiego aż do początku lat 90. XX wieku. Rzeczownik „fundamentalizm” prawdopodobnie po raz pierwszy pojawia się w suplemencie do „Słownika języka polskiego” pod redakcją Mieczysława Szymczaka. Postawy fundamentalistyczne wobec języka charakteryzują się nieracjonalnym, radykalnym, wyłącznie emocjonalnym stosunkiem do zjawisk językowych. Zjawiska te nie są rozpatrywane sine ira et studio, a autorzy werdyktów normatywnych nie mają wystarczającej wiedzy językoznawczej. Należy tu zaliczyć postawy purystyczne (nacjonalistyczne, tradycjonalistyczne, egocentryczne, elitarne) oraz perfekcjonizm i logizowanie w języku. O ile emocjonalny i bardzo subiektywny stosunek do zjawisk językowych można częściowo usprawiedliwić, jeśli dotyczy on przeciętnych użytkowników polszczyzny, o tyle trudno tak postąpić w odniesieniu do językoznawców. Zadaniem każdej nauki (w tym językoznawstwa) jest racjonalne poznawanie i opisywanie rzeczywistości, a językoznawcy powinni dążyć do wypracowania logicznie ścisłych i metodologicznie uzasadnionych sądów na temat języka
Antikinė „lengvoji poezija“: epigramos ypatumai
No full textThe main literary genres were formed in the ancient literature. Aristotle in his Poetic identifies three “modes” of narration: epic, lyric and drama, and defines the differences between them. The article deals with one of them, i.e., the ancient lyric, specifically, the epigrammatic poetry. In the title described as “simple” poetry, it may sound odd, ambiguous, but as well intriguing, because it reflects poets and audience’s communication, while the investigator’s perspective provides the opportunity to reason about serious and “other” forms of poetry; the features are better seen in the comparison. The opposition has been discussed by the ancient poets. As an example serves the epigrammatic poetry of Marcus Valerius Martialis, the Roman poet of the 1st century. The poet discusses his object, i.e., epigram, as a form of poetry. He became the example for all the later poetics describing the main features of an ideal epigram. Reading the best examples, it is possible to easily perceive the basic requirements of the epigram: a short form exposure to real life, simple, true-life subject and simple, unsophisticated, even obscene language, and the most important is argutia (the verbal trickery), which creates the wit, which is hidden in the last words of the poem.Jau antikinėje literatūroje susiformavo pagrindiniai literatūros žanrai. Pirmą kartą jie buvo konceptualizuoti Aristotelio „Poetikoje“, išskirti trys pagrindiniai: epas, lyrika, drama. Straipsnyje paliečiamas vienas jų – antikinė lyrika (poezija), akcentuojamos smulkiosios poezijos formos, konkrečiau – epigramos žanras. Apibūdinimas „lengvoji poezija“, pasirinktas pavadinimui, skamba neįprastai, šiek tiek dviprasmiškai (plg. lengvoji muzika), bet ir intriguoja, nes iš vienos pusės atspindi pačių poetų ir auditorijos santykį su šiomis poezijos formomis, o iš tyrėjo perspektyvos suteikia progą samprotauti apie rimtosios ir „kitokios“ poezijos žanrų įvairovę, apie opoziciją, kurią nuolat reflektavo antikos, ypač romėnų, poetai. Opozicija padeda identifikuoti epigramai bei kitiems mažosios poezijos žanrams būdingus bruožus, ypatumus: juk daug ką atrandame per lyginimą ir opozicijas, antinomijas. Epigramos žanro ypatumai pirmiausia atskleidžiami skaitant žymiausio romėnų epigramų poeto Marcialio, kuris sąmoningai apsisprendė kurti tik epigramas ir kurio visas poetinis palikimas pasiekė mūsų laikus, poeziją
Don Juan: the Discourse of Seduction as an Exercise of Power
No full textThe figure of Don Juan that emerged in Spanish baroque synthesised several important cultural issues related to the phenomenon of seduction, a subject of great social controversy since the very beginning of the Christian era. The present article analyses one of the fundamental parts of the universal appeal of the Don Juan figure – the discourse of seduction, considering it from the social and cultural point of view. The traditional discussion of the subject focuses on the contents of the discourse whereas the present article emphasises the implications rather than the contents, grounding its arguments on Jean Baudrillard’s theory of seduction, which claims that it is the signs and the play of signs that are important in seduction, not their meanings. The seduction discourse is seen as a means to exercise power on the women that Don Juan deals with as well as on the audience who gets involved into the discourse creation process. The article concludes with a claim that Don Juan is a figure of social domination, and his discourse is a means to achieve it
