Archaeologia Lituana
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Даугмале и Даугавский путь. К проблеме образования городов
Get PDFDauguvos žemupio gyvenviečių analizė parodė, kad nėra vienintelio atsakymo į klausimą apie gyvenviečių peraugimą į miestus. Tačiau vienas reikšmingiausių šio vyksmo faktorių yra politinė valdžia. Jis smarkiai veikė Daugmalės ir Gnezdovo gyvenviečių egzistavimą.Galima išskirti keletą Dauguvos žemupio miestų raidos etapų. Pirmiausia čia, kaip ir šiaurės rytų Europoje, tik kiek vėliau, centrų raidai lemiamą reikšmę turėjo užsienio prekyba ir su ja susiję amatai. Kartu su miesto tipo gyvenvietėmis dėl vidaus raidos atsirado ir senieji miestai, kuriuose vyravo valstybinių struktūrų ir politinės valdžios interesai. Dalis išvardytų centrų turėjo visas galimybes tapti miestais. Tačiau tai neįvyko, nes natūrali raida buvo dirbtinai nutraukta
Senųjų žemdirbystės laukų tyrinėjimai šiaurės vakarų Lietuvoje
Get PDFThe emergence and development of farming is one of the main archaeological problems.The development stage of farming is displayed by the fossil fields distributed all over Lithuania. They are signified by stone cairns, stone walls and baulks, mostly preserved in forests situated close to water bodies. Many of these sites were destroyed during the Land Reform and land amelioration carried out during the soviet times. Even today, demolition of cairns and stone baulks continues, as forests are felled, arable lands expand and stones are gathered for building activities. The majority of fossil fields have survived in north-western Lithuania, Kretinga and Skuodas districts.Investigation of the old fossil fields provides information about the size of these fields, the territories they occupy, their types and the cultures which were cultivated. These sites are of key importance as regards reconstruction of the early economic system, the settlement network and even the model of the social structure of the society.In Lithuania, investigations of fossil fields started right before the Second World War and since then have been conducted until today with quite long interruptions.The present article surveys the investigation stages of fossil fields in north-western Lithuania, the main problems, specificity and the most important sites which were investigated.Investigations of the ancient fields can be divided into three main stages.Stage I started in the late thirties and ended in the beginning of the eighties of the 20th century. During this stage, more than 20 of these objects were found and described. Some of these were measured, and small-scale archaeological excavations were conducted in a number of sites. At that time the function of these objects was not conceived yet. They were considered to be either burial or other archaeological sites of obscure function.Stage II started in the beginning of the eighties and ended in late nineties of the 20th century. In the beginning of this stage the function of these objects was established and publicised. Small-scale archaeological excavations were carried out as well.Stage III started in late nineties of the 20th century. During this stage, international and interdisciplinary investigations of fossil fields were launched. A number of new fossil fields were found, some of which were situated close to other archaeological sites. Consequently, archaeological complexes were defined.In the thirties of the 20th century Ignas Jablonskis was the first to draw attention to stone cairns and baulks. He first noticed cairns in 1938 in the communal pastures of Tauzai village (Skuodas district). That same year I. Jablonskis informed the Cultural Museum of Vytautas the Great about a “cremation cemetery” found at Tauzai. In his letter he writes that one grave was uncovered and charcoal with ashes were found in the depth of about 0.5 m, including the grave paving. That same year I. Jablonskis mapped the Tauzai stone cairns. He identified the cairns as burial mounds. In 1939 I. Jablonskis found three further sites of this type in Padvariai, Kluonaliai and Šlaveitai. That same year he measured the fossil fields at Padvariai and Budriai. He used a theodolite to draft the plans. In 1939 I. Jablonskis published an article in “Lietuvos aidas” which voiced concern over devastation of archaeological sites, including the objects under consideration.Before the war, in the late thirties and the beginning of the forties a Land Reform was carried out and farmers were intensively preparing land lots for cultivation which resulted in destruction of archaeological sites. With a view to preservation or at least documentation of these sites, I. Jablonskis wrote letters to the Cultural Museum of Vytautas the Great informing about the matter. The Museum administration was not indifferent to the problem. Director of the Museum P. Galaunė appealed to the Governor of Kretinga County regarding measuring and protection of the sites. Worker of the Museum Pranas Baleniūnas was sent out to western Lithuania. From 1939 to 1941 he conducted archaeological investigations in the area. Along with other archaeological sites found and described in his report were stone cairns, most commonly located in communal pastures of a number of villages. He interpreted cairns as burial mounds or “just some monuments”. He carried out small-scale archaeological excavations at some of these sites. In 1939 P. Baleniūnas excavated 4 stone cairns in the communal pastures of Tauzai. During the excavations no other finds apart from charcoal were recovered. In 1940 he excavated 5 cairns at the village of Medšarkė and found charcoal as weil as burnt clay. The largest number, i. e. 10 cairns, excavated by P. Baleniūnas were located at Erlėnai. These were constructed from stones of different size. P. Baleniūnas noticed that they had the same structure with a big stone in the centre, covered up with smaller stones of different size. No other finds apart from charcoal were found. The data about cairns presented by P. Baleniūnas is particularly important as most of them were completely destroyed or badly demolished soon after.Before the Second World War, in the process of destruction of cairns and baulks farmers most often found charcoal, though other