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Organizational Determinants of collaborative culture: What works?
No full textThe purpose of this study is to identify the organizational factors that influence the building of collaborative culture in U.S. corporations.Introduction: Purpose & Scope
Graduate School of Management and Technology
University of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD
http://collins-collaboration.wikispaces.com/
Of Collaborative Culture: What works?
Organizational Determinants
Kuan H. Collins
Tag Cloud Created from Findings & Results
The purpose of this study is to identify the
organizational factors that influence the building of
collaborative culture in U.S. corporations.
Research Question
What organizational factors influence the building of collaborative culture in U.S. corporations?
Conceptual Framework & Propositions
Evidence-Based Research Synthesis (EBRS) is the
primary research method employed to select
literature for analysis and to help explore both the
research question and the propositions. A systematic review of the evidence provides a step toward
establishing science-based conclusions about
management problems. Configuration is the synthesis option employed for this study whereby the findings were meshed into a theoretical model. This method is appropriate because the study integrates both qualitative and quantitative findings (Gough et al (2012), Sandelowski (2008), Denyer, Tranfield and
van Aken (2008); Pope et al (2007)).
Method
Results
Themes identified across studies of collaboration:
1. Culture of learning and creativity
2. Communication norms
3. Facilitative/adaptable/shared leadership
4. Shared vision
5. High-level management support
6. Mutual respect and trust
7. Strength of ties
8. Network size, structural holes
9. Formal roles, tasks, expectations, understandings
10.Performance metrics
11.Information systems
12.Task complexity
Conclusions: Significance of factors
Implications for Management/Future Research
Organizations should understand the importance of evaluating
organizational factors prior to establishing collaboration as a
strategic focus. An area of future research could assist
organizations with measuring potential for collaboration as well
as articulating rules on when organizations should collaborate.
Proposition 1: Organizational trust is a factor that facilitates collaboration and helps the building of a collaborative culture.
Proposition 2: Organizational structure is a factor that
facilitates and inhibits the building of a collaborative culture.
Proposition 3: An organization’s ability to search and transfer knowledge is both a facilitator and inhibitor to the building of a collaborative culture
How organizations foster an environment an environment that supports effective virtual teams: An examination of the evidence
No full textThe purpose of this research is to understand how the actions and values of an organization fosters an environment that promotes effective virtual teams.How Organizations foster an environment that supports effective virtual teams: An examination of the evidence
Jeff Zivick Doctor of Management, UMUC, 2012 [email protected] Background
•
Globalization, business advantages and technology advances are driving the expanding use of virtual teams.
–
80% of companies expect virtual teams to become integral to their business strategy (2008, Institute for Corporate Productivity)
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TRW Automotive developed leadership training program and tool specifically for managers of virtual teams (Duckworth, 2008)
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Volvo’s IT Division formed a “Collaboration Services Group” to function as an internal consultant to improve effectiveness of their virtual teams (Adamson, 2009)
–
PriceWaterhouseCoopers uses virtual teams to join employees on solving client problems (Bell & Kozlowski, 2002)Context
Benefits
Increased productivity
Improved problem solving
Higher quality decisions
Increased creativity & innovation
Rapid formation/response
Assemble best qualified staff
Reduced expenses
Challenges
Coordination
Leadership
Conflict resolution
Team cohesion
Uniform technology
Technology proficiency
SocializationContext Examples
•
Legitimacy
–
Local managers may not see progress/value of virtual teams
–
Employees may fear losing visibility with their local supervisors
•
Leadership
–
“How can I manage them if I can’t see them?”
–
Project leadership virtually across time and space
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‘Soft’ relational issues become more important
–
Compensate for naturally occurring activities and exchanges in a traditional environment.
•
Communications
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Mode, time delay, media richness, non-verbal cues, language proficiency, technological proficiency are all potential issues for the virtual teamSignificance
•
An organization’s ability to achieve its goals and mission is related to the effectiveness of its virtual teams.
•
Organizations working in today’s globalized world are using virtual teams to maximize the use of their talent regardless of location.
•
To date much of virtual team research focused on studying issues at the level of the team and individual
•
Research gap exists in investigating and understanding the relationship, role and influence of parent organization on effectiveness of virtual teamsResearch Question & Argument
•
The purpose of this investigation is to understand how the actions and values of an organization fosters an environment that promotes effective virtual teams.
•
The research question is:
How does an organization foster an environment that promotes effective virtual teams?
•
This study’s argument is that the contextual factors that define the work environment in which virtual teams function are influenced by the actions and values of the parent organization.Key Literature Themes & Authors
•
Definition of virtual teams
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Bell & Kozlowski
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Jarvenpaa & Leidner
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Lipnack & Stamps
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Martins, Gilson & Maynard
•
Key topic areas and seminal researchers
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Organizational Culture: Schein, Hofstede
–
Communication: Maznevski, Chudoba
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Leadership: Bell, Kozlowski, Kayworth
–
Trust: Jarvenpaa, LeidnerConceptual FrameworkResearch Methodology
•
Evidence-Based Research Synthesis (EBRS) Method
–
Analyzes and synthesizes secondary research findings to answer research question
•
Configurational Research is a sub-type of EBRS methods used in this investigation
–
Acceptable research may be quantitative or qualitative and may use similar or differing research methods
–
Synthesis of findings searches for interpretive patterns in data
–
Emergent patterns may be linear or non-linear
•
Key EBRS/Configurational Research theorists:
–
Rousseau, Manning & Denyer, Gough, Meyer, Tsui and Hinings, Sandelowski, SlavinFindings & ResultsManagement Practice Implications
•
Organizations that use virtual teams to execute its business strategy are necessarily concerned about their effectiveness
•
Understanding how the attributes of an organization foster effective virtual teams may give organizations a competitive advantage
•
Investments are necessary beyond just technology
•
Organizations may improve the effectiveness of their virtual teams by viewing them as part of their strategic plans and not in isolationFuture Research Potential
•
Primary research/case study focused on organizations who are successful and unsuccessful at fostering effective virtual teams
•
New research on organizational change theory specifically associated with implementation of virtual teams
•
Longitudinal analysis of effective virtual teams and advances in computer and communication technolog
How organizations adapt social media as a competitive advantage
No full textIn less than a generation both people and organizations have experienced a significant change in communication and content. This shift is not simply an evolution. It is a paradox of the traditional value equation for trust and collaboration.
Organizationally, this new development has created treats and opportunities. It has caused uncertainty in terms of strategy and action.How Organizations Adapt Social Media as a Competitive Advantage
DISSERTATION PRESENTATION AT SOARS EVENT
UMUC, ICC, Adelphi, Maryland
October 26, 2012
ROBERT BORNHOFENProblem Statement & Background
In less than a generation both people and organizations have experienced a significant change in communication and content. This shift is not simply an evolution. It is a paradox of the traditional value equation for trust and collaboration.
Organizationally, this new development has created treats and opportunities. It has caused uncertainty in terms of strategy and action.
•
Why are some organizations more successful than others in extracting value through social networks tied together by Web 2.0 technology?
•
How can organizations improve the success rate and gain competitive advantage through social media?
•
What effect does leadership and strategy have as moderating variables to influence the outcome of social media? This paper concludes that certain characteristics of Leadership and Strategy enable organizations to increase the likelihood of being able to successfully utilize social media in ways to gain competitive value.
IV = Social Media tools; MV1 = Leadership; MV2 = Strategy; DV = Competitive Advantage Null Hypothesis = Competitive Advantage (DV) is not influenced by Social Media (IV) (Ho = IV + DV) Alternative Hypothesis = Competitive Advantage (DV) is influenced by Social Media (IV) (HA IV + DV)
RQ: How do Organizations Adapt Social Media as a Competitive Advantage? Proposed Conceptual Model
As change pushes in, each layer of the model can impact the organization’s ability to respond.
Both leadership and strategy pull new social media applications, once approved for use, through the layers to achieve competitive advantage.
Literature Review: Main Theories
Theories
Scholars
Social Capital Theory
Amabile, 1996; Bontis et al., 2002; Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998
Social Network Theory
Ahuja, 2000; Burt, 1992; Bharadwaj, 2000; Capoldo, 2007; Harryson, 2008; Gilsing et al., 2008; Koka & Prescott, 2002; McAfee, 2009; Rodriguez et al., 2012; Szulanski, 1996; Tsai, 2001
Culture Theory
Mintzberg & Westly, 1992; Moorman, 1995; Piderit, 2000; Schein, 1983; Oreg & Sverdlik, 2011; Weick & Quinn, 1999; Yang & Mossholder, 2010
Leadership Theory
Cummings, 1995; Detert & Burris, 2007; House & Aditya, 1997; Montgomery (2012); Mintzberg & Westly, 1992; Vera & Crossan, 2004; Yukl & Lepsinger, 2005
Technology Acceptance Theory
Bohlmann, 2010; Corrocher, 2011; Curran & Lennon, 2011; McGowan et al., 2012; Young, 2005
Organizational Design
Burns & Stalker, 1961; Chui et al. 2009; Crossan, et al. 2005; Harryson, 2008
Diffusion Theory
Corrocher, 2011; Rogers, 1962, 1983, 2003
Task-Technology Fit (TTF) Theory
Goodhue & Thompson, 1995; Kahnerman & Thaler, 2006; Rapp et al., 2008 Independent Variable:
Social Media Tools
Dependent Variables:
1.
Sales Revenue
2.
Profit & Cost Margins
Research Question
How can organizations leverage social media capabilities as a competitive advantage?
The Purpose of this Study is to Evaluate the Impact that Emerging
Social Media Technologies are having on Organizations
Research Method
Secondary Research
Theoretical Framework Scope, Method & Limitations
•
Scope
U.S. for-profit organizations
•
Method: qualitative & quantitative
In-depth case studies (e.g., Starbucks, P&G, & 3M)
Quantifiable studies (e.g., 25 different industries in 40 different countries; 54 companies, mostly U.S. firms)
•
Limitation of Research Design
Nascent field of study
Scientific community just now beginning to publish credible studies on social media adoption in the workplace Research Propositions
P1: Leadership’s ability to articulate how social media fits into its master strategy and is aligned to organizational goals and strategy will lessen resistance to change.
P2: Leadership’s ability to break down the resistance and instill a level of trust and employee commitment will foster a positive attitude toward change.
P3: Leadership’s loosening of control and its ability to accept an unobstructed and open exchange of comments and shared opinion will attract participants of social media.
P4: The ability to generate value in the form of relevant, compelling content will attract individuals to use the social media application. Research Propositions (2 of 2)
P5: Attaining group diversity among social networks will provide more value through indirect and weak ties beyond what is available through conventional methods.
P6: A more open and flexible organizational structure to cross communication flow and information exchanges will experience higher adoption rates & benefit realization.
P7: Established policy and guiding principles with enough flexibility can guide social media behavior while mitigating risk to acceptable levels.
P8: Having thorough plans, resources, and commitments in place before launching new social media applications onto the organization will increase the success rate of adoption. Key Results & Discussion Points
Culture
Strategy
Leadership
Competition
Regulators
Network Groups
Customers
Stakeholders
Key ThemesOrganizational CultureOutreach / DiffusionOperating EnvironmentHuman BehaviorChange AgentOrganizational LearningTrust & CommitmentSocial Networks & CapitalLeadership EnablementUsefulness / ValueBusiness CaseOrganizational StrategyHow Organizations Adapt Social Media as a Competive AdvantageLEADERSHIPSTRATEGYFocal Points of Leadership & Strategy
Area
Key Question
Vision
Has leadership effectively articulated how social media fits into its master strategy; how it is aligned to the goals and strategy?
Organizational Culture
Can leadership break down the resistance and instill a level of trust and employee commitment?
Balance of Power
Is leadership able and willing to loosen its control of information before deciding to implement social media? Can it tolerate an unobstructed and open exchange of comments and shared opinion?
Value / Usefulness
Can the organization generate value in the form of relevant, compelling content to attract individuals to use the social media application and keep them engaged?
Enablement
Can individuals be freely enabled to use social media in ways to perform their duties more effectively?