Tautinės tapatybės (re)konstravimas XX a. pab. tautinio atgimimo laikotarpio lietuvių ir latvių literatūrinėje spaudoje
No full textThe present article, exploring the texts from Lithuanian literary weekly ‘Literatūra ir menas’, monthly ‘Pergalė/Metai’ and Latvian ‘Literatūra un Māksla’ and ‘Karogs’ of the years 1988–1992, discusses and compares the most representative episodes of (self)reflection, the changes and continuity of national identity during the time. It is shown, how collective memory, (re)created by rituals of communicative memory, participates in the (re)construction of national identity as well as tendencies of heroisation and mythologisation, cases of deconstruction, demythologisation (Suodumas, Gavelis). It is claimed that canonical impersonate expression forms of nationality and national heroes (Lačplėsis, Rainis), i.e. general cultural universals, expressions of national ideals dominate in Latvian reflections. The pantheon of individual national heroes is more fragmented and scattered in Lithuanian reflections and participates in communicative memory more passively than in Latvian. But here self-reflection and representation of exiles as collective national heroes is much more intensiveStraipsnyje, remiantis 1988–1992-ųjų metų lietuvių literatūrinio savaitraščio Literatūra ir menas, mėnraščio Pergalė (nuo 1991 m. – Metai) bei jiems analogiškų latvių Literatūra un Māksla ir Karogs tekstais, aptariami ir gretinami būdingiausi lietuvių bei latvių to meto tautinės savirefleksijos epizodai, tautinės tapatybės kaitos ir tęstinumo judesiai. Parodoma, kaip tautinės tapatybės (re)konstravime dalyvauja komunikaciniais atminties ritualais (at)kuriama kolektyvinė atmintis. Tekstų pavyzdžiais iliustruojamos herojizavimo ir mitologizavimo tendencijos, dekonstravimo, demitologizavimo atvejai (Dzintaras Suodumas, Ričardas Gavelis). Teigiama, kad latvių refleksijose dominuoja kanoninės įasmenintos tautiškumo raiškos formos, individualizuoti tautiniai herojai (Lačplėsis, Rainis) – visuotini kultūriniai universumai, tautinių idealų išraiškos. Lietuvių refleksijose individualių tautinių herojų „panteonas“ fragmentiškesnis, labiau išsiskaidęs ir komunikacinėje atmintyje dalyvauja pasyviau nei latvių. Tačiau lietuvių spaudoje pastebima žymiai intensyvesnė tremtinių-kolektyvinio tautinio herojaus savirefleksija ir reprezentacija
The Socialist Youth Union (1957–1976) – Polish Counterpart of Komsomol
No full textThe political system of the Polish People’s Republic was modelled on the Soviet one. Polish youth organizations had the ambitions of being counterparts of Komsomol: they adopted similar work methods and tried to play a similar role in the country. The obvious differences resulted from the specificity of each country and the differences in the societies. The most deeply rooted in the memory of Poles is the Socialist Youth Union, which, being the most stable, existed for almost 20 years with nearly 1.3 million members in the early 1970s. The Union was closely connected with the Polish United Workers’ Party and it had to accomplish two main kinds of political task: to select and prepare future members of the Party, both ordinary and those in the managerial positions, and to educate the whole young generation. The Party indeed treated the organization as its agency, an office dealing with the affairs of youths. However, non-political activity of the Union (culture, entertainment, tourism, etc.) was much more effective and evaluated more positively. Actually, there was much more falsehood in the Union: many members were almost completely passive and the work was often only simulated
Socjologia a warsztat naukowy historyka. Przykład etnometodologii
