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Role of leadership credibility and effective communication in achieving organizational change
No full textThe purpose of the research is to investigate the relationship between communication and leadership credibility during organizational change and to explore any correlations between leadership credibility and successful organizational change.The Role of Leadership Credibility and Effective Communication in Achieving Organizational Change
Olutunde O. Babarinsa
Keywords: Organizational Change, Resistance, Communication, Leadership.Purpose and Scope of the Research
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Investigate the relationship between communication and leadership credibility during organizational change.
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Explore any correlations between leadership credibility and successful organizational change.Research Questions
Main Research Question:
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How does leadership build and maintain credibility based on the communication of an organizational change?
A further research question is:
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How did leadership communicate the organizational change and did the communication aid or inhibit their credibility?Significance of this Research for Management
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Provide guidance as leaders communicate organizational change.
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Provide new insights into the importance of leadership credibility during implementation of organizational change.
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Increase the knowledge of the factors that affect organizational change.Main Literature Themes and Authors
.
Concepts
Themes
Authors
Communication
Communication
DiFonzo & Bordia (1998); Porter & Roberts (1983); De Ridder (2003); (Lewis, 2000b); Postmes, Tanis, & DeWit (2001).
Communication Channels
Young & Post (1993); Finley ( 1998).
Conversation
Ford & Ford (1995).
Symbols
Clarke & Crossland (2002); Kouzes & Posner (2002); Clarke & Crossland (2002).
Organizational Change
Change
Covin & Kilmann(1990); Lewis (2000a); Kotter (1996); Weick & Quinn (1999).
Resistance to Change
Mabin, Forgeson & Green (2001); Bernerth (2004); Kanter (1985); Piderit (2000), Pietersen (2002).
Uncertainty and Job Insecurity
Ashford (1998); Covin & Kilmann (1990).
Leadership
Transformational Leadership
Burns (1978); Bass (1985); Bennis & Nanus (1985).
Leaders and Managers
Kotter (1996); Kouzes & Posner (1993a); Zaleznik (1986); Kellerman (2007).
Leadership Credibility
Falcione (1974); Hellweg (1978); O'Reilly & Roberts (1976)Key Propositions Distilledfrom the Literature
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Effective communication of organizational change initiatives build leadership credibility.
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Leadership credibility is a major conduit through which employees buy into organizational change.
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When employees believe in the change initiative or the reason for the change, there is a greater chance of success.Conceptual Framework
.Thesis statement
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Effective use of communication channels and methods by leadership to inform employees of change will lead to employee perception of leadership credibility and help to ensure successful implementation of the change.Research Approach & Formationof Argument
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Evidence-Based Research
Utilized scholarly literature from ISI Web of Science and other research and academic databases and Google Scholar.
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3 member Expert Panel
2 academics
1 practitioner
3 doctoral prepared
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Dissertation Committee
2 member panel
Academic and practical experienceFindings
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Employees will support organizational change if they believe the leaders are credible.
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Leaders can build credibility through effective communication.
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Leadership credibility positively impacts change implementation Implications for Management Practice
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Leaders have to be good communicators
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Organizations should develop multiple channels of communication.
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Leadership credibility boosts employee morale and will help increase productivity.
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Credible leadership reduces employee resistance to change.Future Research Agendas
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Research the degree to which the nature of the change, the goal, and the activity itself is critical to leader credibility.
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Investigate to see if an unplanned change will have the same conclusions.
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Determine whether these findings are exclusive to the corporate environment
Middle-level managemen resistance to telework
No full textThe purpose of the research are
- to determine the existenceof middle-level management resistance to telework and how it might be manifested.
- to propose practices that might alleviate such resistant behavior.Middle-Level ManagementResistance to Telework
An Analysis of Motivational Markers that Cause Management Resistant Behaviors to Alternative Work Arrangements
by
Mark A. Stanley
Keywords: Management Resistance, Alternative Work Arrangements, TeleworkPurpose and Scope of the Research
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To determine the existenceof middle-level management resistance to telework and how it might be manifested
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To propose practices that might alleviate such resistant behavior
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The scopeof the research focused on the middle-level management tier within organizations
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Didnot include the executive-level tier
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Didnot include the worker-level tierResearch Questions
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RQ1: Is there middle-level management resistance to telework?
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RQ2: What in terms of middle-level management resistance, or lack thereof, inhibits or promotes telework adoption, implementation, expansion, and support and how is it manifested?
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RQ3: Why does such middle-level management resistance exist and how might it be mitigated in such a way that telework programs may succeed?Significance of this Research for Management
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Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis shows that benefits of and barriers to telework exist
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Given current global and organizational trends, telework may provide a solution to meet many human capital needs
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Adoption has been sluggish; some of this may be attributable to middle-level management resistance
Enlightenment in this area may provide decision-makers with the information necessary to invoke process change, which in turn may promote greater adoption, implementation, and expansion of telework within their organizations.Main Literature Themes and Authors
Literature Themes
Authors
Management Resistance
Fenton-O’Creevy (1998); Giangreco & Peccei (2005); Daley and Loverich (2007); Margerison (1993); O’Connor (1993); Simon (2006); Stadtländer (2006); Stanley (2010); Watad (2003); Wicks (2002)
Telework
Pérez, Sánchez, & de Luis Carnicer (2003); Daniels, Lamond, & Standen (2001); Shuster (1999);
Benefits of Telework
Nilles (1991); Kitou & Horvath (2008); Dionne & Dostie (2007); Tietze (2002); Choo, Mokhtarian, & Salomon (2005); Edley, Hylmo, & Newsom (2004); 2002 Lundberg & Lindfors (2002); Martínez-Sánchez, Pérez-Pérez, Vela-Jiménez, & de-Luis-Carnicer (2008); Tremblay, Paquet, & Najem (2006); Vitterso, Akselsen, Evjemo, Julsrud, Yttri, & Bergvik (2003); McDonald (2006)
Barriers to Telework
Nilles (1997); Golden (2006, 2007); Golden, Veiga, & Dino (2008); Bailey & Kurland (2002); Cooper and Kurland (2002); DuBrin & Barnard (1993); Wirth (2006); Workman & Gathegi (2007)
Historical Origins of Telework
Nilles, Carlson, Gray, & Hanneman (1974); Nilles, Carlson, Gray, & Hanneman (1976); Kossek (2003)
Telework in the Private Sector
Gross (2008)
Telework in the Public Sector
Office of Personnel Management (2006, 2007, 2009); Lyles (2008); Jamal (2007); Joice (2000, 2007); Kaczmarczyk (2008); Bednarz (2008)
Virtual Teams and Leadership
Lee-Kelley (2002); Kayworth & Leidner (2000); Fulton (2002)
Anthropocene
Stewart (2005); Allenby (2008)
Non-Decisions
Bachrach & Baratz (1963)
Tacit Knowledge
Bratianu & Orzea (2010)
Office Culture
Hofstede (1980); Hoang, Nickerson, Beckman, & Eng (2008)
Crisis Management
Barton (2008); Koontz (2006); Vivadelli (2005)
Theories
Thiétart & Forgues (1995); Ashforth & Mael (1989); Hogg, Turner, & Davidson (1990); Fiol and O’Connor (2005); McGregor (1961)
Motivations
Zemke, Raines, & Filipczak (2000); Wanberg & Banas (2000); Veroff (1978); Cox (1999); Godard (2001); Malhotra, Majchrzak, & Rosen (2007); Lewicki, McAllister, & Bies (1998); Handy (1995); Nandhakumar & Baskerville (2006); Buhler (1988); Taskin & Edwards (2007); Felstead, Jewson, & Walters (2003); Kopelman, Prottas, & Falk (2010) Key Propositions Distilledfrom the Literature
Chaos Theory Time Irreversibility Change
Social Identity Theory Social Group Membership Belongingness
Self-Categorization Theory Ingroups/OutgroupsBelongingness
Identity Theory Uncertainty Trust
Theory X/Theory Y Belief in Workers ControlConceptual Framework