Social Network
Can enough diversity be developed among social network groups to provide novel information through indirect and weak ties beyond what is available internally?
Operating Environment
Is the organizational structure compatible to benefit from cross communication flows and information exchanges?
Governance
Does established policy and guiding principles exist with enough flexibility to enable employees to engage without being burdened with too many low-level rules?
Readiness
Are sufficient plans, resources, and commitments in place before launching into a new social media implementation?
Business Case
Does adequate funding exist to support all that is needed to develop and implement social media? Study Results
•
This Research Paper demonstrates how leadership and strategy act together to enable a new method of communication through social media.
Arguments made in each of the Logical Construct areas to respond to the Research Question.
As moderating variables, both Leadership & Strategy deal with inhibitors and enablers associated with social media as a new method of communication.
•
The outcome is intended to help organizations understand what to anticipate and how to overcome obstacles to utilize social media for competitive gain.
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Its importance to the field of study offers a new perspective to explain the underlying attributes of leadership and strategy within the context of social media in the workplace. Representative Arguments
•
Leadership needs to articulate a vision around social media within the context of organizational goals and objectives. This vision requires ongoing reinforcement throughout the organization.
•
For change to occur, it needs to lead to greater value than current methods, as determined by the individual. Individuals need to be attracted to social media for what it offers.
•
Trusted staff need to given permission to use social media to connect to a wider group of information sources, to make decisions and act appropriately to perform their jobs and represent the organization. Representative Arguments (2 of 2)
•
Leadership needs to loosen its hold on the need to control information. It needs to accept the loss of control and guide acceptable behavior. It needs to loosen its stance for unilateral change and abandon the command-and-control management style of the past.
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Social media needs to be kept free from being censored or perceived as “white washed.” Individuals are more accepting when the organization: (i) provides quality content, (ii) fosters member purpose, and (iii) encourages interaction among staff. Future Research
•
Synthesize new studies to gather additional evidence to understand the inhibitors and enablers associated with social media.
Expand the scope of quantifiable evidence to operationalize the impact of Social Media (IV) to Competitive Value (DV).
•
Study other moderating variables besides leadership and strategy that influence the dependent variable (competitive advantage)
Inter-organizational networks: The cost of establishing trust
No full textThe purpose of this research is to evaluate cooperative strategies in inter-organizational networks, to assess costs of trust-based and control-based approaches, and to propose a decision-support model driven by cost-benefit analysis.Inter-Organizational Networks: The Cost of Establishing Trust Keywords: organizational trust, distrust, networks, cost, controls, cooperation Stephen D. Gantz Doctoral Candidate University of Maryland University College [email protected] Purpose and Scope
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Evaluate cooperative strategies in inter-organizational networks
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Assess costs of trust-based and control-based approaches
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Propose a decision-support model driven by cost-benefit analysis
1
Research Questions
•
What costs do organizations in inter-organizational network relationships incur to adopt trust-based and control-based cooperative strategies?
•
How do those costs influence the choice of what strategy or strategies to pursue?
2
Significance to the Field of Management
•
Targets research gap on inter-organizational trust and networks
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Addresses lack of empirical study on costs of trust in inter-organizational relationships
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Supports increasing prevalence of network relationships and governance structures
3
Key Literature
•
Bromiley & Cummings, 1995
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Connelly, Miller, & Devers, 2012
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Cook, Hardin, & Kramer (Eds.), 2005
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Ebers (Ed.), 1997
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Hardin, 2002; 2004; 2006
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Kramer, 1999
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Kramer & Cook (Eds.), 2004
•
Lewicki, McAllister, & Bies, 1998
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Ring, 1999
•
Zaheer & Harris, 2005
4
Key Propositions
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Trust improves network performance by lowering transaction costs
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Developing trust requires significant commitment of time, effort, and resources
•
Trust-based approaches may not be the most cost-effective means to achieving cooperation
5
Conceptual Model
6
Inter-organizational NetworkRelationship TrustControlCostsFlexible ContractsInformal AgreementsSpecific InvestmentRelational GovernanceSanctions and PenaltiesMonitoringComplete ContractsCooperationPerformanceExchange ValueInnovationEconomic GainCost EfficienciesTrustPrior TiesDurationVolumeDistrustOpportunismUncertaintyPartner DiversityTask ComplexityInterdependenceEffortTimeCoordinationIncentivesContractingThesis Statement
•
The choice of trust-based or control-based strategies for achieving cooperation in an inter-organizational network balances the costs incurred to achieve cooperative outcomes and benefits expected for the cooperative relationship.
7
Research Methodology
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Systematic review of research to compare of trust-based and control-based strategies for achieving cooperation
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Convergent mixed-methods design using content analysis, comparative qualitative analysis, and thematic analysis
8
Findings
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Time, effort, and resource commitments are prevalent sources of costs of trust and coordination
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Contracts and their level of complexity or completeness serve as the key indicator of control costs
•
Trust and control function as both complements and substitutes
9
Findings (cont’d)
•
Cooperation costs are positively correlated with task complexity, partner diversity, specific investment, volume, and appropriation concerns
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Cooperation costs are negatively correlated with prior ties, relationship tenure, credible commitments, and trust
10
Findings (cont’d)
•
Control costs are positively correlated with asset specificity, uncertainty, interdependence, distrust, and the threat of opportunism
•
Network performance is positively associated with both trust-based and control-based approaches
11
Findings (cont’d)
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Trust alone is insufficient to produce successful cooperative outcomes if distrust exists among organizations
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Organizations can use more complete contracts and context-specific investments to overcome distrust or compensate for lack of trust
12
Implications for Practice
•
Costs of cooperation need to be evaluated against anticipated benefits to determine effective strategy
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In networks characterized by trust, trust-based approaches are more cost effective than control-based ones
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Where distrust exists in a network, formal controls are needed to ensure cooperative outcomes 13
Future Trends and Research Agendas
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Need for empirical research quantifying costs of trust and coordination
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Consider distrust as explicit factor in future research on IO trust
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Address whether networks are different than other IORs with respect to reliance on trust
1
Effect of geographic migration on the ability to leverage social capital during entreprenerial startup in the manufacturing belt
No full textThis study examines the differences between three types of entrepreneurs (homegrowns, boomerangs and transplants) and their ability to leverage social capital resources during start-up in the manufacturing belt. The study utilizes a mixed methods approach using semi-structured interviews of 11 entrepreneurs representing the three types and an online survey completed by 113 entrepreneurs residing in the cities of Columbus, OH, Dayton, OH and Indianapolis, IN. The study examines the depth and variety of social network penetration by each entrepreneurial type and their ability to leverage social capital in terms of information, physical resources, funding and collaboration/referrals for start-up and initial growth. It also assesses the impact of location in terms of local culture and social network variation on resource leveraging. The study identifies reasons for transplant migration to the manufacturing belt. Mixed results were obtained in the qualitative and quantitative analysis for transplants. The interview results indicated that transplants utilized more venues for obtaining information and referrals. The survey results indicated no difference between groups. Homegrowns showed a slight advantage in acquiring physical resources at low or no cost. Transplant entrepreneurs in this study showed no difference in funding leverage. Relocation reasons for entrepreneurs were focused on family, job or university attendance moves rather than business climate or incentives.
Few studies have examined social network access and social capital leverage by entrepreneurs returning or transplanting to an area to start new ventures. The manufacturing belt is an understudied environment that can be explored to study the actions of entrepreneurs in a relatively closed social network and less innovation-producing environment. The study's approach can be utilized to examine a larger sample in order to gain more insight into information and referral resources generation by all three types of entrepreneurs. The range of locations can be expanded to include additional cities within and outside the manufacturing belt which have higher or lower levels of social network access and innovation.1
Effect of Geographic Migration on the Ability to Leverage Social Capital during Entrepreneurial Startup in the Manufacturing Belt
Theresa M. Lechton
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Dr. Thomas J. Mierzwa
Dr. Yung-Chi Sung
November, 2010 2
Copyright © 2010 by Theresa M. Lechton
3
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to all those who have a dream and do not let convention, fear or life events prevent them from achieving their dreams.
May we all dream, follow our dreams, and become more of who we were meant to be.
4
Acknowledgements
This dissertation is the culmination of an effort requiring the highest level of persistence, patience and determination I have produced in my life. While at times, this is a solo effort, it is with the encouragement and assistance of others that one‟s work truly materializes.
I would first like to acknowledge, my dissertation chair, Dr. Thomas J. Mierzwa, who motivated, challenged and encouraged me to finish this dissertation. I appreciate his shared interest in the topic, his feedback and his flexibility in allowing me to explore my area of passion. I would like to thank others at UMUC who were instrumental in assisting me in formulating my early ideas and providing guidance and resources to complete this work. These include Dr. Yung-Chi Sung, Dr. Christine A. Hannah, Dr. Anna V. Andriasova, Dr. James P. Gelatt, Dr. John Aje and Dr. Bryan A. Booth.
I would next like to acknowledge my faculty and staff colleagues at DeVry University and Franklin University who encouraged me in my efforts. I would like to especially acknowledge my colleague, the late Dr. Gregory Passewitz, who shared my passion for education and entrepreneurship. Greg challenged me in his infectious positively focused and determined manner to always believe in my ability to complete this endeavor.
I would also like to acknowledge my sports mentor (Dr. Todd Kays) and my figure skating class (Dr. Jennifer Johnson and Megan McKinley) who shared their dissertation experiences, encouragement and continual interest in my step by step progress. I would like to thank my friend, Dr. Charles Sayles, who challenged me to prepare for and complete half marathons during this endeavor. The lessons learned during this feat helped me develop the persistence and mental attitude needed for the periods of push I encountered. 5
I would also like to acknowledge friends and family (Kirk, Travis, Diana and the women of Groove) who offered moral support and sometimes a needed break to recharge.
Last and most important, I want to acknowledge my daughters, Adrian and Alexandra Miller who picked up extra family duties, cooked meals for me, performed clerical support and sacrificed time with me while I completed this effort. You always believed that this was possible and worth the time I invested. Without your efforts, I could not have completed this.
