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Online learning and collaboration in the cloud
No full textCloud computing promises new and valuable capabilities to support online classroom activities. It has the potential to be of significant value to instructors and administrators who want to enhance course delivery through increased collaboration and sharing capabilities.Les Pang and Stella Porto
University of Maryland University College
Abstract
Experiment with a cloud-based application to enhance student collaboration, engagement, sharing and overall productivity.
Pedagogical Purposes
•Enhance students’ collaboration skills working as virtual teams
•Learn while using cutting-edge technologies through hands-on experience
Results
•Learning experience was improved, despite a few shortcomings
•Best practices were identified.
Introduction
Cloud Computing
•PROMISE: new and valuable capabilities to support online classroom activities.
•POTENTIAL: enhance course delivery through increased collaboration and sharing capabilities.
Google Drive
•Formerly ‘Google Docs’
•No-cost, Web-based office suite
•Users create and edit documents totally online
•Synchronously and asynchronously collaborative capabilities
Hypothesis
‘Google Drive’ will significantly facilitate and enhance student engagement and faculty productivity, thereby, improving the learning and teaching experience.
Purpose
Identify and assess effective teaching practices that utilize Google Drive within the online classroom.
Share the experiences and lessons learned in applying the cloud-based suite in supporting UMUC online programs while identifying several issues and challenges associated with the adoption of this new technology.
Assess the potential of Google Drive as a productivity and collaboration tool for supporting online teaching and management activities and addresses lessons learned and possible future directions in this area.
Methodology
Literature review
Designed classroom activities with Google Drive
Classroom procedures for instructors
Designed Feedback surveys
Context
•An introductory graduate level course, ITEC 610, Information Technology Foundations.
•Five online instructors..
•Total of six sections of about 15 students each.
Data Gathering
•Feedback through surveys
•Direct observation of classroom activities.
•Major indicators: accessibility, reliability, efficiency, helpfulness and ease of use.
Survey Results
Les Pang [email protected] Stella Porto [email protected]
Most Appreciated Aspects
•Real-time editing of document (7)
•General collaboration capabilities. (4)
•Accessibility/cloud-based. (3)
•Auto-save capability. (3)
Least Appreciated Aspects
•Steep learning curve; inadequate training/documentation provided (although became easier over time) (5)
•Functionality not as powerful as Word. (4)
•Latency – cursor not at point where typing; slow. (4)
•Inability to meet APA format requirements. (3)
•Classmates inability to share their documents . (3)
Other Comments
•Great tool, great experience. (3)
•Prefer not to use Google Drive – students have enough on their plates. (2)
Recommendations / Best Practices
Key Findings
Results were mixed. For some, adding Google Drive to the class was additional work; for others, advantages were relevant and the collaborative nature of Google Drive sparked interest.
Overall, student ratings were between 3.2 and 3.8 for the all the indicators mentioned above. Therefore, this range is roughly equivalent to a grade of a “B”.
Students felt that the application was useful for the collection of feedback and has a significant collaborative potential for teamwork. On the other hand, it lacked compatibility with other desktop applications and sometimes seemed to create additional work to the online environment.
There were a few ease-of-use and accessibility issues and some students preferred staying within the limits of the learning management system boundaries.
Instructors’ ratings on all aspects were higher than those for students, averaging above 4.0. Instructors saw a productivity benefit in using these tools.
Use traditional best practices for group work. If using the technologies for group activities, it is important to adopt best practices related to virtual teamwork in order to avoid the negative aspects of mismanaged collaborative activities.
Maximize assignment visibility. Leverage as much as possible the ability for immediate feedback by the instructor.
Integrate Google Drive with the Learning Management System. Several LMS’s currently allow the incorporating Google Drive, and in such cases, the students will not feel that there are employing yet another tool and allows the access to Google Drive to be more seamless.
The value of the learning technology depends on how well the learning activity is designed. This means that there needs to be considerable work on the development of the activity from the instructional design point of view, when considering the adoption of such technologies.
Google Drive had mixed success in its use in online classroom activities for this particular experiment. It is however a powerful tool for collaborative activities such as signup forms, reflective documents and surveys.
All instructors involved in the experimental use of Google Drive plan to continue its use in upcoming semesters due to its collaborative value. However, most plan to be more selective on which class activities they plan to include the tool.
Some of the identified limitations may become irrelevant in the future since the application is constantly evolving. Overall, the researchers find that the tool has a significant potential and should be considered as an additional tools to be used, especially when integration with the LMS is possible
Conclusions
Applications
Online Learning and
Collaboration in the Cloud
Contact Info
Group Research Paper
Signup Form
Surveys
Group Slide Presentation
Class Reflective Document
Start slow. Begin with one or two activities in a course. Later, refine the activity based on the experience gained and eventually add others that have a significant potential.
Assign short collaborative pieces. Employ the activities that involve collaborative writing, such as short pieces, allowing for instructor feedback during development and minimal requirements on format.
Use signup sheets and forms. The use of signup sheets and forms are useful classroom activities involving Google Drive and do not require excessive learning.
Provide student support. As for students’ readiness, provide support as needed both before and during the activity. For some individuals, it might mean a steep learning curve.