ResistanceAcceptanceStartMiddle-LevelManager SupportsTeleworkResists toMaintainStatus QuoResists toJoin DesirableSocial GroupResists tobe within theIngroupResistsDue toUncertaintyResistsbecause of Needto ControlEndFurther ResearchRequiredMiddle-LevelManager hasConcernsIdentify Concerns:Employee Availability/AccessibilityPersonnel Recruitment/RetentionEmployee EngagementTechnology/SecurityCustomer ServiceOffice CultureCostsDocument ConcernsandPotential SolutionsResolve Concerns:Enact Measureable Performance StandardsConduct Employee and Manager TrainingImplement Human Resources PoliciesCommunicate ExpectationsBuild Internal CoalitionsBudgeting/TradeoffsConduct PilotsIdentify Causes:Feelings of Incompetence/NeedinessConfusion/Chaos/DisempowermentTime Irreversibility of ChangeLoss of Meaning/PurposeLoss of Clarity/StabilityAnxiety/UncertaintyClinging to the PastDocument CausesandPotential SolutionsApply Modifications:Conduct Virtual Team Leadership TrainingConduct Workshops on Accepting ChangeImplement Participatory ManagementEngage Managers in Change Process Show Costs/Benefits of ChangeCommunicate ExpectationsOtherMiddle-LevelManager AcceptsChangeMiddle-Level Manager isReassigned or RemovedIdentify Causes:Neediness to belong to a Reference GroupAmbiguity on Place within OrganizationConfusion over Cues from SubordinatesConfusion over Cues from LeadersLack of Comfort with TechnologyPoor Management SkillsLack of Teaming SkillsDocument CausesandPotential SolutionsApply Modifications:Conduct Virtual Team Leadership TrainingConduct Workshops on Accepting ChangeImplement Participatory ManagementEngage Managers in Change Process Show Costs/Benefits of ChangeCommunicate ExpectationsOtherMiddle-LevelManager AcceptsChangeMiddle-Level Manager isReassigned or RemovedIdentify Causes:Neediness to belong to the IngroupConfusion over Cues from SubordinatesAmbiguity on Place within OrganizationConfusion over Cues from LeadersLack of Comfort with TechnologyPoor Management SkillsLack of Teaming SkillsDocument CausesandPotential SolutionsApply Modifications:Conduct Virtual Team Leadership TrainingSpecify Expectations/Controls for TeleworkConduct Telework Technology WorkshopsConduct Communications TrainingCommunicate ExpectationsOrganize as TeamsOtherMiddle-LevelManager AcceptsChangeMiddle-Level Manager isReassigned or RemovedIdentify Causes:Need to Make Sense of Ambiguous EventsLack of Institutional-Based TrustLack of Trust with SubordinatesNeed to Reduce UncertaintyPoor Communications SkillsDocument CausesandPotential SolutionsApply Modifications:Compare Perceptions with Social RealityFoster the Appearance of SimilarityConduct Communications TrainingCompare Perceptions with RealityDevelop and Promote rustFoster AgreementOtherMiddle-LevelManager AcceptsChangeMiddle-Level Manager isReassigned or RemovedIdentify Causes:Modifies time, space, and action constructLoss of Unity of PlaceBeliefs that Workers are LazyBeliefs that Workers RequireConstant SupervisionBeliefs that Coercion MotivatesWorkersDocument CausesandPotential SolutionsApply Modifications:Conduct Workshops on Accepting Change Mentorship with Theory Y ManagersEmploy Management by ResultsClearly Document ExpectationsConduct Sensitivity TrainingImplement Recursive PilotsOtherMiddle-LevelManager AcceptsChangeMiddle-Level Manager isReassigned or RemovedYesYesNoNoYesYesYesNoNoNoNoYesYesNoNoYesYesNoYesNoYesNoYesNoYesMotivationTheoryChangeChaosSocial IdentityBelongingnessSelf-CategorizationIdentificationControlTheory X/Theory YJob DesignSupportsTeleworkYesNoTrustJob can beRe-Designed toSupportTeleworkYesIdentify and MakeNecessary ChangesTo Re-Designthe JobNoThesis statement
Middle-level management resistance to telework may be traced to a number of motivational markers, some of which have their roots in childhood and others are ingrained over time. These motivational markers include:
•
Change
•
Belongingness
•
Trust
•
ControlResearch Approach & Formationof Argument
•
Evidence-BasedResearch
•
Used academic search engines such as the Web of Science, ACM Digital Library, Books 24x7, Emerald, Google Scholar, IEEE Computer Society Digital Library, JSTOR, SAGE Journals Online, EBSCOHost, and ProQuest
•
The results included a series of scholarly works including articles, case studies, and dissertations
•
the focus of the research was on resistant behaviors exhibited by those in the middle-level management ranks regarding a particular alternative work arrangement: telework
•
Itsscope included organizations within both the public and private sectors
•
Expert Panel
•
Four members
•
Included researchers, academics, and practitioners
•
All members were PhD’s
•
All members provided substantive for improvement and research directionFindings
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Middle-level management resistance to telework exists
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Middle-level management resistance to telework is manifested throughpassive behaviors towards executive-level direction and through active behaviors towards subordinates
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Middle-level management resistance to telework exists due to motivational factors, but can be reduced of eliminated through modificationImplications for Management Practice
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Telework benefits accrue to the organization in terms of higher productivity, increased jobsatisfaction, and ability to attract and retain the brightest human capital
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Barriersto telework have been mostly overcome through technology and best business practices
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Middle-level management resistance to telework exists;it must be recognized, acknowledged, and eliminated to ensure organizational synchronizationFuture Research Agendas
•
What level of resistance to telework is derived from the executive-level tier within organizations and why does it occur
•
What level of resistance to telework is derived from the worker-level tier within organizations and why does it occur
•
Which training and educational avenues could be pursued to best eliminate such resistant behaviors, regardless of position within the organizational strataQuestions
“It is the question that drives us”
Adapted from http://whatisthematrix.warnerbros.comConceptual FrameworkJob Structure
Resistance
Acceptance
Start
Job Design
Supports
Telework
No
Job can be
Re-Designed to
Support
Telework
Yes
Identify and Make
Necessary Changes
To Re-Design
the Job
No
EndConceptual FrameworkMiddle-Level Manager Supportive
Resistance
Acceptance
Middle-Level
Manager Supports
Telework
Middle-Level
Manager has
Concerns
Identify Concerns:
Employee Availability/Accessibility
Personnel Recruitment/Retention
Employee Engagement
Technology/Security
Customer Service
Office Culture
Costs
Document Concerns
and
Potential Solutions
Resolve Concerns:
Enact Measureable Performance Standards
Conduct Employee and Manager Training
Implement Human Resources Policies
Communicate Expectations
Build Internal Coalitions
Budgeting/Tradeoffs
Conduct Pilots
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Start
EndConceptual FrameworkMotivation: Change, Theory: Chaos
Resistance
Acceptance
Start
End
Resists to
Maintain
Status Quo
Identify Causes:
Feelings of Incompetence/Neediness
Confusion/Chaos/Disempowerment
Time Irreversibility of Change
Loss of Meaning/Purpose
Loss of Clarity/Stability
Anxiety/Uncertainty
Clinging to the Past
Document Causes
and
Potential Solutions
Apply Modifications:
Conduct Virtual Team Leadership Training
Conduct Workshops on Accepting Change
Implement Participatory Management
Engage Managers in Change Process
Show Costs/Benefits of Change
Communicate Expectations
Other
Middle-Level
Manager Accepts
Change
Middle-Level Manager
is
Reassigned or Removed
Yes
No
Yes
YesConceptual FrameworkMotivation: Belongingness, Theory: Social Identity
Resistance
Acceptance
Start
End
Resists to
Maintain
Status Quo
Identify Causes:
Neediness to belong to a Reference Group
Ambiguity on Place within Organization
Confusion over Cues from Subordinates
Confusion over Cues from Leaders
Lack of Comfort with Technology
Poor Management Skills
Lack of Teaming Skills
Document Causes
and
Potential Solutions
Apply Modifications:
Conduct Virtual Team Leadership Training
Conduct Workshops on Accepting Change
Implement Participatory Management
Engage Managers in Change Process
Show Costs/Benefits of Change
Communicate Expectations
Other
Middle-Level
Manager Accepts
Change
Middle-Level Manager
is
Reassigned or Removed
Yes
No
Yes
YesConceptual FrameworkMotivation: Belongingness, Theory: Self-Categorization
Resistance
Acceptance
Start
End
Resists to
Maintain
Status Quo
Identify Causes:
Neediness to belong to the Ingroup
Confusion over Cues from Subordinates
Ambiguity on Place within Organization
Confusion over Cues from Leaders
Lack of Comfort with Technology
Poor Management Skills
Lack of Teaming Skills
Document Causes
and
Potential Solutions
Apply Modifications:
Conduct Virtual Team Leadership Training
Specify Expectations/Controls for Telework
Conduct Telework Technology Workshops
Conduct Communications Training
Communicate Expectations
Organize as Teams
Other
Middle-Level
Manager Accepts
Change
Middle-Level Manager
is
Reassigned or Removed
Yes
No
Yes
YesResistance
Acceptance
Conceptual FrameworkMotivation: Trust, Theory: Identification
Start
End
Resists to
Maintain
Status Quo
Identify Causes:
Need to Make Sense of Ambiguous Events
Lack of Institutional-Based Trust
Lack of Trust with Subordinates
Need to Reduce Uncertainty
Poor Communications Skills
Document Causes
and
Potential Solutions
Apply Modifications:
Compare Perceptions with Social Reality
Foster the Appearance of Similarity
Conduct Communications Training
Compare Perceptions with Reality
Develop and Promote rust
Foster Agreement
Other
Middle-Level
Manager Accepts
Change
Middle-Level Manager
is
Reassigned or Removed
Yes
No
Yes
YesConceptual FrameworkMotivation: Control, Theory: Theory X/Theory Y
Resistance
Acceptance
Start
End
Resists to
Maintain
Status Quo
Identify Causes:
Modifies time, space, and action construct
Loss of Unity of Place
Beliefs that Workers are Lazy
Beliefs that Workers Require
Constant Supervision
Beliefs that Coercion Motivates
Workers
Document Causes
and
Potential Solutions
Apply Modifications:
Conduct Workshops on Accepting Change
Mentorship with Theory Y Managers
Employ Management by Results
Clearly Document Expectations
Conduct Sensitivity Training
Implement Recursive Pilots
Other
Middle-Level
Manager Accepts