finds also occurred. A stone axe was found during destruction of a stone baulk in Padvariai. A further stone axe was found together with charcoal under a cairn in the area of Padvariai. Stone axes were also found in other fossil fields such as Kluonaliai and Tinteliai.After the War, in 1948, the Institute of History organized the first archaeological survey which included examination of stone cairns. One cairn was investigated at the village of Tauzai. No archaeological finds were recovered. As no archaeological finds, except charcoal, were being recovered, the interest in these sites faded. After the War, I. Jablonskis was the only one researcher who continued prospecting, surveying. investigation and mapping of these sites in northwestern Lithuania. He was gathering data about the ancient fields though he did not yet realise their function. In 1964 and 1965 I. Jablonskis found cairns at Kašučiai village (Kretinga District), dose to the Kašučiai lake. They were situated in three large groups on the eastern side of the lake. He mapped these later on. In 1980 I. Jablonskis found the Kašučiai cairns, baulks and stone walls. In 1981 he mapped them and excavated one cairn, namely cairn 12. It is located on the left bank of the Akmena River, in the forest of Kašučiai village. During the survey and excavation of Auksūdis Kūliai mound in 1974, he found cairns as weil. According to I. Jablonskis, there were cairns both inside and outside the mound. They were especially numerous in the western part of the Pilalė forest. I. Jablonskis offered a hypothesis that the Kūliai mound was a prehistoric fortified settlement and the cairns were related to it.The end of the first investigation stage and the beginning of the second stage are associated with the clarification of the functions of cairns and baulks. In 1976–1978, during amelioration of fields in Padvariai village, on the left bank of the Akmena River, “a partly burnt rod paving along with surviving cairns and baulks” were found. When I. Jablonskis found this site, he realised that cairns and baulks signified the places of early fanning. He was the first to give a correct interpretation of these objects. In his report of 1981 I. Jablonskis presented data on a number of fossil fields and for the first time dearly articulated that cairns and baulks were remnants of the early agricultural fields. He published these conclusions in the “Mokslas ir gyvenimas” (Science and Life) journal in 1983. As the function of these objects was established, the second investigation stage commenced. This stage is mostly associated with the name of I. Jablonskis as weil. A number of new objects were found during this stage as weil, some of these were excavated and mapped. Isolated articles were published with references to cairns as unquestionable remnants of the ancient agricultural fields. In 1986 I. Jablonskis excavated the Senkai cemetery (Kretinga district) and found a cairn in its territory. Its northern part was investigated. During excavations a layer of sizeable charcoal was found in the depth of 0.5 m.At the end of stage II, in the nineties, fossil fields attracted the interest of the Department of Archaeology of Vilnius University. Literature on the subject was gathered, including Lithuanian, Estonian and Scandinavian publications. During visits to Sweden archaeological sites of the type were examined together with other objects. In the late nineties a decision was made to conduct archaeological investigations of the ancient fields. In 1999 a group of students from the Department of Archaeology of Vilnius University, accompanied by Head of the Division of History of Kretinga Museum and directed by Algimantas Merkevičius made a study trip to Kretinga during which the archaeological sites located in the district were examined. During the excursion fossil fields were also surveyed. The Kašučiai fossil fields were once again surveyed in November 2000 together with Estonian archaeologists Marge Konsa and Valter Lang, who has been investigating such sites in his country for about 10 years. It was then that a decision was made to carry out joint archaeological investigations of these objects with participation of Vilnius and Tartu Universities and Kretinga Museum. The investigations started in spring 2001. Fossil fields in Kretinga and Skuodas districts were surveyed, the Kašučiai cairns and stone walls were excavated and mapped. On the latter site, a trench measuring 6 x 2 m was excavated across the stone wall. The excavations revealed that the wall had been 6m wide and 0.50–0.53 m high. Excavations at the wall yielded 4 silver coins, Dutch thalers, which have nothing to do with the construction of the wall. The expedition of Vilnius and Tartu Universities, and Kretinga museum continued investigations of the fossil fields in autumn 2001. At that time mapping and excavation of the Kašučiai cairns and baulks, located dose to the Kašučiai lake, started. A trench of 5 x 1 m was excavated here across one baulk. The excavations established that the baulk had been 3.7 m wide and up to 0.47 m high. The investigation and mapping of this site continued in spring 2002 during the third international expedition of the institutions mentioned above. At that time a new site was found and mapped, i. e. the Padvariai fossil fields, situated about 300 m eastwards of the left bank of the Akmena River, in a small forest. These fields are quite regular, mostly rectangular in shape, encircled with stone and earth baulks. In archaeological literature they are called the Celtic fields.In autumn 2001, the Department of Archaeology of Vilnius University in association with the Institute of Geology and Geography, and the Museum of Kretinga prepared a project on “The Early Agricultural Field Systems in Western Lithuania” which was submitted to the Lithuanian State Science and Studies Fund. In spring 2002 the Fund assigned financing for the realization of the project. In 2002 the international investigations of the ancient fields in northwestern Lithuania developed into interdisciplinary investigations. In June 2002, thanks to the financial support from the Lithuanian State Science and Studies Fund, archaeological excavations were launched at the