6
Table of Contents
Abstract 13
Chapter 1: Introduction 15
Background 15
Purpose and Contribution to Field 20
Significance of the Study 20
Research Question 21
Scope and Limitations 22
Discussion of Key Terms 22
Dissertation Chapters 23
Chapter 2: Literature Review 25
Entrepreneurship and Opportunity Recognition 25
Social Cognition and Entrepreneurial Behavior 27
Entrepreneur Emergence 30
Role of Social Networks 34
Social Capital 38
Cultural Geography 41 7
Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework 44
Introduction 44
Theoretical Underpinnings 44
Conceptual Framework 47
Independent Variables 49
Mediating Variables 50
Dependent Variables 51
Research Hypothesis 52
Chapter 4: Research Approach 56
Research Objectives 56
Research Approach 56
Study Site Selection 59
Qualitative Phase 61
Qualitative Instrument 62
Conduct of Qualitative Phase 65
Quantitative Phase 66
Quantitative Sample Size / Selection 67 8
Quantitative Survey Tool 70
Quantitative Analysis 73
Ethical Issues 76
Validity and Reliability 77
Chapter 5: Analysis and Findings 81
Overview of Analysis 81
Qualitative Analysis and Quantitative Tool Development 81
Qualitative Analysis of Data Using Multiple Approaches 85
Quantitative Data Review and Selection 93
Entrepreneurial Type and Location and Social Network Access 97
Entrepreneurial Type and Location and Resources Leveraged 100
Social Network Access and Resources Leveraged 101
Evaluations of Resources Leveraged 103
Location Selection Factors 104
Limitations to Generalizations 105
Conclusions 105
9
Chapter 6: Implications for Management and Research 110
Implications for Theory 110
Implications for Management Practice 111
Areas for Future Research 112
References 115
Appendices 130
Appendix A: Qualitative Interview Guide 130
Appendix B: Structural Coding of Categories from Qualitative Surveys 139
Appendix C: Quantitative Survey Pilot Test 142
Appendix D: Quantitative Survey Final 148
Appendix E: Survey Promotion Tools 154
Appendix F: Analysis for Inclusion/Exclusion of Data 160
Appendix G: Position Generator Prestige Values 162
Appendix H: Univariate Analysis of Variance of Entrepreneurial Type and Location on
Social Network and Resources 163
Appendix I: Post Hoc Tests on ANOVA Analysis 167
Appendix J: Correlation Analysis of Social Network to Resources 171 10
Appendix K: Resources Utilized by Type – Individual Item Analysis 181
Appendix L: Location Selection Analysis by Entrepreneurial Type 184
11
List of Tables
Table 1. Rank by Combined Diversity Index Among 50 Largest US Cities 18
Table 2. Census Bureau Population 59
Table 3. Rankings of Cities by Indexes among Top 50 Metropolitan Areas 61
Table 4. Hypothesis Map to Interview Guide 63
Table 5. Entrepreneur Groups Utilized for Survey Promotion 67
Table 6. Hypothesis Map to Survey Questions 71
Table 7. Quantitative Survey Item Additions 83
Table 8. Pilot Group Changes to Survey 85
Table 9. Average Number of Resources Leveraged to Type 86
Table 10. Mailing Response Rates 94
Table 11. Social Network Access Average Values by Location 97
Table 12. Social Network Access Average Values by Entrepreneur Type 98
Table 13. Significant Correlation Results: Mediating & Dependent Variables 102
12
List of Figures
Figure 1. Lin‟s Social Capital Model 45
Figure 2. Conceptual Model 48
Figure 3. Research Approach 58
13
Abstract
This study examines the differences between three types of entrepreneurs (homegrowns, boomerangs and transplants) and their ability to leverage social capital resources during start-up in the manufacturing belt. The study utilizes a mixed methods approach using semi-structured interviews of 11 entrepreneurs representing the three types and an online survey completed by 113 entrepreneurs residing in the cities of Columbus, OH, Dayton, OH and Indianapolis, IN. The study examines the depth and variety of social network penetration by each entrepreneurial type and their ability to leverage social capital in terms of information, physical resources, funding and collaboration/referrals for start-up and initial growth. It also assesses the impact of location in terms of local culture and social network variation on resource leveraging. The study identifies reasons for transplant migration to the manufacturing belt. Mixed results were obtained in the qualitative and quantitative analysis for transplants. The interview results indicated that transplants utilized more venues for obtaining information and referrals. The survey results indicated no difference between groups. Homegrowns showed a slight advantage in acquiring physical resources at low or no cost. Transplant entrepreneurs in this study showed no difference in funding leverage. Relocation reasons for entrepreneurs were focused on family, job or university attendance moves rather than business climate or incentives.
Few studies have examined social network access and social capital leverage by entrepreneurs returning or transplanting to an area to start new ventures. The manufacturing belt is an understudied environment that can be explored to study the actions of entrepreneurs in a relatively closed social network and less innovation-producing environment. The study‟s approach can be utilized to examine a larger sample in order to gain more insight into 14
information and referral resources generation by all three types of entrepreneurs. The range of locations can be expanded to include additional cities within and outside the manufacturing belt which have higher or lower levels of social network access and innovation.
Keywords: entrepreneur, social network, social capital, manufacturing belt
15
Chapter 1 Introduction
Background
Over the past two decades, manufacturing belt cities in the United States (U.S.) have experienced a significant decrease in the vitality of their economic environment. From 2001 to 2005, the national average U.S. Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P.) grew by 2.7%. In contrast, the Forbes list of the ten fastest dying U.S. cities showed diminished growth rates ranging from 0.4-1.9% (Zumbrun, 2008). Nine of the ten are located in the manufacturing belt and comprise the major cities of the region. Increased global competition and more favorable economic locations have led to the shutdown or relocation of manufacturing facilities. During the 1990s, auto industry relocation to non-union, lower wage states such as South Carolina, Tennessee, Alabama, and Kentucky resulted in less than 40% of automotive production remaining in Detroit by the end of that decade (Dalton, 2000). With a declining manufacturing base, cities have developed economic development plans to increase jobs within other industry sectors. In Northeast Ohio, local initiatives to grow the smaller professional, technical and scientific industry sectors have been successful. With a growth rate of 79% from 1993 to 2008, these sectors secured a modest overall G.D.P. growth in the region by offsetting significant industry declines in the manufacturing sector (Shilling, 2009).
According to Birch (1989), 90-95% of all new job creation in the United States is the result of entrepreneurial activity, most of which is focused in the technology application and services sectors (p.36). Small firms introduce patent innovations at a rate that is 13-14 times higher than large companies and exhibit high rates of commercialization and job creation (Glover, 2009). From 1989 to 2005, 22.9 million of the 24.6 million (93%) net new jobs created 16
in the United States were attributed to entrepreneurial enterprises (Glover, 2009). During a period of recession from 2001 to 2004 when large businesses across the U.S. shed 950,000 jobs, entrepreneurial ventures created 4.8 million net new jobs to sustain overall job growth at 3.9 million net new jobs (Glover, 2009). Many of the job losses identified above are a result of decreased manufacturing activity in the manufacturing belt.
Changes in the industry base create economic turbulence. Birch (1989) and Reynolds (1999) suggest that economic turbulence is related to increased entrepreneurial activity and economic growth. While these studies predict increased levels of entrepreneurship, cities in the manufacturing belt have experienced limited success. The Longitudinal Establishment and Enterprise Microdata (LEEM) on firm formation shows that of the 50 states and District of Columbia, the manufacturing belt states occupy the five lowest positions on the scale in terms of new venture birth rate, death rate and net firm formation (Lee, Florida, & Acs, 2004).
Regional human capital initiatives include increasing the number of knowledge-based workers, attracting new entrepreneurs to the region, and encouraging local workers to engage in entrepreneurship. Highly educated workers are necessary to drive the formation of new ventures in the professional, scientific and technology sectors. Based on the 2000 census, 22.9% of the Midwest region population over the age of 25 has a bachelor‟s degree, compared to 24.4% of the U.S. population (Bauman & Graf, 2003, p.3). This percentage has increased slightly in the Midwest since 1990 due to education initiatives. The region ranked the lowest nationally in terms of advanced degree holders in both 1990 and 2000, with 7.9% in the Midwest, compared to a national average of 8.9% in 2000 (Bauman & Graf, 2003, p.3). 17
In an area that is overrepresented both in number and size of institutions of higher education, migration of recent college graduates out of the area accounts for the lower than expected percentages of college degree holders. The top 15 states with the highest number of college degree holders attribute these numbers to the large number of post-secondary institutions in the state (“States with most”, 2010). In the manufacturing belt, states with large college attendance do not guarantee high numbers of college educated residents. Ohio has the fifth largest total number of colleges and postsecondary institutions in the United States including the third largest university in the country (“citytowninfo”, 2010). Based on the U.S. Department of Education National Center for Education Statistics (“Migration of college”, 2004), Ohio exported a net of 9000 graduates in 2001 (34.1% of total graduates). Michigan, with the eighth largest number of enrolled post-secondary students, also is below the national average in college degree residents (“citytowninfo”, 2010) .
Graduates of universities and workers under the age of 30 have demonstrated a pattern of migration to regions with high creativity and diversity that are more congruent with their lifestyle or career choices. Regions with high creativity and diversity measures are positively correlated with knowledge-worker attraction, technology-based entrepreneurship, relatively open social network access and successful economic development (Florida, 2002). Florida (2002) suggests that the potential for innovation, entrepreneurship, social network access, knowledge transfer and capital acquisition is related to the MSA‟s (Metropolitan Statistical Area) Composite Diversity Index. This index is a compilation of the Gay Index (the concentration of the gay population as compared to the national average), the Bohemian Index (the concentration of creative occupations as compared to the national average) and the Foreign-Born Index (the concentration of immigrants as compared to the national average). Manufacturing belt cities with Composite 18
Diversity Index values significantly below the average among US cities have a decreased likelihood of attracting outside talent to the region in high numbers and an increased potential for migration from the area. Table 1 contains Composite Diversity Index rankings for cities within the manufacturing belt that are among the 50 largest cities in the country.
City
Rank
Detroit
26
Columbus
29
Cincinnati
33
Indianapolis
40
Dayton
41
Cleveland
43
Memphis
44
Pittsburgh
46
Louisville
47
Table 1. Rank by Combined Diversity Index among 50 Largest US Cities (Florida, 2001, p.8)
Regional economic growth is dependent on the emergence of entrepreneurs. Shane and Venkataraman (2000) cite opportunity identification and the cognitive capabilities to exploit the opportunity as necessary for success in venture start-up. Leveraging social capital from the social network is one factor related to entrepreneurial success. Entrepreneurs who are embedded, or strongly connected to others, in a large social network are more likely to be successful when starting their business (Aldrich, 1999). Those who are effective in gaining high levels of accessibility to the social network can acquire resources, or social capital, that becomes available through their social relationships (Lin, 2001). 19
Regional economic development plans identify the need to develop entrepreneurs within the area (often displaced workers from other industries) and to attract others from outside the area. In this study, the terms homegrowns, boomerangs, and transplants are used to identify members of these groups. Homegrown entrepreneurs are lifelong residents of the area of study and enter entrepreneurship after employment in a traditional work environment. Boomerangs are former residents of the area who migrated to other geographic areas as an adult and have returned the area prior to business start-up. Transplants have recently migrated to the area prior to starting the business. The success of the individual in accessing the social network and leveraging social capital is dependent on his or her behaviors. The sum of the individual‟s life experiences, including exposure to other geographical areas, changes the cognitive process that determines the individual‟s behaviors and actions when attempting to exploit the social network (Bandura, 2002; and Bird, 1988).
Regional culture accounts for differences in norms, values and practices accepted by the social network in different geographic locations (Saxenian, 1994; and Vandello and Cohen, 1999). It is assumed that homegrown entrepreneurs understand these norms and values because of the extent of their exposure. Boomerang entrepreneurs have been exposed to the culture of the area but have also absorbed and modified their views through work within other cultures. They can potentially exhibit a wider range of behaviors. Transplanted entrepreneurs, with no original ties to the manufacturing belt, bring with them only the experiences developed in another regional culture. They may have difficulty understanding and recognizing the behaviors necessary to effectively become embedded in the social network and leverage resources from within the network.
20
Purpose and Contribution to Field
The purpose of this study is to explore the impact of geographic influences on the ability of the entrepreneur to gain access to the resources necessary to create a successful business enterprise. By exploring the extent of social network access by each group and how the group leverages social capital, a greater understanding of the needs of each entrepreneurial group during start-up can be developed. In addition, this study examines whether experience derived from geographic migration impacts the entrepreneur‟s entry approach. Utilizing a mixed methods exploratory approach, the qualitative phase of this study identifies resources that are specific to the region and not evident in the literature review. The subsequent quantitative phase assesses similarities and differences in how each group obtains resources through administration of an online survey to entrepreneurs in the manufacturing belt cities of Columbus, OH, Dayton, OH and Indianapolis, IN. Reasons for migration to the region by transplants are also identified to determine what mechanisms are successful in attracting new talent to the area.
Significance of the Study
The culture and economic climate of the manufacturing belt differs from those of more highly studied areas of the country. This study will contribute knowledge to the field of entrepreneurship from the perspective of a different research setting. From an application perspective, entrepreneurs can assess their pattern of social capital access to those of other types in the same geographic area. This can modify their actions as managers of their individual businesses. Managers in agencies that allocate funding to programs that train and develop entrepreneurs can utilize this information to determine gaps between groups of entrepreneurs and to more effectively make decisions about allocation of resources to areas of highest need. The 21
reasons for migration of transplants to the area will contribute knowledg
Key factors of successful innovation for supplementary education industry in Taiwan
No full textMany students who wanted to enroll into better senior high schools and topnotch universities would attend supplementary/ cram schools to improve the practical techniques of taking school entrance exams in Taiwan. As a result, supplementary/cram schools began to expand and continue to thrive on. The significant growth of supplementary education industry has demonstrated this industry has its own value of existence and has become a truly growing industry that plays a decisive role in Taiwan's current educational and economic status.