Change
Middle-Level Manager
is
Reassigned or Removed
Yes
No
Yes
Ye
Effectively managing copyright clearance: Electronic reserves in a large distance education university
No full textAbstract: This paper describes the automated copyright clearance process for electronic reserves materials by the electronic reserves staff at the Information and Library Services (ILS), at the University of Maryland University College (UMUC). Besides the standard practice to handle and post required course readings in digital format for UMUC’s distance education online classes, a large portion of the electronic reserves process is devoted to obtaining copyright permissions. This is to ensure that UMUC is in compliance with all laws that control the use of copyrighted materials. The ILS’s small team of electronic reserves staff takes the lead in managing a high volume of copyright requests each semester for the three UMUC geographic divisions: United States, Europe and Asia. The experiences and practices of the in-house copyright request management system for the electronic reserves services will be featured, including related data and statistics.Effectively Managing Copyright Clearance: Electronic Reserves in a Large Distance Education University
YU-HSIU WANG and MEGAN BAKER
University of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD, USA
ABSTRACT
This paper describes the automated copyright clearance process for electronic reserves materials by the electronic reserves staff at the Information and Library Services (ILS), at the University of Maryland University College (UMUC). Besides the standard practice to handle and post required course readings in digital format for UMUC’s distance education online classes, a large portion of the electronic reserves process is devoted to obtaining copyright permissions. This is to ensure that UMUC is in compliance with all laws that control the use of copyrighted materials. The ILS’s small team of electronic reserves staff takes the lead in managing a high volume of copyright requests each semester for the three UMUC geographic divisions: United States, Europe and Asia. The experiences and practices of the in-house copyright request management system for the electronic reserves services will be featured, including related data and statistics.
KEYWORDS electronic reserves, copyright, copyright permissions, distance education
INTRODUCTION
Reserved course materials in digital format, or electronic reserves has been playing a significant role as a practical and popular service in academic institutions. The service provides a convenient way to make course materials available through remote online access on a 24/7 basis, which eliminates the restraints of time, space, and physical location for students and faculty. These crucial elements of the electronic reserves services are especially vital in the distance education environment. However, the maintenance of the electronic reserves services requires a significant staff commitment to manage the labor intensive request process. Some universities place the responsibility of obtaining copyright permissions on their teaching faculty who request the reserves readings. At the University of Maryland University College’s (UMUC) Information and Library Services (ILS), the electronic reserves team, consisting of one librarian and one library technician, takes on the responsibility to manage the complex copyright permissions process. This helps to ensure that UMUC is in compliance with all laws that control the use of copyrighted materials.
Although academic and library communities have been acting in good faith to comply with the copyright law, the copyright aspect of electronic reserves still notoriously makes managing the service a risk (Albanese, 2007). The concern of possible allegations regarding unintentional acts of copyright infringement has greatly increased, which creates common challenges for those trying to prevent such charges. To meet the challenges of managing copyright permissions properly, the electronic reserves team works with publishers and producers of copyrighted materials to understand their mounting concerns for copyright issues (Gasaway, 2000). After a careful review of these concerns, a project to establish the best practices for a more efficient and systematic copyright permission process was generated. The electronic reserves team collaborated with the Library Web Specialist to further customize and streamline the current in-house copyright request management database. As a result of the successful implementation of the improved database, the proper balance of the interests between the copyright holders and users’ rights has been achieved. BACKGROUND
Background of UMUC
The University of Maryland University College was founded in 1947 at Adelphi, Maryland. As a pioneer in distance education, the college was initially established to provide continuing education for U.S. military service members stationed overseas in Europe and Asia after World War II. UMUC later became one of the eleven accredited, degree-granting institutions in the University System of Maryland. As one of the largest public universities as well as one of the fastest growing distance education universities in the United States, UMUC’s online distance education system serves the learning communities of non-traditional students around the globe in 25 countries. Based on UMUC at a Glance (University of Maryland University College, 2011), about 47% of UMUC’s stateside (U.S.) students are working parents, and the median age for these stateside undergraduate students is 32 years old. Currently, UMUC has more than 90,000 students enrolled worldwide, including 55,000 active duty military, reserves, dependants, and veterans. In November 2008, UMUC became the first U.S. college to provide on-site classes to U.S. military personnel in the Middle East and Central Asia, including the war zones of Iraq and Afghanistan (Londono & Kinzie, 2009).
Background of UMUC’s Information & Library Services
UMUC’s Information and Library Services (ILS) is a distance education library. ILS does not have a traditional library space, so patrons gain access to electronic research resources and an array of online support through UMUC’s virtual library service environment. ILS has over 125 mostly full-text subscribed online library databases that hold 103,944 journals, and an extensive e-book collection of 41,000 volumes. Patrons can chat with, or e-mail a librarian on a 24/7 basis for technical, reference, or research assistance as well as phone, instant message, or walk in to the library during regular office hours. There is a mandatory course on information literacy and research methods that is required for all new students at UMUC. The course familiarizes students with ILS services, including how to utilize the extensive set of library databases and build the skills to research, evaluate, and use information effectively. ILS conducts a user satisfaction survey annually, and an in-depth survey on student needs every five years. This is a continuous effort to assess patrons’ usage, perceptions, and expectations of UMUC’s electronic library services (Aldridge, 2009).
OVERVIEW OF THE ELECTRONOIC RESERVES SERVICES AT UMUC
ILS established the electronic reserves services in spring 1998 as a pilot project, but the official electronic reserves program was not launched until fall 1999. The marketing of the electronic reserves services was integrated into UMUC’s new faculty orientation as part of the faculty outreach initiative. The electronic reserves program was strategically promoted by the ILS’ liaison librarians and via the library’s monthly newsletter, blogs, and e-mail alerts. Several online conferences and workshops also have been conducted to introduce the program to UMUC teaching faculty. From faculty members’ (requesters) perspective, information about electronic reserves is conveniently available on the library Web site, including the electronic reserves services policy and guidelines, frequently asked questions, and the Reserved Readings Requests system¹, along with audio visual tutorials to guide faculty in the use of the electronic reserves services.
As a key service to support faculty’s day-to-day teaching, ILS’s electronic reserves service provides required course materials in digital format for WebTycho classrooms, UMUC's proprietary online course management education system. The procedures associated with processing the electronic reserves requests begin when current teaching faculty submit the request using the online Webform via the Reserved Readings Requests system, which was developed by the Library Web Specialist. The Webform requires a secure login to ensure that the faculty member is currently teaching a course and is eligible to request electronic reserves. Once the login has been verified, the Webform displays associated information of the teaching faculty. The faculty can request readings for their current classes, select readings from previous classes, or select readings that have been requested by others in particular disciplines. From the electronic reserves team’s perspective, the submitted Webform requests are received through the Electronic Reserves Management system database¹, also developed by the Library Web Specialist. This in-house Microsoft Access database aggregates all submitted data from the Webform.
As requests appear in the database, the electronic reserves team processes them first by determining if the requested reading is available in full text via the subscribed library databases. If so, a direct link to the full text article or detailed instructions to retrieve the full text article is provided. If the requested reading is not available for direct access online, a print copy of the requested reading is obtained, scanned, and converted to PDF (Portable Document Format) file. Various formats of materials are made available as reserved readings, such as book chapters, multimedia (streaming audio or video clips), direct links or instructions to full text articles via library databases or Web sites, journal articles, PowerPoint presentations, sample tests, instructors’ exercises or problem sets, exams, homework solutions, and purchased cases. In addition, the team also assists patrons with technical issues involving electronic reserves, such as troubleshooting Adobe Reader to view PDF documents.