fossil fields found and mapped at Padvariai earlier that spring. During these investigations, a trench of 20 sq m was excavated across one of the baulks. It was established that the baulk had been 5.5 m wide. Charcoal was found under the baulk and submitted for radiocarbon dating.In March and September 2002 the executors of the project collected data on fossil fields in Estonia and Sweden respectively. Some fossil fields were surveyed.On 8–9 October 2002 the third international conference “In Honour of Jonas Puzinas” was arranged in Vilnius. A paper on “Investigation of fossil fields in Lithuania” was delivered at the conference. In the second half of October that year, the Department of Archaeology of Vilnius University in association with Kretinga Museum surveyed the fossil fields in Kretinga and Skuodas districts. Researchers from the Institute of Geology and Geography took part in the expedition as well. They took samples for further macro and micro botanical analysis from the boggy lake of Kašučiai. During the expedition most of the ancient fields mentioned in archaeological sources were surveyed. In almost all the fields cairns, stone walls and baulks were found, though reports indicate that these objects had been demolished. During the survey, fossil fields not mentioned in archaeological sources were also found, including Senkai, Tūbausiai (Kretinga district) and others. The discovered remains of fields were commonly located in forests.The ancient fields were indisputably an integral part of settlements in the broad sense. Arable fields and pastures were set up close to settlements. Burial sites, hillforts and settlements as well as fossil fields have been found in northwestern Lithuania, but they were isolated objects. After the last archaeological field walking expedition in autumn 2002, a number of complex archaeological sites, comprising settlements, burial sites and fossil fields were defined.Complex and interdisciplinary investigations will establish the chronological framework of separate field types and their relationship with other archaeological objects, as well as other issues related to this subject
Микрорегион эпохи римского влияния вокруг озера Салент
Get PDFRomėniškosios įtakos laikotarpio paminklų apie Salento ežerą (Mozūrų ežerų sritis) tyrinėjimus dar 1949 m. pradėjo Jerzy Antoniewiczius. Vėliau tyrė Varšuvos universiteto Archeologijos instituto ekspedicijos, daugiausia vadovaujamos Jerzy Okulicziaus ir Wojciecho Nowakowskio. Šių tyrinėjimų melu buvo visiškai ištirtas degintinis kapinynas (Wyszembork, objektas IVa) ir surasta keletas kapinynui gretimų gyvenviečių.Tyrinėjimų rezultatų analizė parodė, kad čia yra Bogaczewo kultūros gyvenamasis mikroregionas, datuojamas nuo ankstyvojo romėniškojo laikotarpio baigiamojo etapo. Mikroregionas buvo apgyvendintas nedidelės žmonių grupės, kurioje ankstyvuoju romėniškuoju laikotarpiu buvo iki 13 asmenų. Vėlyvuoju romėniškuoju laikotarpiu grupė padidėjo iki 27–28 asmenų, turint galvoje, kad jų vidutinė gyvenimo trukmė buvo apie 25–26 metus. Tai gali patvirtinti ankstesnę prielaidą, kad tai buvo plačiai suprantama giminė. Pateikti duomenys remiasi kapinyno kapų chronologine analize ir osteologinės medžiagos tyrimais.Ankstyvuoju romėniškosios įtakos laikotarpiu ši bendruomenė tikriausiai gyveno tik vienoje gyvenvietėje, o po keliasdešimties metų persikeldavo į kitą tinkamą vietą. Pradžioje tai buvo objektas I, vėliau V Wyszemborke. Nedidelio masto šių vietų tyrinėjimai neleidžia tiksliau nusakyti gyvenviečių pobūdžio. Nelabai aiški vėlyvojo romėniškojo laikotarpio gyvenviečių lokalizacija ir jų apgyvendinimo būdas. Atrodo, kad šiam laikotarpiui priklauso paminklai Popow Salęcki ir Wyszembork VI, aptikti paviršinių tyrinėjimų metu. Per visą mikroregiono egzistavimo laikotarpi bendruomenė turėjo tik vieną kapinyną.Salento ežero regionas buvo apgyvendintas jau ankstesniu laikotarpiu – ankstyvajame geležies amžiuje. Ten galėjo įsikurti vakarinių baltų pilkapių kultūros gyventojai, o vėlesniu tautų kraustymosi laikotarpiu – Olsztyno grupės gyventojai. Bogaczewo kultūroje ryškesni pirmojo apgyvendinimo pėdsakai, tuo tarpu tautų kraustymosi laikotarpio nėra tokie ryškūs.Atrodo, kad Salento ežero mikroregioną galima laikyti tam tikru pagrindiniu romėniškojo laikotarpio Bogaczewo kultūros vakarinės dalies apgyvendinimo modeliu. Tačiau palyginamosios medžiagos iš kitų gyvenviečių grupių trūkumas neleidžia visiškai patvirtinti šio teiginio
Lenkų archeologų diskusijos slavų etnogenezės klausimu būklė
No full textPer pastaruosius penkiolika metų Lenkijoje vėl pagyvėjo ginčai dėl pirmųjų slaviškų gyvenviečių. Pasirodė gana daug archeologijos srities publikacijų, beje, labai nevienodos vertės, suorganizuota keletas įdomių diskusinių susitikimų.Pasisakymuose galima pažymėti dvi pagrindines kryptis. Pirmoji, remdamasi archeologiniais ir istoriniais šaltiniais, pripažįsta, kad tezė apie slavų autochtoniškumą Oderio ir Vyslos baseinuose yra labai menkai argumentuota. Kartu aptariama kryptis šios etninės grupės šaknų ieško vidurinėje ir aukštutinėje Padneprėje. Kita kryptis remiasi teoriniais samprotavimais (vadovaujamasi kultūros antropologų nuomone), pagal kuriuos kasinėjimų duomenys ir rašytiniai VI–VII m. e. a. šaltiniai neduoda pagrindo kalbėti slavų etnogenezės tema. Reikia pagaliau paminėti ir paramokslinius pasisakymus, kurių emocionalus santykis su šia labai sena problema išeina už normalios dalykiškos diskusijos ribų
Valstybės gimimas ir mirusiųjų deginimo paprotys (Mirusiųjų deginimo tradicijos rytų Lietuvoje problematika dr. G. Zabielos straipsnyje “Laidosena pagoniškoje Lietuvoje”)
Get PDFVII a. pirmosios pusės karys iš Lazdininkų (Kalnalaukio)