No full textThe article is taking issues of the social science methodology (with particular reference to sociology, with ethnomethodology at the head) in the context of the historical research methodology. Each of the social sciences developed its own methodology that is appropriate, according to the taken research problems. However, the dialogue between these special sciences turns out to be necessary, because people are making interpretations of sources that are staying in a specific place and time and various circumstances that are accompanying them. It is probably similar to the time when those sources arose. Thus, the analysis of the source material, irrespectively to its date of coming into existence, that it would be reliable must run at various levels, including the methodology and achievements of the so-called social sciences, amongst which, from a point of view of the historian, sociology will be playing a significant role. However, ethnomethodology, which is inspecting mechanisms “making reality shared”, offers to historians a wide range of research methods, which can expand the methodology of historical research.Artykuł podejmuje kwestię metodologii nauk społecznych (ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem socjologii, z etnometodologią na czele) w kontekście warsztatu naukowego historyka. Każda z nauk społecznych wypracowała własną metodologię, adekwatną do podejmowanych problemów badawczych. Jednakże dialog tych szczególnych nauk, jak się okazuje, jest konieczny, bowiem interpretacji źródeł dokonują ludzie przebywający w konkretnym miejscu i czasie, a towarzyszą temu rozmaite okoliczności. Podobnie zapewne było wówczas, gdy owe źródła powstawały. Zatem analiza materiału źródłowego, bez względu na jego datację, aby była rzetelna, musi przebiegać wielopłaszczyznowo, z uwzględnieniem metodologii i osiągnięć tzw. nauk społecznych, pośród których, z punktu widzenia historyka, socjologia będzie miała szczególne znaczenie. Etnometodologia natomiast, badając mechanizmy „uwspólniania rzeczywistości” oferuje historykom szeroki wachlarz metod badawczych, które mogą znacznie wzbogacić warsztat naukowy historyka
Veliuonos apylinkių pravardžių semantikos ypatumai: pirminės pravardės
No full textThe article focuses on the analysis of 425 primary nicknames recorded in Veliuona vicinity aiming to deduce their most common semantic features. The semantics of nicknames, their origins and common connotations are examined in greater detail. When analysing nickname semantics, the motives for nickname attribution and dictionary definitions are taken into account.Examining nicknames semantically, first of all, the basis for nickname derivation is determined, i.e., a proper word meaning the name of an individual object or an appellative meaning, the generalised name of an object. Further on, the nicknames are classified into smaller semantic groups. The research has disclosed that the greater group of nicknames is comprised of appellatives, which stand for a generalised name of an object (339 nicknames, 79.8 per cent), while nicknames made of proper names constitute the smaller group (86 nicknames, 20.2 per cent).The analysis of nickname semantics has detected semantic groups, which reflect the system of forming primary nicknames in Veliuona vicinity.The semantic classification of primary nicknames proposed in the article is in principle new with reference to Vanagas classification scheme of hydronym semantics; therefore, it is open for discussion, improvement and complementation.Straipsnyje analizuojamos Veliuonos apylinkėse užrašytos 425 pirminės pravardės, siekiant nustatyti būdinguosius semantikos bruožus. Nuosekliau nagrinėjama pravardžių semantika, nustatoma kilmė, svarbiausios konotacijos. Analizuojant pravardžių semantiką atsižvelgiama į pravardžių teikimo motyvus ir žodyninę definiciją. Semantiškai analizuojant pravardes pirmiausia nustatomas pravardžių sudarymo pagrindas – tikrinis žodis, reiškiantis individualų daikto vardą, arba apeliatyvas, reiškiantis apibendrintą daikto vardą. Toliau pravardės skirstomos į smulkesnes semantines grupes. Tyrimas atskleidė, kad gausesnę grupę sudaro pravardės, kurių pagrindas yra apeliatyvas, mažesnę – pravardės, kurių pagrindas – tikrinis žodis. Pravardžių semantikos analizė atskleidė semantines grupes, atspindinčias Veliuonos apylinkėse užrašytų pirminių pravardžių formavimosi sistemą. Straipsnyje pateikta pirminių pravardžių semantinė klasifikacija iš principo nauja, daugiausia besiremianti A. Vanago sudarytu hidronimų semantikos klasifikacijos schema, todėl gali būti tobulinama, pildoma, diskutuojama