All requested readings are posted to the Reserved Readings section of the assigned online classrooms. The faculty who requested the readings is then notified via e-mail, which is automatically generated by the Electronic Reserves Management system database. Only current registered students and the teaching faculty members can gain access to the assigned online classrooms through a secure server that requires a current user name and password. A statistical assessment on the usage of the electronic reserves is compiled every semester from the Electronic Reserves Management system database. Based on the statistical reports, the requests from teaching faculty to post reserved readings in their online classrooms have been increasing every semester (see Figure 1).
To facilitate proper handling of the requests, the electronic reserves processing manual is available online via the library staff wiki. The wiki is part of a larger library initiative to use Microsoft SharePoint as a content management system for documentation, knowledge management, and collaboration. The library staff can easily update and share instructional documents in this Web-based collaborative environment. The wiki manual is also a useful tool to train other ILS staff to process electronic reserves requests, and to check proper workflow and work schedules.
OVERVIEW OF THE COPYRIGHT REQUEST MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
A large portion of the electronic reserves process is devoted to obtaining the copyright permissions. Selecting items that are fair use, seeking the appropriate rightsholders, and understanding each individual publisher’s or rightsholder’s requirements in granting the copyright permission can be a daunting task. The electronic reserves team uses the Copyright Request Management¹ (see Figure 2) component in the Electronic Reserves Management system database to track and generate aggregated copyright requests to permission owners. Throughout the process of streamlining the Copyright Request Management system database, the mutual cooperation of the electronic reserves team, Library Web Specialist, and publishers and rightsholders was the key factor in the success of the implemented system. One important lesson from the collaboration is to understand the copyright requests process from the publishers’ perspective. In one instance, a particular publisher consistently returned permission requests unfilled without explanation. After the electronic reserves team attempted several appeals, the publisher finally was willing to share their process practice. When receiving requests, this publisher needed to further process and distribute the requests to different assigned copyright staff in various locations. After learning the detail of the requirements, the electronic reserves team worked with the Library Web Specialist to make adjustments to the copyright permission requests format. As a result, the turnaround time for copyright permissions is much shorter and the interactions with the publisher have been positive ever since.
Based on the input and feedback of the publishers and the electronic reserves team, the Library Web Specialist streamlined the copyright request process using an in-house Microsoft Access database to incorporate the workflow of the permission process directly into the online application at the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC). This Copyright Request Management system database meets the requirements of easy to navigate, operate and maintain without exhausting valuable financial and time resources. All the essential permission process functions are built into the database, including a program to automatically calculate and determine if copyright clearance is required under ILS and current copyright guidelines (American Library Association, 2011; Hirtle, 2011; Brewer, 2007). In general, copyright permission is not required for a reading requested for the first time by a faculty member as this is considered fair use under the copyright law according to UMUC’s guidelines. However, copyright permission is required if the faculty member requests that reading for the same class taught in subsequent semesters (Information and Library Services, 2011). The category of non-fair use items is recognized by the database as requiring for copyright permissions processing. At the end of the process, the permissions are cataloged as granted, denied, pending, cancelled, or converted to a URL/PURL (see Figure 3). In the case of media, such as films or video clips, the copyright permission is always purchased directly from the copyright owner. After recording the invoices for payment of granting permissions, the final procedure is to insert the proper copyright notice into the Reserved Readings section of the online classroom as well as attach it to each copyrighted reserved reading.
The Copyright Request Management system database has the function of filtering and checking each required copyright request and assigns each new copyright request a record number with a status indicator. When the team begins the process of seeking the copyright permission, the database is programmed to link and login directly to the Copyright Clearance Center’s online application. The database retrieves the bibliographic information from the copyright table in the Access database and automatically fills in all necessary information to the CCC online request form. The automated process progresses until the application is completed, and it concludes by logging out of CCC. The status indicator changes accordingly to either a pending record, if the cost is not available at the time; or to an invoice pending record status, if the price is confirmed and an invoice will be issued. The Copyright Request Management system database also retrieves detailed licensing information from the CCC online application as well. Once a CCC online order has been completed, the conformation ID, the order detail number, the order price, and associated numbers are automatically recorded and inserted into the database’s copyright table.
The database will also flag any unusual or irregular requests. If an ISBN or ISSN cannot be found via the CCC searching function, the database will generate a pop-up window for other search options. If a permission request is cost prohibitive, as set by ILS, the database will issue a warning in a pop-up window. If a permission request is over the allowed fair use page limit by CCC, the database will reset the request status and notify the faculty to review the required pages and resubmit a modified request.
According to the ILS electronic reserves statistics, about 68% of copyright permissions are obtained via the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), and the remaining 32% of copyright permissions are obtained via the publishers or rightsholders. Before the Copyright Request Management system database was streamlined and fully implemented, the electronic reserves team had to process the CCC requests manually. A single request can take minutes to input by copying and pasting required information from the database tables into the CCC online application. The repetition of this process can be taxing, especially during peak times at the beginning of the semester. It could take several weeks to enter hundreds of CCC requests manually. Entering requests by hand also left the risk for potential human error, such as transposing numbers, duplicating records, or entering inaccurate information.
Since not all copyright requests can be filled through the Copyright Clearance Center, roughly 32% of permission requests must be obtained by contacting the publishers or the rightsholders directly. The database will change the status to direct a request to the rightsholder when a request cannot be processed through CCC. The electronic reserves team will search to locate and record the appropriate copyright owner in the database. A database table keeps detailed contact information for frequent permission publishers and rightsholders, including their mailing address, Web site, fax number, e-mail address, and phone number. Their required or preferred application format to evaluate the permission request is also stored in the database. Commonly, letters, faxes, or e-mails are acceptable formats for the permission application.
The database will automatically generate a request for each record for which directly contacting the publisher or the rightsholder is needed. A pre-written permissions request in the form of a Microsoft Word template is filled in with the copyright holder’s information, the requested material’s bibliographic information, and the requester’s contact information. Depending on the publisher’s preferences, permission requests can be generated as letters, faxes, or e-mails. Once the request is finalized, the database confirms that the request has been correctly generated and updates the completed process status of the copyright request record.
Timeliness is probably the most important element in requesting copyright permission. In order to leave publishers enough time to process the requests and respond during the same semester, requests should be made as soon as possible. This will also leave the electronic reserves team sufficient time to follow up or request copyright from different sources if necessary. Consistency with the required information on application format is also essential. The same uniform information should be standard on each permission request with all publishers or rightsholders. The electronic reserves team makes the effort to ensure that permission requests won’t remain unanswered. A six week timer is started on each request in the database when the permission request is submitted to the rightsholders. Once that time is expired, the request’s status will be marked as unresolved. After receiving either non-granting or no response from the rightsholder, the electronic reserves team must decide to follow-up with the original rightsholder, redirect the copyright request to different rightsholders, keep the unresolved status to allow more time to re-evaluate the request, or revisit unresolved requests while attempting due diligence.
CONCLUSION
Electronic reserves tend to be a disagreeable subject between publisher and library communities (Gasaway, 2000). The electronic reserves team has learned from the experience that transparency is often the best policy when dealing with publishers and rightsholders. Publishers are not necessarily concerned only with reasonable compensation of their protected works, but also the specific scope of the permission. Each permission application that electronic reserves team sends to publishers explains in detail the use of the material, the steps taken to protect the material from extensive dissemination, and a definite timeframe in which the material will be available to the current designated online class. Because of the transparency of the copyright process, the publishers and rightholders tend to respond more positively with fewer questions and rejections regarding the permission requests. By being open and up front with the publishers and rightsholders, most of their concerns and reservations toward the copyright issues can be assuaged.
Because of the streamlined process of copyright permission using the Copyright Request Management database system, the electronic reserves team can effectively manage the day-to-day copyright requests process. The majority of the request process is automated in the database, including generating formatted templates, keeping track of unresolved
Information technology management in local health departments: Implications for emergency preparedness
No full textIn the United States, public health departments play a key role in preparing for and responding to emergency incidents affecting their community's health. As such, their ability to effectively and efficiently undertake their responsibilities has been given considerable attention by our Nation's leadership. An area of concern is the adequacy of the public health infrastructure, revealed to be inadequate to manage emergencies during the 2001 9/11 and anthrax terrorist events. Since 2001, federal resources have been allocated to strengthen the public health infrastructure, and many local health departments (LHDs) across the United States have received funding for emergency preparedness activities.