Get PDFRich warrior grave 73 was found in the south–eastern part of the cemetery within excavations of 2000 (KrM LS 2561/196–215). Diseased persons was buried in a grave pit which has measures of 275 x 54 cm and was deep of 86 cm. Diseased individual was put into the hollowed – out log coffin and buried at the beginning of the summer. About the time of bury possible to know from ripening of a maple seed (Acer platanoides). Maple seed was found between belt plates. Enough big parts of the hollowed – out log coffin was discovered in preparation of the grave 73 in the deep of 60–65 cm. From a skeleton of diseased person survived only upper part of death’s head, fragment of upper maxilla and two teeth. From the other parts of the skeleton was found fragments of femur skin – bone and bones of the left hand. The burial posture of the diseased person permit to maintain that head of individual was orientated to north–west (280°). Diseased individual was buried in extended position, right hand was put on the breast of the buried individual; left hand was extended (fig. 1). At Lazdininkai grave 73 was buried individual about 20–25 years old, according to the grave goods male. In was mentioned that it has been tried to disentomb the burial. Phenomenon of such disentombing is not clear enough.Traces of bronze drinking horn orifice binding and the remains of the clay pot miniature were found in the end of hollowed – out log coffin above the head of the buried individual, in the left side (fig. 1:1–2). Two spearheads there were discovered at the left side of the buried individual head on the coffin side (fig. 1:4–5; 2:1–2). One of the spearheads was 27,5 long with a pronounced mid rib. Another spearhead was 60,5 cm long, with very narrow upper part. This spearhead should be ascribed to the type I d, according to Lithuanian weapons typology. However, there are not so long spearheads found in Lithuania before. Iron-socketed axe, scythe, riding bit with a three-jointed mouthpiece and sandstone whetstone was put above the head diseased person (fig. 1:6–9; 2:3, 5–7). Small truncated biconical, lathed amber bead was found near the maxilla of buried individual (fig. 1:10; 8:3). Three fibulae have been fastening cloth of the buried individual on a breast (fig. 1:11–13; 6, 8). One of them crossbow zoomorphic brooch is 13 cm length; width of an axis is 13,6 cm (fig. 1:11; 6). The foot, bow, spiral and end knobs of axle are made from bronze; axis and pin are produced from iron. Two silver rings ending the fibula foot. Head of an animal with elongated eyes adorned fibula foot. Eyes of animal are made from blue glasses. Two different relief geometrical motifs decorated the bow and foot of the brooch. Metopine plate, covered by silver plate with blue glass adorned bow of crossbow zoomorphic fibula. The variety of metals and blue glasses of crossbow zoomorhpic fibula, gives possibility established stylistic links with hunic polichromic style of the fifth–sixth centuries and latest Germanic cloisonné style. The crossbow zoomorphic fibula is dated to the first half of the seventh century.Two others bronze crossbow fibulae with ladder fastened cloth of buried individual (fig. 1:12–13; 8:1–2). Both fibulae belong to the earliest type of such brooches and have been dated to the second half of the sixth century–seventh century. Two bronze spiral rings adorned the left hand of the buried individual (fig. 1:18–19; 8). One bronze spiral ring was on the right hand of the buried individual (fig. 1:18–19; 8:2). One-edged sword with splendid scabbard and strap-handle was put on the breast of buried individual (fig. 1:15, 3). The sword is 54,5 cm long; width of blade is 3,5 cm. One-edged sword blade long 44 cm. Sword does not has cross-guard. Such sword is dated to the fifth–eight centuries in Lithuania. Curonians started to use one-edged sword in the first half of the seventh century. One edged sword was put into a very richly adorned scabbard. Scabbard, perhaps were made from wood. Four zoomorphic pendants were hung to scabbard. Straphandle was fastened scabbard to the belt. Spacer rosettes, silver bindings, bronze rivets adorned strap-handle belts (fig. 3). There were found the details of the belt in the area of the waist and knees (fig. 1:17; 4). The belt has fifth bronze openwork belt plates and silver belt plates (fig. 4:3–5). Bronze openwork belt plates were found under silver ones. Belt has bronze covered by silver plate end of irregular shape (fig. 4:2). Four lancets shaped pendants were a part of the belt embellishment (fig. 4:6). The one-edged sword through the system of the small belts was hang up to the splendid belt. Smaller hafted knife was found beside the one-edged sword (fig. 1:16; 2:4).Chronology, social and ethnical dependence of the buried individual. Abundant, without analogues in Lithuania, grave goods show that at Lazdininkai grave 73 was buried noble warrior, horseman, who has connections with western Mazurian Lakeland, Sambian Peninsula and Gotland (fig. 1–9).One-edged swords are known from the sixth–eighth centuries in the territory of the Baltic tribes. The spearheads found in the grave are characteristic to the sixth–seventh centuries. The order of the putting of the additional grave goods (spear heads, socketed axe, scythe, riding bit, whetstone) – in the left side above the head of the buried individual – is characteristic to the cemeteries of the Lithuanian seaside not only in the Roman Iron Age and Migration Period, but also to the burials of Curonian warriors in the seventh–ninth centuries. Such funeral elements as position of the drinking horn above the head of the buried individual, belt place on the breast of the buried individual are common Curonian burials. The bronze openwork belt plates and lancet shaped pendants shows point close connections of buried individual to Mazurian Lakeland, Sambian Peninsula, and Scandinavia.Geometrical motifs of some details on scabbard and crossbow zoomorphical fibula (“the gees feet”; fig. 5) were known only from the archaeological material of the fifth–sixth century. Until now, V type plaited pattern was known only from the Southern Curonian burial sites of the eight–ninth centuries.Conclusions: Noble warrior was buried at Lazdininkai cemetery, grave 73, in the first half of the seventh century. Evidentially, young man from Lazdininkai grave 73 has been belonging to warrior elite of western Balts society. Such complex of grave goods is found for the first time in Lithuania. Archaeological material from Lazdininkai fills up the chronological gap between graves of sea coastal Lithuania cemeteries and Curonian burials. All grave goods found in the grave 73 show development of artefact types, forms and stylistic peculiarities and links with other regions in the end of the sixth–the first half of the seventh century. This fact also gives possibility to make conclusions about sources on which ethnical bases Curonian’s build their society