In the ever-changing economic era, supplementary/cram schools are facing various impacts and crises and some of them are forced to shut down. The issue of learning from other industries in order to make changes and improvements and strive for business survival is very urgent for supplementary education industry. Joseph A. Schumpeter pointed out (1992) that innovation is the core of economic growth, and enterprises shall strive to implement innovation to improve their competitiveness. This research has proposed a preliminary assumption that if Taiwan's supplementary education industry has implements innovation, it can enhance its employees' competence and improve their job performance, and the overall industry can grow more competitive than before.
The main research objectives of this study include: (1) To acquire opinions from educational experts and scholars by conducting in-depth interviews with them in order to confirm the key success factors mentioned in the questionnaire that influence supplementary/cram schools' innovation. (2) To Study the difference in innovation competence about employees of the supplementary/ cram school which has implemented innovation, and the one which has not implemented innovation. (3) To explore the difference in job performance between employees of the supplementary/ cram school which has implemented innovation, and the one which has not implemented innovation. (4) To find out the relationship between employees' innovation competence and their job performance. (5) To provide specific suggestions to various supplementary/ cram schools and make them understand how to control the important factors to successfully implement innovation and further enhance employees' innovation competence and improve their productivity.
Based on these two empirical evidences, the researcher suggested that supplementary/cram schools should put a lot more efforts into implementing innovation, and make well-planned strategy of innovation to control the key success factors to achieve the goal of success. By means of innovation, employees are inspired to become more competent under such innovative working environment while employees with greater competence are proned to have higher efficiency and higher productivity in job performance, and would then further contribute to the improvement of competitive advantages.
The importance of this research is two-folds. First of all, the conduct of this research is in hope to enlighten more follow-up researchers to make in-depth studies on this emerging industry in order to propose diversified and exquisite discussions to exist as important references. Second, this research is to serve as an important guidance and critical resource for supplementary/cram schools in maintaining competitiveness in supplementary education as well as assisting our society and country to achieve the overall quality in education.i
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation:
THE KEY FACTORS OF SUCCESSFUL INNOVATION FOR
SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATION INDUSTRY IN TAIWAN
Chia-Hsi (Joyce) Liang, Doctoral degree, 2010
Dissertation Directed By: Saad Laraqui, Ph.D., Professor
Dermod Wood, Ph.D., Professor
Husein Abdul-Hamid, Ph.D., Professor
ii
Many students who wanted to enroll into better senior high schools and topnotch
universities would attend supplementary/ cram schools to improve the practical techniques of
taking school entrance exams in Taiwan. As a result, supplementary/cram schools began to
expand and continue to thrive on. The significant growth of supplementary education industry
has demonstrated this industry has its own value of existence and has become a truly growing
industry that plays a decisive role in Taiwan’s current educational and economic status.
In the ever-changing economic era, supplementary/cram schools are facing various
impacts and crises and some of them are forced to shut down. The issue of learning from other
industries in order to make changes and improvements and strive for business survival is very
urgent for supplementary education industry. Joseph A. Schumpeter pointed out (1992) that
innovation is the core of economic growth, and enterprises shall strive to implement innovation
to improve their competitiveness. This research has proposed a preliminary assumption that if
Taiwan’s supplementary education industry has implements innovation, it can enhance its
employees’ competence and improve their job performance, and the overall industry can grow
more competitive than before.
The main research objectives of this study include: (1) To acquire opinions from
educational experts and scholars by conducting in-depth interviews with them in order to
confirm the key success factors mentioned in the questionnaire that influence
supplementary/cram schools’ innovation. (2) To Study the difference in innovation competence
about employees of the supplementary/ cram school which has implemented innovation, and the
one which has not implemented innovation. (3) To explore the difference in job performance
between employees of the supplementary/ cram school which has implemented innovation, and
the one which has not implemented innovation. (4) To find out the relationship between
iii
employees’ innovation competence and their job performance. (5) To provide specific
suggestions to various supplementary/ cram schools and make them understand how to control
the important factors to successfully implement innovation and further enhance employees’
innovation competence and improve their productivity.
Based on these two empirical evidences, the researcher suggested that supplementary/cram
schools should put a lot more efforts into implementing innovation, and make well-planned
strategy of innovation to control the key success factors to achieve the goal of success. By means
of innovation, employees are inspired to become more competent under such innovative working
environment while employees with greater competence are proned to have higher efficiency and
higher productivity in job performance, and would then further contribute to the improvement of
competitive advantages.
The importance of this research is two-folds. First of all, the conduct of this research is in
hope to enlighten more follow-up researchers to make in-depth studies on this emerging industry
in order to propose diversified and exquisite discussions to exist as important references. Second,
this research is to serve as an important guidance and critical resource for supplementary/cram
schools in maintaining competitiveness in supplementary education as well as assisting our
society and country to achieve the overall quality in education.
Keywords: Supplementary/cram schools, Supplementary education industry,
Innovation implementation, Key success factor,
Innovation competence, Job performance
iv
THE KEY FACTORS OF SUCCESSFUL INNOVATION FOR
SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATION INDUSTRY IN TAIWAN
By
Chia-Hsi (Joyce) Liang
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Management
2010
Advisory Committee:
Saad Laraqui, Chair
Dermod Wood
Husein Abdul-Hamid
© Copyright by
Chia-Hsi Liang
2010
i
Table of Contents
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………………i
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ iii
List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... vii
List of Hypotheses ........................................................................................................................ vii
List of Figures ..............................................................................................................................viii
List of Appendices ......................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Problems ......................................................................... 1
1-1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1
1-2. Contribution of this study ................................................................................................ .16
1-3. Operational definitions of terms used in this study .......................................................... 17
1-4. Research problems............................................................................................................ 23
Chapter 2: Literature Review..................................................................................................... 25
2-1. Innovation........................................................................................................................ 25
2-2. Key success factor ............................................................................................................ 31
2-3. Innovation competence..................................................................................................... 37
2-4. Job performance ............................................................................................................... 41
Chapter 3: Research Method...................................................................................................... 43
3-1. Conceptual framework ..................................................................................................... 43
3-2. Hypotheses....................................................................................................................... 44
3-3. Research methods ............................................................................................................. 55
3-4. Data analysis..................................................................................................................... 65
ii
Chapter 4: Research Results ...................................................................................................... 76
4-1. Results .............................................................................................................................. 76
4-2. Discussions ..................................................................................................................... 130
4-3. Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 135
4-4. Limitations..................................................................................................................... 138
Chapter 5: Suggestions and Recommendations for Future Work............................................ 140
5-1. Suggestions.................................................................................................................... 140
5-2. Recommendations for future work................................................................................. 145
Appendices .............................................................................................................................. 154
References .............................................................................................................................. 255
iii
List of Tables
Table 1 Growth for Supplementary/Cram Schools in Recent 10 Years in Taiwan ........................ 5
Table 2 The Prosperous Status of Supplementary/ Cram Schools in Taiwan. ............................... 6
Table 3 PISA Result for Taiwan Students .................................................................................... 12
Table 4 Comparison between Taiwan and Finland Education Systems (Cramming Inspiring)... 12
Table 5 Key Success Factor in Success Innovation Implementation ........................................... 47
Table 6 Successful Innovation Implementation with Employee Innovation Competence and
Job Performance ............................................................................................................. 48
Table 7 Innovation Competence with Job Performance ............................................................... 48
Table 8 Ten Parts about Questionnaire 2...................................................................................... 50
Table 9 Comparison Table of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods .......................... 63
Table 10 AHP Paired Comparison Table...................................................................................... 70
Table 11 AHP Evaluation Indicator and Its Meaning Instruction ................................................ 71
Table 12 Reliability of In- depth Interview Questionnaire 1........................................................ 76
Table 13 Basic Data Statistics (N=20) Questionnaire 1 ............................................................... 77
Table 14 The Situation of Agreement about Innovation Implementation (Questionnaire 1) ....... 77
Table 15 Paired Comparison Matrix which Adopted Innovation Process as the Evaluation
Standard (B1-B4)............................................................................................................ 78
Table 16 Paired Comparison Matrix which Adopted Source of innovation as the Evaluation
Standards (C01-C04) ...................................................................................................... 80
Table 17 Paired Comparison Matrix which Adopted Strategy in Innovation as the
Evaluation Standards (C05-C07).................................................................................... 81
iv
Table 18 Paired Comparison Matrix which Adopted Investment of Innovation as the
Evaluation Standards (C08-C10).................................................................................... 83
Table 19 Paired Comparison Matrix which Adopted Culture of Innovation as the
Evaluation Standards C11-C14)… …………………………………………………84
Table 20-1 Relative Weight and Priority of B1-B4...................................................................... 85
Table 20-2 Relative Weight and Priority of C01-C04.................................................................. 85
Table 20-3 Relative Weight and Priority of C05-C07.................................................................. 85
Table 20-4 Relative Weight and Priority of C08-C10.................................................................. 86
Table 20-5 Relative Weight and Priority of C11-C14.................................................................. 86
Table 21-1 Relative Weight of Evaluation Criteria which Adopted Source of Innovation as
the Evaluation Standards (C01-C04) ........................................................................ 86
Table 21-2 Relative Weight of Evaluation Criteria which Adopted Strategy of Innovation as
the Evaluation Standards (C05-C07) .......................................................................... 87
Table 21-3 Relative Weight of Evaluation Criteria which Adopted Investment in Innovation
as the Evaluation Standards (C08-C10)...................................................................... 88
Table 21-4 Relative Weight of Evaluation Criteria which Adopted Culture of Innovation as
the Evaluation Standards(C11-C14) ........................................................................... 88
Table 21-5 Overall Weight and Priority for All Evaluation Criteria(C01-C14)........................... 89
Table 22 Returned Questionnaire Analytic Result of Questionnaire 2......................................... 90
Table 23 Basic Data Statistics (N=90) of Questionnaire 2 ........................................................... 90
Table 24 Situation of Innovation Implementation (Questionnaire 2)........................................... 91
Table 25 Success of Innovation Implementation (A, A1, A2) ..................................................... 91
Table 26 Influencing Factors of Successful Innovation (B1-B4) ................................................. 92
v
Table 27 Influencing Factors of Innovation Evaluation Criteria (C01-C14)................................ 92
Table 28 Influencing Factors of Innovation Competence (D01-D10).......................................... 93
Table 29 Influencing Factors of Job Performance (E1-E10) ........................................................ 94
Table 30-1 KMO and Bartlett’s Test 2-1-2 (A1, A2/A) ............................................................... 95
Table 30-2 KMO and Bartlett’s Test 2-2-1 (B1-B4/A) ................................................................ 95
Table 30-3 KMO and Bartlett’s Test 2-2-2 (C01-C04/B1) .......................................................... 95
Table 30-4 KMO and Bartlett’s Test 2-2-2 (C05-C07/B2) .......................................................... 96
Table 30-5 KMO and Bartlett’s Test 2-2-2 (C08-C10/B3) .......................................................... 96
Table 30-6 KMO and Bartlett’s Test 2-2-2 (C11-C14/B4) .......................................................... 97
Table 30-7 KMO and Bartlett’s Test 2-4-3 (D01-D10/E) ............................................................ 97
Table 31-1 Component Matrix of Questionnaire 2-1-2 (loading) ................................................ 97
Table 31-2 Component Matrix of Questionnaire 2-2-1 (loading) ................................................ 98
Table 31-3 Component Matrix of Questionnaire 2-2-2 (loading) ................................................ 98
Table 31-4 Component Matrix of Questionnaire 2-4-3 (loading) ................................................ 99
Table 32-1 Rational range of Cronbach,s α ................................................................................ 100
Table 32-2 Reliability of Questionnaire 2 .................................................................................. 101
Table 32-3 Source of Questionnaire Evaluate List and Reliability ............................................ 101
Table 32-4 Reliability of Questionnaire 2-1 ............................................................................... 102
Table 32-5 Reliability of Questionnaire 2-2-1............................................................................ 102
Table 32-6 Reliability of Questionnaire2-2-2............................................................................. 102
Table 33-1 Validity of Questionnaire 2-1-2................................................................................ 103
Table 33-2 Validity of Questionnaire 2-2-1................................................................................ 104
Table 33-3 Validity of Questionnaire 2-2-2................................................................................ 104
vi
Table 33-4 Validity of Questionnaire 2-4-3................................................................................ 105
Table 34-1 Pearson Correlation Coefficient of Questionnaire 2-1-2.......................................... 106
Table 34-2 Pearson Correlation Coefficient of Questionnaire 2-2-1.......................................... 106
Table 34-3 Pearson Correlation Coefficient of Questionnaire 2-2-2(C01-C04/B1)................... 107
Table 34-4 Pearson Correlation Coefficient of Questionnaire 2-2-2(C05-C07/B2)................... 107
Table 34-5 Pearson Correlation Coefficient of Questionnaire 2-2-2(C08-C10/B3)................... 108
Table 34-6 Pearson Correlation Coefficient of Questionnaire 2-2-2(C11-C14/B4)................... 108
Table 34-7 Pearson Correlation Coefficient of Questionnaire 2-4-3.......................................... 109
Table 35-1 Fit Index (FI) of SEM............................................................................................... 110
Table 35-2 GFI of Questionnaire 2............................................................................................. 110
Table 36-1 Regression Analysis of Questionnaire 2-1-1(Brand Awareness)............................. 112
Table 36-2 Regression Analysis of Questionnaire 2-1-1(Enrolment Rate) ................................ 112
Table 36-3 Regression Analysis of Questionnaire 2-1-2(A1, A2/A) ......................................... 113
Table 36-4 Regression Analysis of Questionnaire 2-2-1............................................................ 113
Table 36-5 Regression Analysis of Questionnaire 2-2-2............................................................ 114
Table 36-6 Regression Analysis of Questionnaire 2-3-1............................................................ 115
Table 36-7 Regression Analysis of Questionnaire 2-3-2............................................................ 116
Table 36-8 Regression Analysis of Questionnaire 2-3-3...........………………………………..117
Table 36-9 Regression Analysis of Questionnaire 2-4-1......…………………………………...117
Table 36-10 Regression Analysis of Questionnaire 2-4-2………….......................................... 118
Table 36-11 Regression Analysis of Questionnaire 2-4-3…………………………………...... 119
Table 37-1 Research Model Analysis Result of Questionnaire 2-1-1 ........................................ 120
Table 37-2 Research Model Analysis Result of Questionnaire 2-2-1 ..................