This research examines one component of the public health infrastructure--information and data systems. This research examines information technology (IT) management practices within LHDs, and the implications for the management of the IT supported by emergency preparedness funding. A survey instrument was developed with indicators relevant to (1) measuring IT management practices, (2) understanding whether LHDs have effectively established IT supporting emergency preparedness, and (3) documenting LHDs directors' perceptions about the extent to which their department is emergency ready.
Two respondents from each "large" LHD were targeted for inclusion in the survey--the Director of IT and Emergency Preparedness Director (EP Director). There are approximately 133 large LHDs--defined as an agency serving a health jurisdiction with a population totaling more than 500,000. Forty-three LHDs participated in the survey. A total of 63 surveys were completed--29 by an IT Director; 34 by the EP Director.
The findings reveal none of the LHDs rate as high performers on all or a majority of indicators relevant to effectively managing IT--either organizationally or with respect to the IT supporting emergency preparedness--or having effectively in place the IT of relevance to emergency preparedness. Seven LHDs rated as high performers for managing their emergency preparedness IT; three LHDs rated as high performers with respect to emergency prepared. About one-fourth of the LHDs are medium performers. The survey findings highlight areas where additional attention is required to effectively establish the public health IT infrastructure LHDs need to effectively assure their community's health.Information Technology Management in Local Health Departments:
Implications for Emergency Preparedness
Doctoral Dissertation
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of Requirements for Doctor of Management
Submitted by:
Yvonne Claudio
University of Maryland University College
Dissertation Committee
Robert P. Ouellette, PhD, MBA, Chair
Paul F.G. Keller, PhD, MS
Kathleen Edwards, PhD, MS
External Reviewer:
Janise Richards, PhD, MS, MPH
Senior Advisor, National Center for Public Health Informatics, Division of Knowledge
Management, CDC
March 31, 2008
IT Management in LHDs ii
Copyright
© Copyright by
Yvonne Claudio
All Rights Reserved
May 2008
IT Management in LHDs iii
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to
my immediate family who were the reason why this challenge was important.
It was each of you that motivated me as I worked to complete each milestone in my
education. To my mother, Maria Isabel Torres, my father Mariano Berrios Claudio (in
memory), my brothers and sisters Mario, Josephine, Sandra, Elizabeth, Shirley (in
memory), Hector, Luz, and Abraham. Thank you for all your love and support. We truly
do have a very special loving Puerto Rican family.
my best friends, Dr. Carmen (in memory) and Raymond Mercado, who served
as my personal cheerleaders for more than 30 years. Thank you for your great friendship,
support, and generosity. Carmen I am very sorry that you missed my graduation by a few
months. May you rest in peace.
Father Roland L. Dumpson, who early in my life stressed the importance of
education, and encouraged me to pursue a college, masters, and doctoral education. I
finally completed the goal you set for me more than 40 years ago.
my life partners. Each of you was a major inspiration and in your own way
served as a role model. Thank you for all your emotional support and full encouragement
as I pursued my educational goals.
IT Management in LHDs iv
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank my committee members, for their continued support over the past
years. Thank you Dr. Robert Ouellette, my committee chair, for your patience in reading
through very rough drafts, and providing feedback that helped frame the research and
work. Thank you Dr. Kathleen Edwards and Dr. Paul Keller for agreeing to serve on
my committee, for remaining available through this long process, and for providing
feedback on final drafts. I would also like to thank Dr. Janise Richards, my external
reviewer on the dissertation committee. Thank you for agreeing to serve on the
committee, and for the considerable time you put into reviewing, editing, and providing
comments and feedback to the document. I truly appreciated the diligence with which
you reviewed the drafts and the public health perspective that your participation
provided. Also, thank you to all my professors at UMUC for the masters and doctoral
education that you provided. I will forever cherish my years at UMUC.
I also wish to acknowledge my colleagues in public health departments. Over the
years, many individuals I worked with contributed considerable insight on public health
operations and IT practices. My greatest appreciation goes to my colleagues and forever
friends James A. Buford, Carl W. Wilson, Willis R. Bradwell, Jr. and James M. White.
Finally, thank you to all the CIOs and individuals with whom I worked while at
NAPHIT, and a special thank you to the LHD leadership who participated in this research
and whose input made this work possible.
IT Management in LHDs v
Table of Contents
Copyright ........................................................................................................................ii
Dedication ..................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................iv
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................v
List of Tables..................................................................................................................xi
List of Figures ..............................................................................................................xiv
List of Abbreviations .....................................................................................................xv
Title Page ........................................................................................................................1
Abstract...........................................................................................................................2
I. Introduction..................................................................................................................4
II. Research Problem .......................................................................................................9
A. Problem Statement ......................................................................................9
B. Research Questions....................................................................................10
C. Research Objectives...................................................................................11
D. Research Constraints .................................................................................12
III. Literature Review ....................................................................................................13
A. Public Health--Functions, Role in Emergency Preparedness, Infrastructure13
1. LHDs in the U.S. ................................................................................13
2. Core Public Health Functions .............................................................14
3. LHD Emergency Preparedness Functions ...........................................18
4. The Public Health Infrastructure .........................................................21
IT Management in LHDs vi
B. Information Technology Infrastructure in LHDs ........................................23
1. LHD Information, Data and Communications Systems .......................23
2. The State of the Public Health IT Infrastructure ..................................26
3. Federal Action to Address the Public Health IT Infrastructure ............28
4. National IT Initiatives--Implications for LHDs IT Infrastructure.........33
5. National IT Initiatives--A Need for Strategic Action...........................35
6. A Strategy for Moving Forward..........................................................36
C. Information Technology Management .......................................................38
1. Information Technology and IT Infrastructure Defined.......................38
2. Historical Perspective .........................................................................40
3. The Relevance of Strategic Management of IT for Organizations .......43
4. Forces Impacting IT Management.......................................................46
5. The Essentials of Strategic Management of IT ....................................50
a. Governance..................................................................................50
b. Visioning/Planning ......................................................................52
c. Aligning IT Strategy with Business Unit Strategy and Functions..54
d. IT Infrastructure Development/Portfolio Identification ................55
e. Acquisition Priorities and Control ................................................59
f. Scope of IT Support Services .......................................................60
6. Frameworks for Assessing IT Management ........................................61
a. Base Firm-Wide IT Infrastructure Services Framework--
Broadbent,Weill, & St. Clair ......................................................61
IT Management in LHDs vii
b. Feeny/Willcocks Framework for Core IS Capabilities..................62
c. Strategic IT Management Framework--Bergeron, Raymond &
Rivard........................................................................................63
d. Information Technology Investment Management (ITIM)/GAO
Framework ................................................................................66
e. IT Management Competencies for Public Health Professionals
Framework--The O Carroll and Public Health Informatics
Competencies Working Group...................................................69
IV. Conceptual Framework............................................................................................72
V. Research Methodology .............................................................................................79
A. Sampling Frame ........................................................................................79
B. Respondents ..............................................................................................80
C. Survey Instrument......................................................................................81
D. Limitations ................................................................................................83
VI. Findings ..................................................................................................................85
A. Survey Findings--Organizational Management of IT in LHDs ...................85
1. Overall Findings .................................................................................85
2. LHD s IT Management Practices: High and Medium Performers........96
3. Open-ended Comments Offered by Respondents ..............................100
B. Survey Findings--IT Supporting Emergency Readiness ...........................102
1. Overall Findings ...............................................................................102
IT Management in LHDs viii
2. LHD s Effectiveness in Establishing Emergency Preparedness IT: High
and Medium Performers .................................................................105
3. Open-Ended Comments Offered by Respondents..............................113
C. Management of IT Supporting Emergency Preparedness .........................115
1. Overall Findings ...............................................................................115
2. LHD s Effectiveness in Managing Emergency Preparedness IT: High
and Medium Performers .................................................................118
3. Open-Ended Comments Offered on Emergency Preparedness
Management ...................................................................................123
D. Survey Findings--Emergency Readiness in LHDs....................................125
1. Overall Findings ...............................................................................125
2. LHD s Readiness for Emergencies: High and Medium Performers ...128
3. Open-ended Comments Offered by Respondents on Emergency