Socialinių santykių atspindžiai Rytų Lietuvos pilkapių degintinių kapų medžiagoje
Get PDFExcavation of burial mounds of East Lithuania began in the middle of the 19th century. Over one third of burial mound cemeteries have been excavated. Multiple articles on burial traditions, material culture and ethnic structure of the population of East Lithuania are based on these data.However, in spite of the considerable number of excavated burial mounds, matters of demography and social structure are still obscure. There are several obstacles to such sorts of investigations.No burial mound cemetery has been excavated completely. Therefore, data can hardly be used for conclusions that require statistical analysis. The custom of cremation of the dead had predominated in the eastern part of Lithuania for approximately seven centuries. Cremated bones have been analyzed anthropologically only on a very small scale. For that reason the possibility of correlating the burial traditions or the complex of grave goods and the sex or age of the buried person is limited.This article is based on the data of 66 graves analyzed anthropologically by Assoc. Prof. R. Jankauskas. The purpose of the article is a survey of the connections between the archaeological and anthropological material of the burial mounds of East Lithuania.The analysis of cremated bones is burdened by the fragmentary nature and deformation of the material. Precise determination of the individual’s age is seldom possible. The sex of the cremated individuals might be determined correctly in about 80 per cent of the cases (by comparison of the anthropological data with the available grave goods).No noticeable relation was observed either between sex and the size of the burial mound or between sex and the location of the grave in the mound. Thus, the burial rite was not used as a means to emphasize the sex of the individual. However, the burial of different age groups definitely varied. The number of graves of newborns and infants in the burial mounds of East Lithuania is far smaller than that in other cemeteries of the same period. Infants under about five in most cases appear not to have been buried like adults. The infant graves might have been located in separate groups of mounds or outside the cemeteries. Children up to the age of 12–15 were often buried in one mound or even in one grave with the adults. Only in some cases was a new mound built when burying a child. Most commonly children’s graves were placed in a mound previously built for an older person. Those who reached adolescence were buried in the same way as the adults, more often in a newly built mound. The difference between the burial of individuals of 20–40 years of age and those over 40 is imperceptible.The comparison between age and the complex of grave goods also displays some tendencies. The majority of individuals buried without any artifacts were of the older age classes (probably an average age of 35–40), while all the graves of children and juveniles contained metal goods. The inventory of girls’ or teenager females’ and adult women’s graves did not differ much in their composition or in abundance. Tangible differences are visible in masculine graves, however. More abundant goods were placed into the graves of youth and young adults. Elder men were buried with a smaller number of weapons and other goods. This phenomenon most likely reflects the predominant status of young and physically strong men in the Iron Age society of East Lithuania. Some graves of adults buried together with children were also comparatively wealthy. In most cases the goods in these graves seem to be dedicated primarily to the children.The available scanty anthropological data of the burial mounds of East Lithuania still are not sufficient for demographic research. For the same reason, the connection between sex and age of the buried individuals and certain elements of burial mounds that have regional and chronological differences was deliberately omitted. In the future, the analysis of the material of one well-excavated burial mound cemetery is likely to render more significant results
Juodonių piliakalnio gyvenvietė. Chronologiniai ir struktūriniai pokyčiai
Get PDFThe article discusses one of the most widely investigated settlements in Northeast Lithuania, excavated during 1958, 1959 and 1989 (fig. 1, 2, 4). This site is the Iron Age foot settlement of the Juodoniai hillfort. 250 individual artefacts, comprising more than 30 groups of artefacts, were found in the 4 excavated plots (310 m2). The material has already been published a few times (Nakaitė, 1959; Grigalavičienė, 1992). However, both the publications and the excavation methodology have drawn well-founded criticism (Šatavičius, 1994, p. 26). The main failing of the summary monograph is that it is only an elementary description of the material, while the planigraphy and stratigraphy are ignored.The site’s attraction was due to its longevity; it dates from the 1st millenium B.C. to the 11th C. A.D. (foot settlement dates from the 4th C. A.D. to the 11th C. A.D). The several thousand year old cultural continuity described by E. Grigalavičienė emphasized the Brushed Pottery culture’s vitality and decisive role in forming later cultural derivatives. This is a very simplified model of continuous cultural development which does not evaluate the character of bum an activities nor its intensive instability.The abundance of material, the inexaustable possibilities of its use, and summary monograph’s dubious conclusions combine to impel a reinvestigation of the settlement and its history, Having repeatedly looked over the material of this extraordinary settlement (the article is limited to an analysis of individual artefactual data), an attempt was made to understand the prehistoric development of Northeast Lithuania in the 1st millenium A.D. – the beginning of the 2 millenium A.D.: to establish the settlement’s chronological stages, to evaluate the continuity of activities and possibilities of changes in the settlement, to