Mapping Web 2-0 Benefits to Known Best Practices in Distance Education - DE Oracle
No full textDE Oracle @ UMUC
An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty
Center for Support of Instruction
Mapping Web 2.0 Benefits to Known Best Practices in Distance
Education
Laddie Odom
Multimedia Producer
Center for Support of Instruction
Published: January-February 2010
Category: » Online-pedagogy » Emerging-technologies
Introduction
The last several years have been filled with enthusiastic discussion regarding Web 2.0 technologies and
their positive, dynamic enhancements to a user’s experience on the Internet. This same wave has
somewhat belatedly crashed over the realm of online education, and it has been a much-mulled subject
ever since. The reason is for this is simple: The potential positive impact of Web 2.0 tools on the online
learning experience is believed to be myriad and vast.
Recent research has confirmed and identified benefits to the use of Web 2.0 technologies within the
online classroom. Such benefits can be mapped to known best practices from the distance education
literature to help enhance and optimize their potential positive effects within the online classroom. This
article outlines the suspected and documented benefits of Web 2.0 technologies and links them to
known best best practices in distance education.
Potential Benefits of Web 2.0 Technologies
The benefits of using Web 2.0 tools and technologies in the online classroom reaches far and wide. This
section looks at both documented and undocumented advantages.
Undocumented/Presumed Potential Benefits
Since their inception, Web 2.0 tools have widely been believed to produce several positive impacts:
They provide a constructivist-friendly toolkit. Constructivist theory is generally acknowledged and
utilized in online education as an effective roadmap towards successful, deep learning outcomes for
students. The requirements of a successful constructivist approach include encouraging the student's
own role in the continuing process of constructing knowledge and deep learning. Prior to Web 2.0, one
of the key assumptions was that online classrooms would serve well as platforms for creating
constructivist learning environments, but they actually often proved to simply act as transmission
models of education (Allen & Long, 2009) usually due to the high expertise levels required of earlier
technologies. More recently, the surge in user-friendly Web 2.0 tools such as wikis, blogs, video sharing
services, social networks, and other collaborative tools have lent support to a key component of
constructivist practice: the promotion of collaborative learning, capable of helping to create "an entire
constructivist learning environment" (Seitzinger, 2006, p.13) within an online class.
They create a connection to today's students' (and our own) "real world." Web 2.0 has also
already proven valuable in various corporate, government, and institutional settings, and its adoption
has been quite rapid compared to other IT technologies (Bughin, 2008). As such, implementing thse
tools in the educational arena can help prepare students to use them in real-world venues.
They allow for authentic assessment. The effects of Web 2.0 simply cannot be ignored today. It is
Mapping Web 2.0 Benefits to Known Best Practices in Distance Education - DE Oracle
now a nearly unavoidable aspect within the daily lives of most students and even some instructors
these days. Some have argued that it must now be accounted for in creating an authentic assessment
of learning objectives, and of the formal and informal learning going on inside and outside the
classroom. Allen (2009) goes so far as to note that "developments in assessment using the Internet will
only be authentic if they take account of the way the Internet functions outside of higher education,
rather than seeing it as an educational technology divorced from its own authenticity" (p. 1). Allen goes
even further to state:
Since this kind of knowledge work is becoming the norm, without a social media / Web 2.0 approach to
assessment, traditional approaches (essays, tests, student-centred discussions and presentations) will
begin to appear inauthentic if they do not, to some extent at least, recognize and embrace Internet-enabled
knowledge networking. (p. 4)
They can be repurposed for multiple stakeholder levels within an organization. The same
Google Apps for Education tools used for student collaborations can also be used by an instructor to
share documents with a colleague, possibly allowing them to co-author research in a much simpler and
efficient manner than ever before. The administration can also benefit from use of such tools for the
same reasons.
They are cost efficient. An institution making use of Web 2.0 tools will see efficiencies of scale due to
savings in cost (usually free) and resources expended to create the tools (virtually none). These are
ample savings potentials compared to the usually large fixed costs required to produce similar
proprietary materials. Web 2.0 tools are proving beneficial to institutions seeking affordable, scalable
solutions for course content.
Some institutions are using Web 2.0 technologies for course management (Rienzo & Han, 2009). It
would seem such institutions must examine these tools now, when considering the threat of a truly
Web 2.0 style service such as Ududtu.com (http://ududtu.com/) , which offers a free method of not only
creating learning objects but also a means of creating a standalone LMS within the confines of
Facebook, a popular social networking site. The user can upload interactive content made at Udutu and
then track a student's graded progress within the LMS app. Some of the more hyperbolic enthusiasts of
Web 2.0 applications such as this have claimed that it brings a "transformation of learning" (Selwyn,
2009, p. 1). While there is ample room for skepticism of such lofty claims—and some of it well
deserved—recent research has discerned and noted definitive benefits to using Web 2.0 technologies in
the online classroom.
Documented Benefits
While there seems to be a general paucity of directly measurable data on the benefits of Web 2.0
technology for online education, there is some relatively fresh evidentiary research that can be
referenced. A recent research report funded by Becta, a British government agency charged with
effective use of innovative technology in learning, recently released a major report on the impact of
Web 2.0 technology on secondary schools (Crook, Fisher, Graber, Harrison, & Lewin., 2009). The report
is based on evidence gathered from field studies, guided surveys of 2600 students, and interviews and
online surveys conducted with instructors, technical staff, administration, and parents.
The report contains many fascinating findings regarding usage of Web 2.0 technologies, challenges to
implementation, policy, and more. It also explicitly cites four potential benefits of Web 2.0 on teaching
and learning:
It stimulates new modes of inquiry.
It creates new opportunities for collaborative learning.
It allows students to engage with new literacies and express themselves in different media.
It encourages a proficiency in the publication of content, which creates a sense of ownership, audience
engagement, peer assessment, and informal learning.
Mapping Web 2.0 Benefits to Known Best Practices in Distance Education - DE Oracle
These documented benefits lend much support to the undocumented benefits being on the right track
in terms of how Web 2.0 technologies can positively impact the teaching and learning process. But how
do these benefits play out against the most commonly known and agreed-upon best practices in online
education?
Mapping Benefits to Best Practices
Much has been written in the literature regarding best practices in distance education—from Chickering
and Gamson’s seven principles (1987) to Hacker and Niederhauser (2000) to Berge (2002) and many
others. Throughout the literature, four common themes are reiterated as being best practices for
online/distance education. In short, faculty need to:
Facilitate learning
Foster interaction
Use collaborative problem solving
Provide prompt feedback
The examples below discuss these four best practices in more detail and examine where Web 2.0
technologies align with them.
Facilitate Learning
In pursuit of Lewis and Al-Hamid’s (2006) notion of the importance of facilitating learning in online
education, the authors note that "[t]he use of learning objects such as video clips and other digital
resources was another strategy for some of the exemplary faculty" (p.12). One of the richest Web 2.0
veins to be mined is learning objects. Users of such sites may simply access and utilize the
pre-authored content on a site, or may, in the true spirit of Web 2.0, create and share their own
content with the community. Additionally, the user may collaborate with others in this creation and
sharing of content.
If an instructor or student is not interested in authoring his or her own content, thousands of free
videos are available from services such as YouTube, Hulu, and dozens of other lesser-known video-sharing
sites. Pertinent videos on virtually any imaginable subject can now be found online, and they
can be embedded directly within an online classroom via auto-generated HTML code supplied by the
services—creating a highly contextualized, engaging experience for the learner. Video services continue
to develop additional features, making the content even more beneficial to learning via functions such
as Hulu’s ability to select and embed only a segment of a video and YouTube’s new automated closed-captioning
service.
Other types of learning objects abound, like those found in repositories of pre-authored interactive
learning objects such as Merlot, where objects are freely shared. Learning objects themselves may
actually be authored and then shared within a Web 2.0 service community such as Flickr for pictures,
ZohoShare for presentations, or Google Docs for collaboration on various types of documents. Students
themselves may then participate in the selection (or outright creation) and sharing of such learning
objects within a class, supporting Anderson and Wark's (2004) vision of a classroom that is populated
with student-supplied content and their conclusion that
an instructional design based on student construction and sharing of knowledge in a web based portal is
perceived to be a valued and worthwhile learning experience. Students report this design provides as much
or more learning, challenge and skill acquisition as other courses in the program do. (Conclusion section,
paragraph 2)
Not only does this sort of model enable constructivist learning to occur, but the content itself, which is
located or created by the students, can also save instructors the time investment required to locate or
create such materials themselves.
Mapping Web 2.0 Benefits to Known Best Practices in Distance Education - DE Oracle
Foster Interaction
The importance of interaction between the online instructor, students, and peers has been noted
numerous times in the literature, due to a sense that isolation can arise in the online learning
experience (Lewis & Al-Hamid, 2006). While attempting to meet online learners' expectations of the
instructor’s constant presence, or at least the appearance of a constant presence, the already heavy
workload of the instructor can be increased. Various strategies, which are supported by Web 2.0
technologies, are available to the instructor to lessen the strain of maintaining a high degree of
interaction, including the use of a synchronous peer tutoring mechanism (Westera, De Bakker, &
Wagemans, 2009).
Web 2.0 technologies and services are by their very nature about interaction, some more specifically
than others. Internet phone services such as Skype and instant messaging services such as AIM enable
synchronous interactions; blogs and microblogs, wikis, and social networks all offer ample
asynchronous interaction opportunities. Google’s highly anticipated Wave tool promises to take
interaction to a whole new level (Devaney, 2009).