Readiness .......................................................................................129
E. Summary Findings--LHD Performance....................................................131
VII. Discussion............................................................................................................136
VIII. References ..........................................................................................................145
IX. Appendices............................................................................................................157
IT Management in LHDs ix
List of Appendices
Appendix A. Summary of Indicators Used in LHD Survey
Source and Research Topic ..............................................................................158
Appendix B. U.S. Large LHDs--Sampling Frame ........................................................173
Appendix C. Survey Instrument...................................................................................177
Appendix D. Framework of Base Firm-Wide IT Infrastructure Services
Framework (Broadbent, Weill, and St. Clair, 1999)..........................................191
Appendix E. Feeny/Willcocks Framework for Core IS Capabilities (2006) ..................192
Appendix F. Measures of Strategic IT Management (Bergeron,
Raymond & Rivard, 2001 ................................................................................193
Appendix G. ITIM/GAO Framework Components ......................................................195
Appendix H. IT Management Competencies for Public Health Professionals (O Carroll
and Public Health Informatics Competencies Working Group, 2002) ...............206
Appendix I. Tables with Detailed Data from Survey ....................................................208
Appendix J. Checklist for Assessing IT Management Practices....................................215
Appendix K. Checklist for Evaluating the Effectiveness in Planning and
Adopting IT to Support Emergency Preparedness ............................................218
Appendix L. Competencies for Strategic Management of IT and IT Projects:
Suggestions for Additional Public Health Workforce Skills..............................222
IT Management in LHDs x
Appendix M. IT Management Metrics for LHD Accreditation:
Suggestions for Operational Definition of a Functional Health Department ......224
Appendix N. Human Subjects Research Form .............................................................235
Appendix O. Permission to Use Copyrighted Material................................................239
IT Management in LHDs xi
List of Tables
Table 1. LHDs by Size of Population Served (NACCHO, 2006)....................................14
Table 2. Personal Health Services Provided in LHDs, 2001 ...........................................16
Table 3: Population-Level Services Provided in LHDs, 2001.........................................17
Table 4. Sample Listing of Information Technology Supporting Public Health
Programs/Services and Emergency Preparedness ...............................................24
Table 5. Enterprise Architecture--Discrete Enterprise Structural Components................58
Table 6. Base Firm-Wide IT Infrastructure Services Framework
Broadbent, Weill, and St. Clair...........................................................................62
Table 7. The Feeny/Willcocks Framework for Core IS Capabilities ...............................63
Table 8. Measures of Strategic IT Management Framework
Bergeron, Raymond, & Rivard...........................................................................65
Table 9. The ITIM/GAO Framework.............................................................................68
Table 10. IT Management Competencies for Public Health Professionals Framework
The O Carroll and Public Health Informatics Competencies Working Group .....69
Table 11. Comparison of Survey Participants and NonParticipants ................................81
Table 12. Distribution of Participants Across Size of LHD Jurisdiction,
Purview Specific ................................................................................................81
Table 13. IT Director s Rating of LHDs on IT Management Practices (N=29)...............90
Table 14. IT Director s Rating of LHDs on IT Management Practices (N=20)...............93
Table 15. LHD s IT Management Practices Across 8 Components of the Framework:
Number of High and Medium Performers ..........................................................97
IT Management in LHDs xii
Table 16. LHD s IT Management Practices Across Groupings of the Framework:
Number of High and Medium Performers .........................................................99
Table 17. LHD s IT Management Practices for All and Strategic Indicators:
Number of High and Medium Performers ..........................................................99
Table 18. Emergency Preparedness Director s Rating of LHD s
Effectiveness in Establishing Emergency Preparedness IT (N=34) ...................106
Table 19. Emergency Preparedness Director s Rating of LHD s
Effectiveness in Establishing Emergency Preparedness IT (N=20) ...................109
Table 20. LHD s Effectiveness in Establishing Emergency Preparedness IT:
Number of High and Medium Performers ........................................................112
Table 21. LHD s Leadership Assessment of Effectiveness in Managing
Emergency Preparedness IT (N=40).................................................................119
Table 22. LHD s Leadership Agreement on Effectiveness in Managing
Emergency Preparedness IT (N=40).................................................................120
Table 23. LHD s Leadership Assessment of Effectiveness in Managing
Emergency Preparedness IT (N=63).................................................................121
Table 24. LHD s Leadership Agreement on Effectiveness in Managing
Emergency Preparedness IT (N=63).................................................................122
Table 25. LHD s Effectiveness in Managing Emergency Preparedness IT:
Number of High and Medium Performers (n=40) .............................................123
Table 26. Emergency Preparedness Leadership s Assessment of LHDs
Readiness for Emergencies (N=34) ..................................................................127
IT Management in LHDs xiii
Table 27. Emergency Preparedness Leadership s Assessment of LHDs
Readiness for Emergencies (N=20) ..................................................................128
Table 28. LHD s Readiness for Emergencies: Number of High and
Medium Performers .........................................................................................129
Table 29. Distribution of High and Medium Performing LHDs Across Key
Components of the Dissertation s Framework (N=63)......................................133
IT Management in LHDs xiv
List of Figures
Figure 1. Pyramid of Public Health System Preparedness ..............................................22
Figure 2. GAO Model for Using IT to Drive Strategic Business Change........................67
Figure 3. Information and Data Systems: Relation to Emergency
Preparedness Capacity .......................................................................................73
Figure 4. IT Management Practices: Implications for LHD
Readiness for Emergencies.................................................................................75
Figure 5. IT Management Practices Indicators: Organizationally & for Emergency
Preparedness Initiative .......................................................................................76
Figure 6. Emergency Preparedness IT Capacity Indicators (30 Variable Construct) .......77
Figure 7. Emergency Readiness Indicators (10 Variable Construct) ...............................78
Figure 8. LHD s Public Health Infrastructure ..............................................................139
IT Management in LHDs xv
List of Abbreviations
AHRQ Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
CDC Centers for Disease Con
Engaging with Students to Enhance Learning - DE Oracle
No full textDE Oracle @ UMUC
An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty
Center for Support of Instruction
Engaging with Students to Enhance Learning
George Harding
Adjunct Faculty
Graduate School of Management and Technology
Published: September-October 2011
Category: » Online-pedagogy » Teaching-strategies
In a previous semester, one of my students provided feedback which clearly illustrates the importance
of frequent interactive dialogue in online classroom discussions:
I remember several times throughout the semester thinking, "holy smokes, how many posts is the
professor going to write?!?!" In the other class I'm taking this semester, the professor . . . would respond to
a few of the classroom discussions and would answer questions if asked directly; but largely, she stayed out
of the conference section. I found it helpful that in this course the professor was "always there" to give
guidance throughout the semester.
To which I responded:
I'll take your comment: "holy smokes, how many posts is the professor going to write?" as a compliment.
Recognizing that I am only responding to student postings, the real compliment goes to the students who
make classes interesting by posting their comments, questions and experiences. Once the dialogue is
started everyone is invited to join in the fun, thereby creating a symbiotic and holistic relationship among
all members of the class.
To which the student responded:
You were correct in assuming that comment as a compliment. As I stated, I had another professor this
semester who rarely posted in the Discussions. While I learned a good deal from her class, my learning was
mostly from completing the assignments. The learning in your class stemmed from both completing
assignments and the discussions; it's good to learn from the experiences of one's peers!
As this student's comments indicate, instructor interaction adds an important learning dimension to the
class, and classes become more valuable with the full participation of all the stakeholders. The engaged
students will drive the class, but the instructor has to fan the fires through his/her activate participation
in the discussions. In my experience, when students sense that the instructor is not fully involved, they
quickly lose interest in participating in the discussions.
For the engaged students, the discussions are a vibrant learning experience. Student involvement in
classroom conferences, along with their ability to research the topic being discussed, is one of the
strong points in online learning. There is no hiding in the back of the classroom in online classes, as
class participation can easily be monitored and measured through online statistics. Classroom
participation is a great way for students to learn from each other. Since most students are subject
matter experts in their chosen profession, the expertise they bring to the classroom can contribute
enormously to the learning experience.
Introverted students are often hesitant to participate in the discussions, so it is important that
instructors reach out to help such students overcome their reluctance and fully participate by finding
topics that are of particular interest to them. Every trick of the trade needs to be employed to engage
every student in the weekly discussions. Although online instructors are encouraged to be the guide on
the side, the genuinely effective guide is the one who turns passive students into active participants of
a learning community.
Engaging with Students to Enhance Learning - DE Oracle
To get students involved in the discussions, instructors need to be completely involved in the classroom
discussions (walk their talk). They need to post responses to as many students as possible as
frequently as possible, which in turn will encourage comments/interaction by the students. The more
involved the student becomes, the greater the learning experience. Students love to read war stories
from their instructor's and classmates' experiences that relate real-life know-how to the materials being
learned. They pick up on the ambiance when the instructor is fully participating in the discussions.
Once the discussion flywheel is set in motion by the instructor, even the introverted students get into
the discussion flow.