explain the dynamic; of the land’s settlement reflected in the burial site material.Many inaccuracies were noted in the dating of the artefacts upon looking over the material. E. Grigalavičienė searched for artefact analogues in the Lithuanian material, despite Northeast Lithuania’s cultural orientation into areas along the Dauguva River that had arisen geographically and historically. The similarities in material culture imply a synchronization with the local rhythm of life, which led to a readjustment of the dating of the material and led to it being seen as being younger. In the opinion of Latvian researchers, artefacts that were here dated to the 4th–5th C. – bracelets with thickened and perpendicular lines ornamented terminals, triangular double pendants (fig. 3:6) – only appeared and respectively spread in the middle and 2nd half of the 7th C. and end of the 6th–the 7th C. A.D. Analogues with neighbouring countries and the chronological context of the settlement itself prompted a date of the 3rd quarter of the 1st millenium A.D. for the single bone combs with a small loop and their related blank (fig. 3:3). The MIA (Middle Iron Age) artefact group was also supplemented with crutch-like (2nd half of the 7th–8th C.) and many of the crook-like pins (fig. 3:5). All of the other datable artefacts were LIA (Late Iron Age) finds, many of whose chronology was sufficiently substantiated, thus they are not discussed separately. The chronology of the semicircular bone spindle (fig. 3:7), hafted spearhead, a throwing spear’s point sometimes called 6th–7th C. ploughshare, knife-sickle, raised additional doubts which also were adjusted. The dating of single composite bone combs (fig. 3:1), a comb case (fig. 3:2), bronze belt buckle, tweezers, parts of neck-chest ornaments which were not discussed in earlier publications also was defined more precisely.Having discussed and adjusted the identity and chronology of some artefacts, the distribution of the artefacts was evaluated with the help of computer programs, preceded by a division of all the artefacts into several categories according to (1) the material from which they were made and (2) the artefacts’ function. In both cases, the categories were marked by 3 variant symbols which stood for 3 chronological groups of artefacts: (a) undatable and chronologically unclear long-use artefacts: work tools, artefact fragments, clay beads, bone amulets, etc., whose dating became clear later; (b) MIA artefacts; (c) LIA artefacts.Having evaluated the cultural layer’s content in its entirety and in separate 10 cm thick sublayers (fig. 5–9), an uneven vertical and horizontal spread was noticed; this marked the settlement’s abundant activity zones and characterized the sequence of the cultural layer’s formation. Three stages were distinguished: (A), (B–C), and (C), as well as 3 of their influence zones in the southern, northern, and central parts of the settlement. Since almost all of the artefacts upon whose basis the sequence and changes in human activity were established were found in one continuous horizon without any intermediate layers, the artefacts’ character along with the dynamic; of their density were among the more important criteria for distinguishing the development of activity.Two stages with artefacts of different character were distinguished in the settlement’s southern section: the lower (A) and the upper (B–C). The (A) stage, located at a depth of approximately 80/90–150 cm was characterized by the (a) chronological group of finds, among which was an especially large amount of bone-horn and clay artefacts and their fragments (fig. 10), which comprise 80% of all artefacts in the Nr. 1 and Nr. 2 plots. Aside from the rare comb-pendants which deserve a master-made label and their blanks, almost all of the bone-horn and clay artefacts belonged to the work tool group. The artefact types (there are especially many darning needles and spindles, 5 clay beads) were evidence of intensive household activity, which is customarily assumed 10 have been carried out by women. The northern boundary of this activity was marked by an approximately 0.4–05 m high and 2 m wide natural rise in the terrain in plot Nr. 3 (fig. 7A). It would undoubtedly be unsuitable to equate the (A) stage’s relics with that time period’s settlement boundaries. Only in other localities was that sort of activity apparently not dominant and left a slight trace. The (A) stage was one of the MIA phases which, according to the small amount of its (b) chronological group finds and their stratigraphy can be dated to the end of the 6th–middle of the 7th C.After a short-term reorganization, the (A) stage was changed by the (B–C) stage with its characteristic (a), (b), and (c) group artefacts. Some of the artefacts were analogous to those found in the lower stage, which allows the beginning of the (B–C) stage to be defined as the 2nd half of the 7th C. The amount of metal artefacts, especially metal ornaments and their fragments, increased considerably. The number of metal things (60%) increased at the expense of small bone-horn artefacts (10%) (fig. 6). However, with a change in the artefact material percentages and an increase in the amount of metal things, the finds in the group with a household function remained, as had been the case previously, more numerous (50%, ornaments – 35%) (fig. 8). The jointly found MIA (8) and LIA (17) artefacts considerably expanded the stage’s chronological boundaries, but limited the ability of formalizing the various substages of this stage.Only one (B–C) stage was distinguished in the settlements northern section. Abundant activity also began in the investigated settlement’s northern section in the 2nd half of the 7th C. Although they are not particularly clear, certain differences can nevertheless be detected between the settlement’s contemporary northern and southern sections. Fore mostly, slightly more finds with an applied function (47%) were found in the northern section than work tools (43%) (fig. 8). There are also differences in the percentages of things made from certain materials: from clay (23% in the southern section and 6% in the northern section), from metal (28% and 53%, respectively) (fig. 6). 