Use Collaborative Problem Solving
Theorists and practitioners alike have often flagged collaborative activities as a best practice for
enhancing online learning. Research (Gokhale, 1995) has also shown this to be true. However, the
Internet prior to Web 2.0 could not offer a great variety— or very dynamic modes—of collaboration.
This situation has been transformed by the possibilities that Web 2.0 technologies can offer. Powerful
new tools abound to enable enhanced collaborative learning opportunities. One such class of tools
involves Web conferencing environments. At one time, Web conferencing was a technically challenging
and expensive resource of the elite. Even a short time ago, a proprietary Web conferencing system
would require large sums of money and time to support it. Now, with the availability of Web 2.0
versions of this class of tool, the door has been opened to all. Tools such as Mikogo offer a large array
of collaborative features, such as desktop and application sharing, remote keyboard and mouse control,
meeting recording and playback, whiteboards, file exchange, and more for free.
Other sorts of Web 2.0 tools for collaboration include the document sharing class of tools. Web 2.0
versions of office suites are numerous, but perhaps the most notable is Google Docs and its sister
project, Google Apps for Education. Google Docs is free and available to anyone with Internet access. It
allows one to use the Internet cloud as a new sort of desktop, with all the functionality of a user’s local
computer. The key difference is that the documents created in Google Docs are available to the user
from any computer in the world that has an Internet connection—and they also allow for synchronous
or asynchronous collaboration.
For synchronous usage, a user could overlay the use of Skype to collaboratively examine, review, and
discuss a particular phrase in a document, a formula in a spreadsheet cell, or the images included in a
PowerPoint presentation. An asynchronous approach could involve a user simply making edits and then
inviting the collaborator to visit and review automatically tracked changes at his/her convenience.
Other services related to these initiatives include Google Groups, which creates interest groups, and
Google Sites, which allows collaborative creation of Web sites and related files. All of these tools are
examples of Web 2.0 technology that encourage publishing proficiency.
Provide Prompt Feedback
There seems to be nearly unanimous agreement in the literature on the need for prompt feedback in
the online classroom. This task is also acknowledged as being time-intensive for the instructor. It is
possible that the creative use of some Web 2.0 tools could help eliminate this burden.
In an earlier age, the notion of using voice-based feedback to reduce the writing load and speed up the
feedback process was technically difficult and required ownership of software to create and edit the
Mapping Web 2.0 Benefits to Known Best Practices in Distance Education - DE Oracle
recordings. The instructor would then be responsible for sending the file to the student. In a Web 2.0
world, the whole process becomes much simpler, with a free service offering the entire process from a
single location in the cloud. Services such VoiceThread, for example, can create a sort of voice thread
(not surprising then, its choice of name) that goes one step further in that it can "enable asynchronous
comments and feedback from students and tutors alike around pieces of media such as video clips,
images and presentations" (Burden & Atkinson, 2008, p. 2).
Conclusion
While it has been believed for some time that Web 2.0 technologies held strong promise to benefit
online classrooms, there is now also corroborating evidence from recent research that testifies to Web
2.0's positive impact on teaching and learning. These benefits can be directly aligned to key existing
best practices in online education, which serves to further substantiate the validity of these tools for
the educational environment.
NOTE: The references to specific tools, technologies, or companies mentioned in this article should not
be taken an an endorsement.
References
Allen, M., & Long, J. (2009, October). Learning as knowledge networking: Conceptual foundations for
revised uses of the Internet in higher education. Paper presented at the World Congress on Engineering
& Computer Science 2009, San Francisco. Retrieved November 18, 2009, from http://netcrit.net
/content/wcecslearningasknet2009.pdf (http://netcrit.net/content/wcecslearningasknet2009.pdf)
Allen, M. (2009, October). Authentic assessment and the Internet: Contributions within knowledge
networks. Paper presented at the E-Learn 2009 conference of the Association for the Advancement of
Computing in Education, Vancouver, Canada. Retrieved November 18, 2009, from http://netcrit.net
/content/aaceauthenticassessment2009.pdf (http://netcrit.net/content/aaceauthenticassessment2009.pdf)
Anderson, T., & Wark, N. (2004). Why do teachers get to learn the most? E-Journal of Instructional
Science and Technology, 7(2). Retrieved November 18, 2009, from http://www.usq.edu.au
/electpub/e-jist/docs/Vol7_no2/FullPapers/WhyDoTeachers.htm (http://www.usq.edu.au/electpub
/e-jist/docs/Vol7_no2/FullPapers/WhyDoTeachers.htm)
Berge, Z. L. (2002). Active, interactive, and reï¬ï¿½ective e-learning. Quarterly Review of Distance
Education, 3, 181–190.
Burden, K., & Atkinson, S. (2008). Evaluating pedagogical affordances of media sharing Web 2.0
technologies: A case study. In Hello! Where are you in the landscape of educational technology?
Proceedings ascilite Melbourne 2008. Retrieved November 18, 2009, from
http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/melbourne08/procs/burden-2.pdf
(http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/melbourne08/procs/burden-2.pdf)
Bughin, J. (2008). The rise of enterprise 2.0. Journal of Direct, Data and Digital Marketing Practice,
9(3), 251–259. Retrieved November 18, 2009, from https://secure.palgrave-journals.com
/dddmp/journal/v9/n3/full/4350100a.html (https://secure.palgrave-journals.com/dddmp/journal/v9/n3
/full/4350100a.html)
Chickering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. F. (1987). Seven principles of good practice in undergraduate
education. AAHE Bulletin, 39(7), 3–7.
Crook, C., Fisher, T., Graber, R., Harrison, C., & Lewin , C. (2008, September). Implementing Web 2.0
in secondary schools: Impacts, barriers and issues. Retrieved November 18, 2009, from Becta
website: http://partners.becta.org.uk/upload-dir/downloads/page_documents/research
/web2_benefits_barriers.pdf (http://partners.becta.org.uk/upload-dir/downloads/page_documents/research
Mapping Web 2.0 Benefits to Known Best Practices in Distance Education - DE Oracle
/web2_benefits_barriers.pdf)
Devaney, L. (2009, June 8). Google Wave has great potential for education. New online collaborative
tool combines eMail, instant messaging, and file sharing in a dynamic environment. Retrieved
November 18, 2009, from http://www.eschoolnews.com/news/top-news/?i=59086
(http://www.eschoolnews.com/news/top-news/?i=59086)
Gokhale, A., (1995). Collaborative learning enhances critical thinking. Journal of Technology Education,
7(1), 22-30. Retrieved November 18, 2009, from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc
/download?doi=10.1.1.3.6959&rep=rep1&type=pdf (http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc
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Hacker, D. J., & Niederhauser, D. S. (2000). Promoting deep and durable learning in the online
classroom. In R. E. Weiss, D. S. Knowlton, & B. W. Speck (Eds.), Principles of effective teaching in the
online classroom (pp. 53–64). San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass.
Lewis, C. C., & Abdul-Hamid, H. (2006, May). Implementing effective online teaching practices: Voices
of exemplary faculty. Innovative Higher Education, 31(2), 83-98. Retrieved November 18, 2009, from
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93ba-0ba274a26c67%40sessionmgr11 (http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=5&hid=7&sid=5b9203bc-
2b39-4c7d-93ba-0ba274a26c67%40sessionmgr11)
Rienzo, T., & Han, B. (2009, Summer). Microsoft or Google Web 2.0 tools for course management.
Journal of Information Systems Education, 20(2), 123-127. Retrieved November 18, 2009, from
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/?tag=content;col1 (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4041/is_200907/ai_n32128804/?tag=content;col1)
Seitzinger, J. (2006, July 31). Be constructive: Blogs, podcasts, and wikis as constructivist learning
tools. Learning Solutions e-Magazine. Retrieved November 18, 2009, from
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(http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.121.4071&rep=rep1&type=pdf)
Selwyn, N. (2007). Web 2.0 applications as alternative environments for informal learning - A critical
review. Paper presented at the OECD-KERIS International Expert Meeting on ICT and Educational
Performance, Cheju Island, South Korea. Retrieved November 18, 2009, from
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.117.9470&rep=rep1&type=pdf
(http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.117.9470&rep=rep1&type=pdf)
Westera, W., De Bakker, G., & Wagemans, L. (2009). Self-arrangement of fleeting student pairs: A
Web 2.0 approach for peer tutoring. Interactive Learning Environments, 17(4), 339-347. Retrieved
November 18, 2009, from http://dspace.ou.nl/bitstream/1820/2005/1/Preprint%20PAIR.pdf
(http://dspace.ou.nl/bitstream/1820/2005/1/Preprint%20PAIR.pdf)
About the Author(s)
Laddie Odom began his professional career over two decades ago in Detroit as an animator and special effects artist for
regional and national television commercial
Online Video Resources for Faculty - DE Oracle
No full textDE Oracle @ UMUC
An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty
Center for Support of Instruction
Online Video Resources for Faculty
Prince Rozario
Multimedia Production Specialist
Center for Support of Instruction
Published: March-April 2012
Category: » Online-pedagogy » External-resources
Introduction
Videos can help enhance the classroom learning experience, and there are plenty of sites and
organizations providing videos that can benefit the overall course. This article presents some video
resources that faculty can explore for use in their classrooms. These video resources are not all
targeted to students in higher learning, but a majority of them offer compelling videos with topics,
issues, and lessons that UMUC students might find helpful.
The online video resources mentioned here are just a sampling of the sites available to instructors. I
have used videos from these sites to enhance my classes as an adjunct at UMUC and at other
institutions because of their ease of accessibility to students and their relevancy to the topics that I am
covering in classes. The sites include videos ranging from tutorials to stimulating documentaries to
video-on-demand channels dedicated specifically to higher learning.
Lynda.com
A popular software training site, Lynda.com (http://lynda.com/) has grown from a supplemental site that
supported book lessons to a full-fledged online tutorial Web site. The subjects covered include Web and
Interactive, Video, Photography, Programming/Developer, Design, Business, Audio, 3D / 2D Animation,
and even some documentaries.
With content from hundreds of authors, this site offers tutorial videos for just about anything that you
would do on a computer. While the site requires paid membership, one feature that I really appreciate
is that the introductory videos—which are often about the overview of a software program, its updates,
or an introduction to certain topics—are free to watch in segments, with most no longer than seven
minutes. These free videos can easily be shared by URL or e-mail directly from the video portal. You will
need to review these free videos to determine if they are appropriate for your class.
Technology, Entertainment, Design (TED)
“Devoted to ideas worth spreading,” the TED (http://www.ted.com/) site offers an ever-growing collection
of thought-provoking speakers, covering almost every subject imaginable. The videos can be filtered by
subject matter, language, TED events, and length (between 3 and 18 minutes), to name a few options.
I have found that students really enjoy these videos, and they often lead to great discussions and help
students to begin thinking critically about a topic.
While there is an option to register, TED remains a free video resource that is open to the public. The
videos can also be easily shared via various share links in the site.
PBS Frontline
A portal for PBS (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/view/) 's popular documentary programs, the
Online Video Resources for Faculty - DE Oracle
Frontline series produces many thought-provoking documentaries that are relevant to current issues.
The Frontline portal has an archive of all the programs it has produced and aired, which cover a range
of topics including social issues, criminal justice, the environment, government, and technology. I often
send my students to the Frontline series to watch various video segments. The videos can be shared by
e-mail or through the site's embedding options.
PBS offers an online archive all of its programs through its Web site (http://video.pbs.org./) .
Howcast
Howcast (http://www.howcast.com/) is a personal favorite of mine, simply because it is one of those how-to
video portals that not only shows the viewer (sometimes in great detail) how to do something, but also
because it is a video resource where the videos are produced by anyone who has a solution on how to
do whatever it is that they want to produce. In other words, it is essentially by the viewers, for the
viewers.
Howcast videos cover topics on just about anything you can possibly imagine. There is even a Howcast
on “how to make a Howcast video.” Howcast videos have a certain level of production quality and are
selected by the team that runs the site. The Howcast team also creates videos from its studios as well.
Howcast videos can be shared by e-mail or by using the site's embed options.