At the beginning of class, I specifically instruct my students that all postings should be value adding
(add substance to the conversation). Rather than just writing "I agree," they should write "I agree
because...." It is the explanation of the "because" that adds value to the discussion. I don't expect
students to always agree with me, their classmates, or any of the authors cited in the materials
presented—but I do expect them to explain the reason for their agreement or disagreement. In every
post, they can do one or more of the following:
Agree with the author.
Disagree with the author.
Provide a different perspective.
Provide a new reference.
Provide a new example.
Apply the concept to a new area or topic.
Tell a story about how the topic relates to their lives.
Explain how they will apply this knowledge in the future.
In my experience, giving students this guidance leads to a greater number of responses and increases
the variety of topics discussed in the class.
It is essential for online instructors to be omnipresent in the classroom, which requires a tremendous
commitment of time and effort. Instructors must prioritize their time to enable them to visit the
classroom as often as possible (essentially every day). They need to comment on student postings,
leaving an audit trail that demonstrates their dedication to online learning. As noted by my former
student, the instructor's contributions to the classroom dialogue enhance overall learning. By guiding
students effectively and engaging with them frequently, instructors can help create a learning
experience that students will truly appreciate.
About the Author(s)
George Gordon Harding has taught at UMUC since 1998 where he teaches ISAS 600, Information Systems for Managers and
TMAN 611, Principles of Technology Management. Before retiring from industry, he was involved with manufacturing
engineering, information technology and project management. He has worked for DuPont Merck Pharmaceuticals, DuPont,
General Electric and Baumritter Corporation. In addition to his industrial career, he has been an adjunct professor at various
colleges for over 40 years. He earned his doctorate in education from Wilmington University, his MBA from the University of
Delaware and his BS in management from New England College. Before getting his college degrees, he graduated from the
General Electric Apprentice Program as a Journeyman Toolmaker. He also has 9 years of military experience with the Army
and the Air Force. Dr. Harding was the 2006-2007 recipient of the Stanley J. Drazek Graduate School of Management and
Technology Teaching Excellence Award, http://www.umuc.edu/events/_moreinfo/drazek/harding.html and the 2005 recipient
of the Teaching Recognition Award.
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Virtual Teamwork in the Online Classroom_ Guidelines for Instructor and Student Success - Part II - DE Oracle
No full textDE Oracle @ UMUC
An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty
Center for Support of Instruction
Virtual Teamwork in the Online Classroom: Guidelines for Instructor and
Student Success - Part II
Datta Kaur Khalsa, Ph.D.
Director of Assessment, UMUC Department of Education,
Graduate School of Management and Technology
Published: March-April 2011
Category: » Online-pedagogy » Teaching-strategies
Introduction
Part 1 of this series discussed influences and challenges for virtual teams.
Survey results from 45 California Public University System (CPUS) online
graduate students were analyzed. These students were asked questions about
what affected their virtual team experience. The survey results suggested
that, even with the use of virtual collaborative tools in a faceless online
environment, the same traditional social and cultural face-to-face influences
affect online virtual teamwork and online classroom interactions.
In Part 2 below, practical instructor and student frameworks for successful virtual teamwork and online
classroom interactions are presented, based on student comments and suggestions in the previously
reported survey plus additional survey results from 85 online graduate students from the same CPUS.
The guidelines presented here, stemming from a total of 130 student responses, will help online faculty
and students work together to create a collaborative culture in the online classroom.
Background
During virtual, inter-dependent and multicultural global team settings, technology, culture, identity,
and community traverse in an asynchronous interface. Advantages to 24/7 online learning include
opportunities for a "dynamic mix of national, geographic, organizational, and professional or
disciplinary variables in constant interaction with one another, [changing] according to the context"
(Heaton, 2001, p. 220). However, such a mixture of backgrounds and influences can create challenges
for communications and interactive opportunities. Since many of the challenges have a root in social
and cultural history, they are often related to time, space, relationships, and materials (Hall, 1977; Hall
& Hall, 1990; Hofstede, 1997, 2001; Storti, 1990, 1998). If students are aware of these influences and
instructors subsequently adjust course plans towards a base of understanding, sensitivity, and support,
then effective virtual interaction and team success is more likely to occur.
As reported in Part 1 of this series, 45 graduate students who were experienced in online virtual
teamwork noted eight socio-cultural dimensions—team support, time and flexibility, rules and
regulations, recognition, power and status, leadership, assertiveness and competition, and gender
bias—that they found to impact group identity and group harmony during online classroom interactions
(Khalsa, 2010b). When student survey responses from 85 additional online graduate students were
compared to the original survey findings, similar results appeared. Both student groups proved that we
continue to be affected by traditions even when decisions and actions are from people whose faces we
do not see (Gerzon, 2010).
Virtual Teamwork in the Online Classroom: Guidelines for Instructor and Student Success - Part II - DE Oracle
Student responses to a number of survey questions determined an answer to the question, "How can
we successfully work together when so many socio-cultural influences and perspectives merge in a
virtual setting?" The student responses included notes on team support, "doing your part," building
trust and respect, acculturation to the group identity, assertiveness, and gender sensitivity—all of
which helped inform how faculty and students can work together to develop successful virtual team
environments.
Working Together in a Virtual Team Setting
The student survey comments from the comparative study spoke to instructor participation, planning,
and guidelines to help prepare students for a collaborative online classroom atmosphere. Preparing
students for collaborative work in these ways can help minimize dysfunctional communication and
spark motivation and effective interaction—which could result in valuable teamwork and group project
development. Clear, continual, responsive instructor communication can serve as a model for team
interaction and provide an example of what is expected of the students. More distinct guidelines for
students can be offered by the instructor, and if these guidelines recognize the value of student
perspectives and request student input, then a democratic, respectful, collaborative online classroom
environment can be born.
Building a Premise for Success
It is best if online instructors not assume that students understand the importance of collaboration or
interacting in a virtual learning community—or that they understand how to do either one well.
Students who have not had a previous positive experience in such a setting may decide that there are
no learning advantages and that it is easier to do a project individually. They may even sabotage best
practices by announcing to fellow students that they hate team projects—which can weaken everyone’s
trust in the process and outcomes. To combat these potential issues before they arise, instructors can
set the stage for success by acknowledging upfront student concerns about time and workload and
emphasize positive aspects of group assignments. Instructors can emphasize that group projects
provide a learning advantage in that they mirror authentic interaction and skills needed in many
educational and organizational settings and practices (Kellison, 2008; Khalsa, 2007, 2010a). Positive
testimonials from past students can also be shared.
E-learning team interactions require intellectual, emotional, and social support. Instructors need to help
students gain an appreciation for the innovative process and what it will provide team members. An
instructor’s educational philosophy and "voice" can do much toward initial modeling of attitudes and
communication skills. An egalitarian atmosphere and tone can go far in building a base of trust with the
instructor and among class members. Student anxiety can lessen, and a climate of mutual respect and
acceptance can fuel increased interaction and a new sense of learning possibilities.
To create a strong learning community from Day One, instructors can:
1. Communicate benefits of collaborative work.
2. Provide a warm, personal bio prior to the course start date.
Provide an assignment graphic and overview video, noting collaborative assignments in a certain color
code and emphasizing where students can find assignment descriptions.
3.
Begin building the learning community from the first week of the course by requiring student-to-
student interviews to be posted in the Week 1 “Getting to know you” discussion.
4.
Display a welcoming and attentive manner and an open and responsive tone in the Week 1 introductory
discussions.
5.
Offer an instructor audio or video so that students can begin to create an expansive, more personable
image of who is leading the class.
6.
Create a netiquette wiki that offers general guidelines and reflects socio-cultural sensitivity and
awareness. Invite students to add to the wiki based on their own sensitivities and experiences.
7.
Virtual Teamwork in the Online Classroom: Guidelines for Instructor and Student Success - Part II - DE Oracle
Provide a table of cultural and social influences that can 8. make or break virtual teamwork.
Shaping Collaborative Best Practices
Knowing what students have to say about their team encounters may help define what instructors can
do to create a more positive experience. Often, students already have a bad taste for group work and
may hold onto opinions and descriptions of group work from their past, described with words such as
"surviving the group project." However, since most organizations now find groups central to their
company or institutional success, it is likely that students will be career participants in such teamwork.
Therefore, students will benefit from practice, understanding, and guidance toward skillful and effective
team communication, planning, and production—no matter what their career choice.
Very short pre-course and post-course surveys that ask students about their past and present team
experiences can help instructors focus on current student needs and see where they can improve for
the next time. The graduate students in this research study spoke often about the need for team
support. They defined team support as sharing ideas, communicating positively and frequently with
constructive criticism, providing alternate viewpoints, and displaying professionalism. Lack of team
support included workload inequality, lack of communication, and generally "not doing their part."