Контекстуальная семантика заглавия романа Михаила Шишкина «Взятие Измаила»
No full textThe article deals with the interconnections between the title and context of Michail Shishkin’s novel “The Capture of Izmail”. Such concepts as “chronotopos”, “truth”, “time”, “moment of time” and “historical trauma” are examined in interrelation, too. A precedent text, “The Capture of Izmail” is looked upon symbolically, like a huge historical deception. Instead of relying on well-known historical landmarks or widely reported cataclysms, Shishkin puts forward a new set of patterns; citing A. Etkind, this is “not a history of events, but a history of humans and texts in their mutual interaction”, – that is, an approach qualified in American literary theory as the new historicism.In the novel’s context, the fact of Izmail’s capture designates a new vector of history understanding, both private and common. When a photographer uses cliché “Say cheese!”, the person is supposed to smile, and this alleged smile appears as a symbol of falsehood which became a norm both in society and in history. According to Shishkin, time should be counted by its moments consisting of personal facts, names and places. Perhaps, that is the way to get rid of historical traumas and, applying Etkind’s metaphor about “the crooked grief”, to straighten it so that the grief would be merged into a “solid state”. Russia, Shishkin seems to believe, stands in need to apply this very approach to history understanding.В статье рассмотрена взаимосвязь заглавия романа Михаила Шишкина Взятие Измаилас контекстом произведения, хронотопом, концептами «правда», «время», «мгновение», «историческая травма». Прецедентный текст «Взятие Измаила» предстает в новом символическом звучании – как большой исторический обман. Взамен ему писатель предлагает иную историческую матрицу: это не вехи, не катаклизмы, известные в историческом дискурсе; это, по словам А. Эткинда, «история не событий, но людей и текстов в их отношении друг к другу», что в американской филологии названо новым историзмом.
Взятие Измаила в контексте романа становится обозначением нового вектора осмысления истории, как частной, так и общей. В основе «нового историзма», вопреки клишированности исторических и социальных посылов, лежит только отдельное, только индивидуальное видение события. А слово сыр, предлагаемое фотографом для произнесения своим объектам, и случающаяся в ходе этого трю- ка якобы улыбка – это символ фальши, ставшей нормой как в социуме, так и в истории. Возможно, только так избывается историческая травма и только так (используем метафорику Эткинда о «кривом горе») горе выпрямляется и обретает «твердое» состояние
Conceptual Metaphors in British Foreign Secretary’s Twitter Discourse Involving Ukraine
No full textThis article presents a qualitative study of conceptual metaphors identified in Twitter discourse involving Ukraine by the current British Foreign Secretary Phillip Hammond. The study further described in this article involves a corpus of Hammond’s tweets associated with Ukraine, which is subsequently juxtaposed with Hammond’s online articles and speeches involving Ukraine in order to elucidate whether or not there are Twitter-specific conceptual metaphors in Hammond’s Twitter discourse associated with Ukraine. The results of the data analysis reveal that Hammond’s short messages on Twitter, or tweets, associated with Ukraine are embedded in conceptual metaphors ‘Ukraine’s future EU Membership as a Journey’, ‘UK as a Nurturant Parent’, ‘EU as a Nurturant Parent’, ‘Country as a Friend Helping Ukraine’ and ‘Russia as the EU’s OTHER’. Identical conceptual metaphors have been found in Hammond’s online non-Twitter discourse involving Ukraine. These findings are further presented and discussed in the article