Vimeo
Vimeo (http://www.vimeo.com/) prides itself on high-quality video created and uploaded by users. Often
thought of among my students as “YouTube's competitor,” Vimeo offers an alternative video outlet,
including its own Video School that offers tutorials on a variety of topics related to creating videos. It
also includes various categories , from which one can select amongst thousands of videos ranging from
Arts to Education/DIY to Music and Sports.
Vimeo also offers thousands of Channels, created and maintained by users. The videos presented on
Vimeo can be shared or embedded.
Open Culture
Open Culture (http://www.openculture.com/) is dedicated to “the best free cultural & educational media on
the web” and has quickly become one of my favorite repositories of free videos. In keeping with the
open university concept, this site is dedicated to providing free courses, audio books, movies,
textbooks, and lessons—all of which respect copyright rules. You will not find any videos that infringe on
the rights of copyright holders.
In the Free Movies section of this site (under Essentials), you can find 450 videos in the categories of
Comedy and Drama; Noir, Thriller, Horror and Hitchcock; Westerns & John Wayne; Silent Films;
Documentaries; Animations, and a listing of additional free movie sites. It is important to note that
some of these videos link to external sites that house the videos, and depending on the site on which
they are hosted, you may or may not be able to simply share the video by e-mail or embed code. In
this case, you would have to copy and paste the URL of the video link into your classroom to allow
students to view it.
YouTube
When it comes to online video, YouTube (http://www.youtube.com/) is probably the first place we find
ourselves searching. As the leader in on-demand streaming video, YouTube has set the precedent in
delivering online videos. While most of us can agree that YouTube videos deliver a variety of quality,
both in terms of content and production value, what makes YouTube highly popular is its “for the users,
by the users” concept.
Online Video Resources for Faculty - DE Oracle
YouTube users can create their own channels, similar to Vimeo, to which one can subscribe and receive
notifications when a new video appears on that channel. You can easily search within a channel by using
the Search Channel function located on a channel's main page. YouTube has millions of channels. While
most of the channels do not provide much in terms of educational content, two channels that do have
instructional substance are highlighted below:
National Public Radio (NPR) Channel
(http://www.youtube.com/user/npr%20) This channel provides short videos in the form of slideshows and
animations of stories that are covered in some of the NPR radio programs. There are also full-motion videos
of lectures and speeches that are given by prominent speakers or on-location footage filmed as part of an
NPR story.
The Open University (OU) Channel
The Open University channel provides videos that are related to courses at this UK-based institution. They
are also free to use, share, and embed for others. The videos in this channel include lectures, presentations
by OU students, OU student testimonials, and highlight reels. You will need to search through the videos to
find something that pertains to the subject matter you are teaching.
As members of the UMUC academic community, it is also important to note one additional channel:
UMUC Information and Library Services Channel
This channel includes a series of videos on how to find or acquire various types of library resources, citation
styles, and other skills necessary for coursework at UMUC. These, and many additional videos, are also
available on the UMUC Information & Library Services Web page (http://www.umuc.edu/library/index.cfm) .
Summary
The video resources listed here comprise only a handful of the vast number of videos that can be found
in the Internet. I encourage you to carefully review and evaluate any video that you may be interested
in using as an assigned or supplemental classroom resource for its appropriateness in subject,
production quality, and general viewability before actually introducing it to students. The videos in the
sites mentioned here can also greatly benefit you as a faculty member, helping you learn about
something new or even just keeping you current with the latest technology.
The references to the various online video resources
mentioned in this article should not be taken as an
endorsement of any particular tool, technology, or
company. If you are thinking of integrating any of
these online videos into your course, check with
your academic administrator for suitability.
About the Author(s)
Prince Rozario joined the Center for Support of Instruction in March 2011 as a multimedia production specialist. A native of
Bangladesh, he immigrated to the Washington, DC area in 1986. He received a bachelor's degree from The George
Washington University and an MFA in digital/new media arts from George Mason University. His career path has been focused
on digital arts, including video and animation for live events, commercials, and webinars for Performedia.
Prince is a resident artist for Cyburbia Productions and has been an assistant multimedia projection designer and animator for
theatrical productions including 33 Variations Workshop by Arena Stage and a 21st century cyberpunk version of the play
Hamlet at the Temple Theatre.
Prince has taught design, new media art, filmmaking, and animation in various educational institutions in the Washington, DC
region including The George Washington University, George Mason University, and The Kennedy Center's Education
Department.
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An Overview of Robert Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction - DE Oracle
No full textDE Oracle @ UMUC
An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty
Center for Support of Instruction
An Overview of Robert Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction
Jack Boeve
Instructional Technologist
Center for Support of Instruction
Published: March-April 2012
Category: » Online-pedagogy » Teaching-strategies
Background on Gagné's Conditions of Learning Theory
The Conditions of Learning theory is familiar to those who study and work in the fields of educational
psychology and instructional design. Developed by Robert M. Gagné (1916–2002) and described in his
book Conditions of Learning, originally published in 1965, the theory includes the Gagné Assumption,
the idea that different types of learning exist, and each requires a different type of instruction or
instructional condition to promote the various desired learning outcomes.
Gagné identified five types of learning, with each requiring a different type of instruction:
1. Verbal information
2. Intellectual skills
3. Cognitive strategies
4. Motor skills
5. Attitude
His theory also described a hierarchy of eight conditions of learning, either internal or external:
1. Signal learning: the learner makes a general response to a signal
2. Stimulus-response learning: the learner makes a precise response to a signal
3. Chaining: the connection of a set of individual stimulus and responses in a sequence
4. Verbal association: the learner makes associations using verbal connections
Discrimination learning: the learner makes different responses to different stimuli that are somewhat
alike
5.
Concept learning: the learner develops the ability to make a generalized response based on a class of
stimuli
6.
7. Rule learning: a rule is a chain of concepts linked to a demonstrated behavior
Problem solving: the learner discovers a combination of previously learned rules and applies them to
solve a novel situation
8.
In addition to the five types of learning and the eight conditions of learning (about which you may learn
more through many sources), Gagné also identified nine instructional events and corresponding
internal cognitive processes, which can be grouped into three phases (Gagné & Briggs, 1974). The
instructional events do not produce or guarantee learning but instead support the internal process of
the student within the learning environment. These nine events and parallel internal mental processes
are listed below; suggestions for potentially incorporating the learning events into UMUC courses are
also noted:
Phase One: Preparing for Learning
1. Gaining attention (stimuli activate receptors)
An Overview of Robert Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction - DE Oracle
Application: Possible means for gaining attention are audio, video, animation, storytelling,
demonstrations, problem solving, examples that highlight the topic's importance or the course
material's relevance and timeliness, or posing stimulating questions or thoughts to arouse curiosity and
heighten motivation to learn about the course subject. Media should generally be short, concise, and
engaging in order to maintain students' attention.
2. Stating the objective (creates level of expectation for learning)
Application: It is important for students to know what they will have the opportunity to learn, either
within the course or within a unit/lesson, although some educators recommend not disclosing every
detailed objective at the start of the course or lesson so as not to “give away the plot” and remove
every possibility of surprise. Be aware that instructors or course designers may define objectives more
formally for themselves but choose to rephrase them more casually for students. Bullet points may be
an easy, forthright, and traditional way to state course objectives, but you may, in addition to any
bullets, also wish to think of fresh alternatives—either in content or in format—for restating or
reframing the objectives that might help define the roadmap. Are there new ways to describe the
objectives or perhaps to give a visual reinforcement of the terrain the course will cover? Might a short
narrative or example say the same thing as bullets but in a new way? Are there activities or exercises
to provide opportunities for students to discover objectives and how the course will benefit them? Might
there even be an opportunity for students to frame personal learning outcomes based on the course
subject and description but which are not already stated in the objectives?
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval and activation of short-term memory)
Application: Prior learning may consist of experiences outside the classroom, another course, or even
previous material from your own course. What tools or methods can you use to help students connect
what they have previously learned or experienced with the materials in your course? Are there
exercises, short assignments, discussion questions, surveys/polls, etc., that might assist students in
the process of connecting knowledge and experience? Some educators like to have students use
concept or mind maps to represent graphically what they are learning and how it relates to other
knowledge and experience. The goal is assisting students to build upon a framework of prior knowledge
or to bridge any possible gaps between where they have been and where they are now (and potentially
will be moving in the future after the course).
Phase Two: Acquisition and Performance
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception of content)
Application: How do you wish to present your content: text, audio, video, PPT, guest speakers, case
studies, simulations, games, etc.? How interpersonally or technologically interactive is it (or should it
be)? Are there other “voices” you can recruit or perspectives you can employ to assist in relaying the
content? Are there new technologies and media you might use to present text in new modes or to
break outside the bounds of the text medium itself and appeal to different learning styles or modes of
instruction? Is the material in appropriate and meaningful “chunks” to facilitate learning and retention
and avoid overload?
5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding for storage in long-term memory)
Application: How can you provide opportunities for students to apply what they have learned and test
their skills while you also guide them as they build their abilities and confidence? Perhaps a simulation
of one type or another, examples, case studies, visual aids, mnemonics, analogies, an exercise, writing
assignment, or set of discussion questions—all with opportunities for feedback from the instructor
—would help clarify questions and strengthen students’ grip on the content.
6. Eliciting performance (responds to questions to enhance encoding and verification)
An Overview of Robert Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction - DE Oracle
Application: What interactive exercises, simulations, case studies, demonstrations, read-and-respond
discussions, quizzes/tests, or projects provide opportunities for students to practice new skills, apply
and display knowledge, and give evidence of what they have learned? Can students demonstrate that
they are “getting” and “holding on to” the content, that they are further along an educational path now
than when they began the course?
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement and assessment of correct performance)
Application: Feedback may be part of the process of eliciting performance, but whether it is rolled into
that event or follows immediately afterward, you may wish to think of the ways in which you deliver
feedback, whether via an interactive instrument, discussion, written comments, audio/video
(individually or group), or through face-to-face or online live chats. Whenever possible, be specific,
respond in a timely manner, and provide guidance; don't just tell students that they are doing or have
done a good job.
Phase Three: Transfer of Learning
8. Assessing performance (retrieval and reinforcement of content as final evaluation)
Application: Assessment may occur via many forms, including papers, exams, presentations, projects,
or any other appropriate means for determining the breadth and depth of what students have learned.
It is desirable to include feedback on any of these assessment mechanisms for both correct and
incorrect answers. For correct answers, it is helpful to provide additional resources or information to
help increase retention and improve the learning process; for incorrect answers, consider providing not
only the correct answer but also an explanation of why it is correct and some resources for
strengthening skills or knowledge in that area.
9. Enhancing retention and transfer to other contexts (review and generalization of learned skill
to new situation)
Application: Toward the end of the course, either before or after performance assessment, it is helpful
to highlight and review important material, review course objectives and whether they were achieved,
highlight various applications for what has been learned, and, in general, assist students in reviewing
the ground that they have traveled over the duration of the course.
It is not necessary to use every single instructional event in all instances or to use them in this exact
order. For example, some educators prefer to make assessment the final step. Some events may be
combined (e.g., presenting content may also incorporate providing learning guidance, eliciting
performance, and providing feedback). Each instructor should determine what best suits the subject,
course format, course goals, needs and capabilities of the students, his or her own personal style, and
technological capacities.
One interesting study (Martin, Klein, & Sullivan, 2007), in examining various instructional models,
investigated the effects that different instructional elements have when they are combined
systematically and when one or more elements is removed. After taking a pretest, college students
were divided into six groups and then provided with one of six versions of a Web-based computer
literacy course. Each version had a combination of these elements: objectives, information, examples,
practice with feedback, and review. The six course versions were:
Full program (all five elements)
Program without objectives
Program without examples
Program without practice
Program without review
Lean program (information only)
An Overview of Robert Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction - DE Oracle
At the end of each version, the students completed a posttest. Those students who had practice with
feedback scored significantly higher than the students who did not have that element in their course.
The former also had more positive attitudes in response to a dozen questions about the course and
their experiences than did the latter.