Students recommended moving a team project forward in a way that builds trust and effectiveness
through timeliness and frequent communication. To help support these ideals, instructors can share
effective elements of team support with their students, invite students to define those elements, and
add suggestions for student interaction.
Students also noted that recognition and respect were keys for communication, with the understanding
that perception of these qualities varied from person to person. When someone on a team lacks respect
for others, it is easy to disregard others' opinions. Likewise, those who do show respect for others will
naturally give their ideas and opinions due consideration. Remedies to increase respectful interaction
included an awareness and acceptance of diversity, tolerance of time zones differences, and a
willingness to put forth extra personal effort. Timeliness is always important because it is part of
respecting the time of others. Enthusiastic team members, who experienced effective teamwork,
described the "joy of working with others" because their teammates were helpful, considerate, and
indulged in focused work together.
The following guidelines are suggested communication pointers for helping students work
collaboratively with each other:
1. Openly and gently share personal interests and ideals.
2. If you have the option, choose your teammates based on similar topic interests.
3. Collaboratively set team goals based on instructor guidelines with respect for individual perspectives.
4. Stay positive, understanding, helpful, considerate, and focused.
5. Communicate clearly and often—help the team define what "often" means.
Respect and recognize varied opinions, individual contributions, and what each person can offer to the
team process.
6.
7. Trust in yourself, your teammates, the technology, and the power of collaboration.
8. Be aware of self-bias and adjust your comments accordingly.
Conclusion
Building a base for successful online discussions and team interactions requires that the online
instructor be aware of the challenges facing the online student. These challenges may stem from a
student’s social and cultural interactions and past team experiences. Knowing these issues, online
instructors can help themselves and their students by building a strong base for collaboration—a
well-organized first week of the class; an online voice that portrays democratic, open, and frequent
communication; and a tolerance for varied perspectives and team guidelines for what works. All of
Virtual Teamwork in the Online Classroom: Guidelines for Instructor and Student Success - Part II - DE Oracle
these practices can go far in building a foundation of trust and support.
Online students, who are required to engage interactively in online discussions and virtual teamwork,
must also build and display trust—trust in themselves, in others, in the technology, and in the team
process. They need to recognize their own voice and bias and choose words that portray a personable,
respectful self. By committing to virtual team support and helping each other define what that means,
a virtual team can experience how working together can add to their own learning and create projects,
which are more expansive than what might otherwise be offered.
In being aware of the social and cultural factors, which affect online discussion and virtual teamwork,
online instructors and students can work together to build mutual trust and respectful recognition of
each participant’s role in the process. Following the guidelines presented here can help build an
effective, collaborative online classroom environment resulting in unique insight into the power of
virtual teamwork and needed practice of skills for a student’s future career.
References
Gerzon, M. (2010). Global citizens: How our vision of the world is outdated and what we can do about
it. London: Random House Books.
Hall, E.T. (1977). Beyond culture. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books.
Hall, E.T., & Hall, M.R. (1990). Understanding cultural differences: Germans, French, and Americans.
Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
Hofstede, G. (1997). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and
organizations across nations (2nd ed.). London: Sage.
Heaton, L. (2001). Preserving communication context: Virtual workspace and interpersonal space in
Japanese CSCW. In C. Ess & F. Sudweeks (Eds.), Culture, technology, communication: Towards an
intercultural global village (pp. 213-240).Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Kellison, K. (2008). Virtual teamwork [Electronic version]. T.H.E. Journal 35(6), 22-24. Retrieved from
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influences. In A. Edmundson (Ed.), Globalized e-learning cultural challenges (pp. 307-326). New York:
Idea Publishing.
Khalsa, D.K. (2010a). Multi-cultural e-learning teamwork: Social and cultural characteristics and
influences. In D.E. Pullman & D.R. Cole (Eds.), Multiliteracies and technology enhanced education:
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About the Author(s)
Datta Kaur Khalsa received her PhD from the University of Maryland, Baltimore County in the area of Language, Literacy and
Culture. She has a certificate in Online Teaching and Learning from California State University, East Bay and also received a
Master of Education degree with a specialty in Online Teaching and Learning. With over 30 years of experience in education,
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she has been involved with program development, teacher training, and administration in a number of university and K-12
settings, as well as designing and teaching online graduate courses since 2000. Currently she is Director of Assessment for
UMUC's Graduate School Department of Education and is an associate professor in the MEd program. Her current research
focus includes building trust in virtual teamwork; social computing; online communities; and the policy, training, and
organizational structure related to global, cross-cultural, interdisciplinary project-based learning.
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Virtual Teamwork in the Online Classroom: Guidelines for Instructor and Student Success - Part II - DE Oracl
His Own Path: The spirit and legacy of Herman Maril
No full textExhibition Catalog for 2011 Herman Maril exhibit: His Own Pat
Organizations sharing tacit knowledge through organizational culture and trust
No full textThe purpose of this dissertation is to bring to light the importance of knowledge sharing for the transfer of tacit knowledge in organizations.Organizations Sharing Tacit Knowledge through Organizational Culture and TrustBridgett E. Clinton
Keywords:
Tacit Knowledge, Knowledge Sharing, Trust in Management, Affective Trust, Organizational Culture, and Social Interaction Purpose and Scope of the Research
•
The purpose of this dissertation was to bring to light the importance of knowledge sharing for the transfer of tacit knowledge in organizations.
•
If organizations use tacit knowledge effectively they will gain a competitive advantage. Research Questions
•
What elements of an organizational culture facilitate the effective sharing of tacit knowledge?
•
How can managers and employees share the tacit knowledge they possess with one another? Significance of this Research for Management
•
The sharing of tacit knowledge among individuals within organizations encourages a number of benefits:
•
It brings together different pieces of knowledge that together can enable the development of new services and products.
•
With tacit knowledge, organizations can possess unique capabilities that are often invisible to competitors and thus hard to replicate.Main Literature Themes and Authors
•
Tacit Knowledge Sharing & Social Interaction
Lawler (2001)
Kelloway and Barling (2000)
Tsui, Pearce, Porter, and Tripoli (1997)
•
Tacit Knowledge Sharing & Organizational Culture
Schein (1990)
Goh (2002)
De Long & Fahey (2000)
Bandura(1989)
•
Tacit Knowledge Sharing & Trust
Mayer & Gavin (2005)
McAllister (1995)
Holste & Fields (2005)
Renzl (2008)Key Propositions Distilledfrom the Literature
•
Proposition 1: The culture of an organization will influence its ability to share tacit knowledge.
•
Proposition 2: Organizations that promote sharing environments will capture more or its employees’ tacit knowledge.
•
Proposition 3: When employees develop work relationships based on affective trust, itwill increase their ability and willingness to share tacit knowledge in their organization.
•
Proposition 4:Organizations that develop a high level of trust and cooperation among employees and managers will be more likely to transfer tacit knowledge.A Conceptual Framework of Tacit Knowledge Sharing Within Organizations
Employees engaging in workplace interactions
Higher propensity for employees to share tacit knowledge
Tacit Knowledge Being Shared within OrganizationsThesis statement
•An organizational culture that is conducive to knowledge sharing through the creation of a work environment that encourages social interaction and trust will have a higher propensity for its employees to share tacit knowledge. Research Approach & Formationof Argument
•
In order to examine the propositions that evolved from the review of literature an evidence-based methodology was used. This approach provides the means for bringing empirical research and professional practice closer together.
•
Furthermore, using an evidence-based research method informs organizations of the best available scientific evidence available regarding tacit knowledge sharing that can be used for making managerial decisions and developing organizational practices.Findings
•This dissertation considered what prior research revealed about the factors presumed to impact the effective sharing of tacit knowledge and the following was revealed:
•Organizational and managerial influences in the workplace will determine how employees interact with one another to share tacit knowledge.
•There must exist some level of trust between the individuals exchanging the knowledge as well as an organizational atmosphere that is conducive to unstructured employee interaction for tacit knowledge to be effectively shared.Implications for Management Practice
•
Management should not attempt to control tacit knowledge but rather take actions to create an environment where desirable results can be achieved.
•
Ways organizations can encourage tacit knowledge sharing within its structure include encouraging employees to become aware of what tacit knowledge is and its importance to the organization. Future Research Agendas
•
Once an organization has addressed the factors discussed in this dissertation (i.e., trust, culture, social interaction), what are some other knowledge sharing barriers that may hinder the sharing of tacit knowledge within organizations?
•
The fact that there is no shared understanding of what role employees play in the trust equation with management, creates a void that warrants further examination