50% of the entire settlement’s iron awls were concentrated in the northern section. Meanwhile there is an especially large amount of iron knives (75%) and spindles (47%) in the southern section artefacts which were not found at all in the northern section (except for 2 spindles) (fig. 11).Based on the artefacts’ character, relationship, and chronology, the assumption is made that the contents of the (B–C) stage reflect various time-transgressive changes within the MIA and LIA, effectively erasing the boundaries between the periods themselves. The contemporaneity of the settlement’s northern and southern sections notwithstanding, they were separate activity areas, which is confirmed by the different artefact types and their character according to their functions or materials.The (C) stage. The latest traces of activity (9th/10th–13th C.) were found in the excavated settlement’s central section. This is the period exclusively of the LIA with solely (c) group artefacts. Their vast majority consisted of bronze ornaments.The dispersion of the foot settlement over the course of the centuries speaks of the sequence of cultural layer formation: the earliest traces of activity (end of the 6th–middle of the 7th C.) are found in the settlement’s southern section. Soon thereafter (2nd half of the 7th C.) a new stage of life (B–C) began during which household activity continued in the settlement’s southern section and was newly taken up in the settlement’s northern section. They were, at least during the MIA period, separated by an intensively unused space in the economic sphere. That space was settled later, approximately in the 10th C. A.D. Late Iron Age traces are already found in all of the excavated plots.By virtue of the finds’ planigraphy, it was possible to distinguish changes in the structure of the investigated part of the settlement. The structural changes are noticeable not only by the content of the noncontemporaneous stages, but also in the (B–C) stages differential traces of activity in the settlement’s northern and southern sections.This revision of the view of the Juodoniai hillfort and settlement material revealed a nonconsecutive development of life in the site’s environs, contrary to the earlier declared cultural continuity. It became clear that when the settlers abandoned the hillfort in the 1st quarter of the 1st millenium, its base was not settled immediately, but rather only a few centuries later. The changes that occurred in the hillfort’s surroundings coincided with cultural changes: in the 1st quarter of the 1st millenium A.D., Northeast Lithuania’s Stroked Pottery culture was replaced by North Lithuania’s and South Latvia’s Stone-Wreathed Barrow culture, whose elements (harrows with stone wreaths) became the representative features of the land in the 2nd quarter of the 1st millenium A.D. Their abundance in the 3rd–4th C. is inversely proportional to the shortage of settlements. The crisis apparent in the Juodoniai hillfort and settlement material of the 3rd–end of the 4th C. erases one of the few possibilities that at least a portion of the Stone-Wreathed Barrow culture took up residence in foot settlements. Although one of the articles aims was geared toward an explanation of the “crises” apparent in the burial site’s material in the 2nd half of the 5th C. to the end of the 6th C. (Simniškytė A. 2001) by virtue of the long-lived settlement areas’ data, an even longer pause became apparent as a result. Both “catastrophic” periods coincided only with the final phase of the Stone-Wreathed Barrow culture. Based on the Baltic region’s archaeological experience, the reasons for the distinct disproportions between the burial sites and settlements in the 1st millenium’s 2nd quarter should be sought not in some “special life-style”, but in a limited research methodology. A simultaneous effort must be made to fill in its gaps by intensifying new site surveys and with the aid of environmental science methods.A qualitatively new stage of life began in the Juodoniai foot settlement at the end of the 6th C. True, it was still not the culmination of the region’s prosperity. The MIA here is represented by only 4 artefact groups, while the LIA – by 19 groups. Of course, not having evaluated the changing environmental, geopolitical, social, or technological conditions over the course of the centuries which caused the standard of living at that time, it is not possible to straightforwardly interpret this arithmetic. It is only clear that the Juodoniai hillfort, which has usually figured in the literature as a Middle Iron Age site,lived through both of these periods, until in the 2nd half of the 13 C. it ceased to exist
Gintarų kapinynas
Get PDFDas Dorf Gintarai liegt etwa 1,5 km nordöstlich von dem Städtchen Kartena (Rayon Kretinga). Das Gräberfeld befindet sich im westlichen Teil des Dorfes, auf dem linken Ufer des Flusses Minija (Abb. 1). Das Gräberfeld wurde ziemlich stark beschädigt, indem man das Feld gepflügt hat und die Erdschichten während anderer Landarbeiten bewegt worden waren.Dieses Gräberfeld wurde 1977 von der Expedition des Museums in Kretinga (Leiter – I. Jablonskis) und 1978, 1980 und 1981 von der Expedition des damaligen Pädagogischen Instituts Vilnius (Leiter – M. Michelbertas) untersucht. Im Laufe von vier archäologischen Ausgrabungssaisons wurde eine Fläche von 390 m2 untersucht und 25 Körpergräber mit Steinkreisen gefunden.Das Ziel dieser wissenschaftlichen Beitrags besteht darin, das Untersuchungsmaterial des Gräberfeldes in Gintarai bekannt zugeben. Die Veröffentlichung dieses Untersuchungsmaterials erlaubt es uns, den Bestattungsritus in der jüngeren römischen Kaiserzeit in der westlichen Teil Litauens kennenzulernen.Im 1. Teil dieses Artikels wird die Beschreibung der Grabungsflächen und der Gräber präsentiert, indem die Beigaben und die Chronologie des Grabes nach dem Schema H. J. Eggers – K. Godlowskis, das in Europa gebraucht wird, angegeben werden. In den Abbildungen werden die Pläne der Grabungsflächen angegeben, die klar verdeutlichen, wo die Steinkreise und die Grabungsfläche beim Ausgraben der Kartoffelkeller und anderer Löcher (Abb. 2, 3, 7, 17, 20, 22, 23, 27) zugrunde gerichtet waren. Außerdem führt man Pläne