The study results indicate that within Gagné's scheme of instructional events, events 5 through
7—those allowing for students to apply their knowledge, test their skills, and receive feedback based
upon their performance (i.e., incorporating practice with feedback)—may be pivotal for learners'
success.
Conclusion
Gagné has had his critics who charge that his nine instructional events are outdated and overly
general, lead to boring instruction, are too behaviorist in nature, and are lacking in scientific support.
Many educators, though, do recognize some value in considering and thinking through the steps and
incorporating—and adapting—them as appropriate to their circumstances.
You may, likewise, wish to consider these nine elements to determine how you might apply them in
your courses to enhance the educational environment and support student growth and achievement.
References
Gagné, R. M., & Briggs, L. J. (1974). The principles of instructional design (1st ed.). New York, NY:
Holt.
Martin, F., Klein, J. D., & Sullivan, H. (2007, July). The impact of instructional elements in
computer-based instruction. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(4), 623-636. Retrieved from
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/Martin_The%20impact%20of%20instructional%20elements%20in%20computer-based%
20instruction_July2007.pdf (http://www.florencemartin.net/site08/research
/Martin_The%20impact%20of%20instructional%20elements%20in%20computer-based%20instruction_July2007.pdf)
Related Resources
Clark, D. (2012, January 14). Robert Gagné's nine steps of instruction. Retrieved from
http://www.nwlink.com/%7Edonclark/hrd/learning/id/nine_step_id.html
(http://www.nwlink.com/%7Edonclark/hrd/learning/id/nine_step_id.html)
Conditions of learning (Robert Gagné). (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.instructionaldesign.org
/theories/conditions-learning.html (http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/conditions-learning.html)
Goldman, J. (2009, January 29). Using Gagné's 9 events of learning in e-learning [Web log post].
Retrieved from http://minutebio.com/blog/2009/01/29/using-gagnes-9-events-of-learning-in-
e-learning/ (http://minutebio.com/blog/2009/01/29/using-gagnes-9-events-of-learning-in-e-learning/)
Hanley, M. (2009, June 25). Gagné and the events of instruction: Discovering instructional design 19
[Web log post]. Retrieved from http://michaelhanley.ie/elearningcurve/gagne-and-events-of-
instruction-discovering-instructional-design-19/2009/06/25/ (http://michaelhanley.ie
/elearningcurve/gagne-and-events-of-instruction-discovering-instructional-design-19/2009/06/25/)
Ho, W. (n.d.). Gagné conditions of learning. Retrieved from http://www.personal.psu.edu
/wxh139/gagne.htm (http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxh139/gagne.htm)
Karrer, T. (2006, September 25). Is Gagné relevant for elearning courseware design? [Web log post].
Retrieved from http://elearningtech.blogspot.com/2006/09/is-gagne-relevant-for-
elearning.html (http://elearningtech.blogspot.com/2006/09/is-gagne-relevant-for-elearning.html)
An Overview of Robert Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction - DE Oracle
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Kineo Group. (n.d.). Tip 43: A shot of theory – Gagne's 9 events. Retrieved from http://kineo.com
/elearning-tips/tip-43-a-shot-of-theory-gagnes-9-events.html (http://kineo.com/elearning-tips/tip-
43-a-shot-of-theory-gagnes-9-events.html)
Kruse, K. (2008, January). Gagné's nine events of instruction: An introduction. Retrieved from
http://www.utsweb.net/Instructional%20Design%20Resources/GagneStyle.pdf
(http://www.utsweb.net/Instructional%20Design%20Resources/GagneStyle.pdf)
Specht, P. (2008). Robert Gagné: About me. Retrieved from http://edtech2.boisestate.edu
/spechtp/575/learningtheorist.html (http://edtech2.boisestate.edu/spechtp/575/learningtheorist.html)
Tucker, C. (2011, August 2). Questioning Gagné and Bloom’s relevance [Web log post]. Retrieved from
http://christytucker.wordpress.com/2011/08/02/questioning-gagne-and-blooms-relevance/
(http://christytucker.wordpress.com/2011/08/02/questioning-gagne-and-blooms-relevance/)
Werner, T. (2007, May 17). Whatever you do, don't drop practice [Web log post]. Retrieved from
http://web.archive.org/web/20090610034856/http:/brandon-hall.com/tomwerner/?p=43
(http://web.archive.org/web/20090610034856/http:/brandon-hall.com/tomwerner/?p=43)
About the Author(s)
Jack Boeve joined the CSI staff as an instructional support specialist in November 2011. Prior to joining CSI, he was a project
specialist for nearly seven years with UMUC's Center for Intellectual Property, where his roles included Web and resource
development, instructional support for courses and conferences, and creative communications and publications. He has also
worked in the publishing industry and the nonprofit sector. Throughout his education and professional experiences, he has
looked for opportunities to engage in multi-faceted, people-significant projects and events; to employ technological resources
and solutions to advance educational goals; and to produce effective communications. Jack has a BA in English literature from
Wheaton College (IL) and an MDiv from Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary.
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Creating Transcripts for Your Instructional Media - DE Oracle
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An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty
Center for Support of Instruction
Creating Transcripts for Your Instructional Media
Pre-Ah Hill
Instructional Support Specialist
Center for Support of Instruction
Published: March-April 2012
Category: » Online-pedagogy » Teaching-strategies
Introduction
Many tools are available today that allow faculty to create their own instructional media objects, such
as audio and video clips, podcasts, screencasts, multimedia presentations, and more. The use of these
materials can help make a class more interactive and engaging for the learner. But what if your
students cannot access the media object you created and posted to the classroom? This article
examines some reasons why students may be unable to access your media objects, discusses how to
make your media objects accessible through the use of transcripts, and identifies some tools you can
use to help create transcripts that you can post alongside your media objects.
Inaccessible Media
Many faculty have been using free and low-cost tools to create small, yet decent, multimedia
enhancements for their classrooms. These quick, low-risk solutions let faculty produce custom touches
that can enhance the course materials and provide a different way for students to learn the subject
matter. Once an instructional media object has been created, it is often just a matter of posting it to
the appropriate place in the classroom and providing students with instructions on how to use it.
However, consider the following student situations that may arise:
Once an instructional media object has been created, it is often a simple matter of posting it to the
appropriate place in the classroom and providing students with instructions on how to use the object.
However, consider the following student situations that may arise:
Hearing or visual impairment
Lack of computer speakers
Hardware/Software issues
Slow Internet connection
Computer setup and usage cannot access media controls
Different learning styles
Speakers of different languages
Any number of students could be facing one or more of these situations. For those students who do
have issues with accessing an instructional media object, an alternate solution is needed.
Transcripts
Transcripts are good complements for media objects for several reasons:
They allow for multimodal learning. Students who learn better by reading a document than by watching
videos or listening to audio can make use of a text-only version of the instructional content.
If learners cannot access a media object for any reason, the transcript can serve as an accessible text
equivalent.
Creating Transcripts for Your Instructional Media - DE Oracle
Some students whose native language is not the same as the speaker’s may better understand
unfamiliar words or phrases in a media object if they can also see how those words or phrases are
written.
If the audio quality of the media object is poor or its volume is not loud enough, students may have
difficulty understanding it and can listen to the audio while referring to the transcript as a supplement.
Text transcripts generally load faster than media objects and can easily be printed and quickly scanned
by the reader for the needed information—which can be particularly useful for later review/study and/or
when working offline.
For your own instructional media, it is a good idea to create a transcript during the production process.
The transcript should include the title or name of the media object and contain as accurate a
representation of the audio as possible. Appropriately chunked paragraphs will make the text easier to
read. You can then post both the media object and the transcript in the classroom at the same time.
Keep in mind that you are not expected to create transcripts for others’ media, such as YouTube videos
or iTunesU podcasts. The Office of Disability Services can coordinate transcripts for these external
items as requested by students.
Dictation Tools
The easiest way to create a transcript is by preparing a script ahead of time, from which you can read
when you produce your media object. The script itself can then become the transcript that you post
along with the media object. This important step is often forgotten in the interest of saving time so that
the media object can be created as quickly as possible.
If you do not already have a prepared script or do not have time to type one yourself, the free dictation
tools listed below may be able to assist you in creating transcripts for your instructional media on the
fly. Computer-based tools allow you to dictate directly into word processing files and other documents
that convert your voice to text. You can save these files and then upload them to the classroom. Mobile
dictation apps allow you to dictate to various services, such as text messages, notes stored on the
device, and e-mail that you can send to yourself and retrieve on a computer (and then save to a
document that can be uploaded into the classroom). You may also be able to upload the file to a
DropBox account. Please be aware of possible dictation time limits before utilizing one of these tools.
When using dictation tools, you may be able to generate better quality voice transcriptions by speaking
into a headset microphone. Best Practices for High-Quality Audio outlines several other tips that
will come in handy while you are dictating with these tools. Most of the tools will require you to train
the software to some degree to understand your voice; be prepared to make at least a few
corrections/edits to the text output.
e-Speaking (http://www.e-speaking.com/) – For Windows XP (also functions in Vista and Windows7);
allows users to control their computers with their voice and to dictate text to a word processing file,
which can be saved and posted to the classroom. Visit the e-Speaking demo page (http://www.e-speaking.
com/demos.htm) for more details.
Windows Speech Recognition (http://windows.microsoft.com/en-US/windows-vista/Tell-me-what-you-want-
A-beginners-guide-to-Windows-Speech-Recognition) – This voice-recognition tool is built into the operating
systems of Windows Vista and Windows 7 and allows users to dictate text into a document. Microsoft’s
Sounds and Speech pages (http://windows.microsoft.com/en-US/windows/help/accessibility/sounds-and-speech)
provide detailed information on how to get started and use the tool effectively.
Dragon Dictation (http://www.nuancemobilelife.com/apps/dragon-dictation/) – Mobile voice-recognition app for
iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch devices; allows users to dictate to text messages, e-mails, personal
notes, and more.
FlexT9 (http://www.nuancemobilelife.com/apps/flext9) – Mobile app for Android devices; utilizes Dragon
Dictation voice-recognition software (as well as other input modalities) to dictate messages to e-mail
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and elsewhere. Note: The free trial has ended, and the app now costs $4.99.
Vlingo (http://www.vlingo.com/) – Mobile app for Android, iOS, Blackberry, and some Windows devices;
voice-powered virtual assistant provides option for users to dictate e-mail and text messages.
Evernote (http://www.evernote.com/evernote/) – Mobile app for Android, iOS, Blackberry, and Windows 7
devices; for Android 4.0 and above (plus a few other Android devices), has integrated speech-to-text
transcription that stores the original recording with the text note; files are saved in your Evernote
account and can also be accessed from a computer.
Note: This article mentions a few examples of dictation tools; many more are available. These
references should not be taken as an endorsement of any particular tool, technology, or company. If
you are thinking of implementing any of these tools, please review the developer pages to determine
whether the tool is compatible with your system and meets your needs.
Closing
Media objects can help enhance student learning and help students become more engaged with the
subject matter. If a media object cannot be used by a student, a transcript may help provide the
missing link and still allow the student to access the instructional content. If you need to create a full
transcript on the fly and don’t have the ability to type one from scratch, you can use a variety of
dictation tools to have your voice converted to a text format that can be saved and shared with your
students in the online classroom.
About the Author(s)
Prior to joining the Center for Support of Instruction in April 2011, Pre-Ah Hill was an Instructional Technologist at Carteret
Community College, where she worked with faculty to create instructional media for their online courses. Pre-Ah also worked
with faculty on correct teaching methodology for online courses to ensure the best quality for students and was part of a team
that developed a quality assessment plan to help set the standards for online courses at Carteret. Since the writing of this
article Pre-Ah has left UMUC to persue other opportunities.
Pre-Ah has a BA in computer information systems with a minor in education from Mary Baldwin College in addition to an MS in
instructional technology and a graduate certificate in distance learning and administration from East Carolina University. She
is proficient in both PC and Mac operating systems and has experience using programs such as Photoshop, InDesign,
SoftChalk, iLife and iWork software suite, Camtasia, and Captivate.
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