und Aufnahmen einiger anderer Gräber (Abb. 4, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 19, 24, 25).Die Verstorbenen wurden nicht verbrannt bestattet. Die Gräber fand man in der Tiefe von 35–185 cm von der jetztigen Erdoberfläche. Die Gräber befanden sich inmitten der Steinkreise. Die Steinkreise der Kindergräber waren kreisförmig oder oval und bestanden aus Steinen verschiedener Größe. Im Innern waren die Steinkreise 1,1 x 1,2 m, 0,7 x 1,1 m, 0,85 x 1,4 m, 1,15 x 1,3 m, 0,35 x 0,4 m u. ä. groß. Manchmal wurden die Kinder in der halbbogenförmigen Steinkreisen beigesetzt, die an größere Steinkreise angebaut waren (z. B. Grab Nr. 19). Beinahe alle Steinkreise der Kindergräber berührten sich und hatten gemeinsame Wände. Die Wände der Steinkreise bestanden aus zwei, drei, ja sogar vier Steinreihen übereinander und waren ziemlich hoch. Zum Beispiel war die nördliche Wand des Steinkreises des Grabes Nr. 8 etwa 60–70 cm hoch.Die Steinkreise der Erwachsenengräber waren wesentlich größer. Die Reste der Gräber selbst fand man 10–40 cm, ja sogar 65–70 cm niedriger als den Steinkreis. Bei der Bestattung der Toten hielt man sich an die Feuerriten. Das bezeugen die in den Grabgruben und auf dem Grund einiger Gräber vorgefundenen Brandreste und kleine Kohlstücke, mancherarts auch größere Kohlstücke. In manchen Grabungsflächen fand man unter den Steinkreisen ebenso eine Schicht oder ein Band der Brandreste.Die Verstorbenen wurden rücklings, in der ausgestreckten Lage beigesetzt. Die Beilegungsrichtung der Verstorbenen ist hinsichtlich der Himmelsrichtung recht verschieden. Die Kinderwurden mit dem Kopf in die westliche, nördliche, nordwestliche, nordöstliche, östliche und südliche Richtung beigesetzt. Man versuchte, Männer mit dem Kopf nach Norden beizusetzen. Da neben den Beigaben Holzreste zu finden waren, lässt sich schlussfolgern, dass manche Verstorbenen in den Särgen (die Gräber Nr. 3, 8, 9, 11, 21) bestattet worden waren. Es scheint, ein Teil der Särge waren Baumsärge, der andere Brettersärge. Die Länge des Baumsarges im Grab Nr. 9 betrug etwa 2, 3 m, die Weite etwa 0,45 cm.Die Gräber der Verstorbenen enthielten Beigaben. Sie unterscheiden sich hinsichtlich der Erwachsenen – und der Kindergräber, der Männer-und der Frauengräber. In Gintarai legte man in die Männergräber Arbeitswerkzeuge, Waffen, manche Schmucksachen, römische Münzen. In den Frauengräbern fand man Schmucksachen, einige Gegenstände des Haushaltes. Die Beigaben in den Kindergräbern entsprechen dem Geschlecht des Kindes. In den Gräbern der Jungen fand man Werkzeuge, Schmucksachen, römische Münzen, in denen der Mädchen ausnahmlos Schmucksachen.Man legte in die Mänergräber eiserne Tüllenbeile (Abb. 18:2), Messer (Abb. 18:3), Lanzen, von denen nur eiserne Lanzenspitzen erhalten geblieben sind (Abb. 18:1, 26:6, 28:1). Was die Schmucksachen in den Männergräbern anbetrifft, so wurden eine eiserne Hirtenstabnadel (Abb. 18:4) und bronzene Spiralfingerringe gefunden. Im Männergrab Nr. 17 fand man ein Fragment eines Riemensenkels aus Bronze (Abb. 28:6) vom westlitauischen Typ. Die größte Zahl der Beigaben ist für das Männergrab Nr. 9 kennzeichnend: insgesamt 8 Gegenstände. Im Kindergrab Nr. 1 entdeckte man 6 Gegenstände – ein eisernes Messer (Abb. 5:1), ein steinernes Schleifsteinchen (Abb. 5:3), ein Armring aus Bronze und 3 römische Münzen. Die letzteren lagen neben seiner Taillegegend, wohl in einem Stoffbeutel.In den Frauengräbern fand man folgende Schmucksachen: eine bronzene Nadel mit profiliertem Kopf (Abb. 6:2), bronzene Fingerringe (Abb. 6:3), eine Halskette aus Bernstein, Glasperlen und kleinen Röhrchen aus Silber, Reste eines Brustschmuckes (Verzierungsauge aus blauem Glas, ein silberner Verzierungsring (Abb. 21:18, 19). Unter den vorgefundenen Haushaltgegenständen lässt sich ein Tongefäß (Abb. 6:1) erwähnen.In den Kinder – bzw. Mädchengräbern findet man ähnliche Beigaben. Nur in einem Grab lag ein eiserner Pfriem (Abb. 28:5), der Rest der Gegenstände bestand aus Schmucksachen. Das waren eine Nadel mit Scheibenkopf (Abb. 11:12), eiserne Hirtenstabnadeln (Abb. 11:8, 21:1, 6, 11, 26:1, 28:2, 4), eine bronzene Hirtenstabnadel (Abb. 11:14), Halsketten aus Bernstein, Glas und Bronzeperlen, Bronzespiralen, Silberanhänger (Abb. 11:1, 4, 5, 15, 21:3, 4, 7, 13, 26:2, 28:3), verschiedene Bronzearmringe (Abb. 11:2, 3, 6, 7, 21:2, 5, 12) und Fingerringe. Die Mehrheit der Schmucksachen (Arm ringe, Fingerringe, bronzene Hirtenstabnadeln) ist von kleinem Format, als ob sie speziell für Kinder hergestellt wären.In den auseinandergerissenen Gräbern, wo Verstorbene nichtfestgestellten Geschlechts lagen, fand man eine bronzene Dreisprossenfibel (3. Gr., Abb. 11:9) und eine bronzene Armbrustfibel mit Ringgarnitur (Almgrens Typ 167, Abb. 26:5).Was die Einzelfunde im Gräberfeld von Gintarai anbelangt, so muss man ein Bruchstück einer Armbrustfibel mit zweigliedriger Spirale (Abb. 21:20), ein Bruchstück eines Halsringes (Abb. 28:7), einen Bernsteinanhänger (Abb. 11:10), den Kopf einer Nadel (Abb. 11:11), einen bronzenen plankonvexen Armring (Abb. 26:7), einen bronzenen Armring mit Kolbenenden (Abb. 28:8) sowie einen Spinnwirtel aus Stein (Abb. 21:8) nennen.Die Mehrheit der gefundenen Gegenstände sind nur der westlitauischen Region eigentümlich, andere dagegen einem breiten Territorium, das von Baltenstämmen bewohnt war. Unter den importiertem Gegenständen lassen sich Glasperlen und Münzen aus dem Römischen Reich nennen. In den Gräbern fand man 6 Münzen: 1 Sestertius Antoninus Pius (138–161), 2 Sestertii Marcus Aurelius (161–180), 1 Sestertius Maximinus I (235–238), 2 Sestertii, unkenntlich. Römische Gegenstände befanden sich in 6 Gräbern, was 24 Prozent aller Gräber ausmacht. Ein seltener Fund sei die silberne Eimeranhänger, auch gedrehte Bernsteinperlen (Abb. 26:3).Wie die Chronologie des untersuchten Teiles des Gräberfeldes verdeutlicht, wurden hier vom Ende des 2. Jhs. (Stufe B2/C1) bis zur Mitte des 5. Jhs. (Ende der Stufe D) Verstorbene beigesetzt.Die Untersuchungen des Gintarai-Gräberfeldes erlaubten es, manche Details des Bestattungsritus im Gebiet der Gräberfelder mit Steinkreisen zu erleuchten. Insbesonders viel hat man dabei über die Bestattungsart und die Beigaben der Kindergräber erfahren