Note: Google Docs = Google Driv
Mobile phones as a payment system
No full textThe accelerated growth of cell phone market penetration has happened all around the world. NFC and other tech-nologies will allow use the mobile phone as payment system even for non banking population.MOBILE PHONES AS A PAYMENT SYSTEM
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Mobile Cellular Subscriptions (per 100 people)
East Asia & Pacific Europe & Central Asia Latin America & Caribbean
Middle East & North Africa North America World
Sub-Saharan Africa
INTRODUCTION
The accelerated
growth of cell phone
market penetration has
happened all around
the world.
NFC and other tech-nologies
will allow
use the mobile phone
as payment system
even for non banking
population.
Paloma Benal Turnes
Rey Juan Carlos University
Georgetown University
[email protected]
[email protected]
Phone: +1 240 550 9245
Phone: +34 607 42 22 73
Paloma Bernal Turnes
Rey Juan Carlos University—Georgetown University
EUROPEAN PAYMENTS IN EUROPE IN A
GLANCE (2010)
Merchants pay about 25.000B$ for card payments
transactions in the European Union (UE).
25% of banks revenues in the UE belongs to pay-ments
transactions.
Transaction fees in card payments is 2%
Card fees are 1.5% of EU GDP
75% of transactions in Europe are done in cash
THE MAIN ISSUES IDENTIFIED IN MOBILE PAY-MENT
SERVICES:
• Market fragmentation, access and entry for existing
and new service providers: telecommunication provid-ers,
banks, card issuers, Internet platforms, mobile
phones producers
• Lack of transparency and efficient pricing of payment
services
• Need of standardisation
• Low inter-operability between service providers
CONCLUSIONS
MAIN SUCCESS FACTORS OF MOBILE
PAYMENTS
1) Service Knowledge 75%
2) Marketing Knowledge 80%
3) Managerial Knowledge 92%
4) Strategic Pioneering Advantages 95%
5) Marketing Orientation 85%
6) Peformance 88%
7) Security 73%
METHODOLOGY
Sample: 82 (cooperative and saving banks of
UE (74), e-payment service providers (6), card
issuers(2)
Method of information gathering: phone, e-mail
Exploratory Factor Analyis:
NFI=0.885
CFI=0.937
RMSEA= 0.04
Open innovation implementation: Competitor pathways
No full textThe research purpose is to understand the effectiveness of implementing open innovation through competitors to influence innovation in the private sector, to provide insight into leveraging open innovation to increase innovation performance and to reveal how open innovation impacts financial performance, organizational innovativeness, and product commercialization.Open Innovation Implementation: Competitor Pathways
6 July 2012
Shawn Vaughns
Doctor of Management
University of Maryland University College
Contact: [email protected]
Keywords: Open Innovation, Co-Innovation, Cooperation, Coopetition, Radical Innovation Research Purpose
•
To understand the effectiveness of implementing open innovation through competitors to influence innovation in the private sector.
•
To provide insight into leveraging open innovation to increase innovation performance.
•To reveal how open innovation impacts financial performance, organizational innovativeness, and product commercialization. Research Question
•
Research Question 1: Does implementing open innovation through competitors lead to a competitive advantage?
•
Research Question 2: To what extent does implementing inbound open innovation through competitors increase the innovation output with which an organization can create a competitive advantage? Research Question (Cont.)
•
Research Question 3: To what extent does implementing outbound open innovation through competitors influence competitiveness?
•Research Question 4: Does open innovation exists beyond the high technology industry?
Significance of Research
•
More than 85 percent of new product ideas are not being commercialized and 50-70 percent that are commercialized fail (Koudal & Coleman, 2005)
•
A problem exists for aligning organizations to implement open innovation (Koudal & Coleman, 2005)
•
It is not understood, if concepts of open innovation exists beyond the high technology industry (Chesbrough & Crowther, 2006) Key Themes
•
Open innovation enabler refers to coopetition, innovation collaboration, innovation cooperation, and knowledge sharing.
•
Collective association refers to innovation networks, knowledge networks, and R&D partnerships.
•
Environment refers to exploration, exploitation, and external innovation sources.
•
Innovation value refers to incremental innovation, new product development, patent quality, radical innovation, technological innovation, and value creation.
•
Internal factors refer to innovation behavior, innovation management, innovation performance, intellectual property, organizational change, strategic alliance structure, and value appropriation. Key Authors
•
Chesbrough, H. - Open Innovation
•
Porter, M. - Competitive Advantage
•
Christensen, C. - Radical Innovation
•
Argyris, C. - Organizational Learning
•
Barney, J. - Resource Base View
•
Lane, P. - Absorptive Capacity
•
Rogers, E. M. - Diffusion of Innovation
•
Prahalad, C. - Core Capabilities and Competencies
Key Propositions
•
P1: The formation of strategic alliances enables the implementation of open innovation through competitors to maximize core competencies and resources.
•
P2: Cooperation amongst strategic alliances minimizes risk associated with innovation, thus influencing innovativeness.
•
P5: Competitors enable organizations to innovate by aligning resources and expertise to provide pathways and expand access to new markets. Conceptual Framework
COMPETITIVE ENVIRONMENT Strategic AllianceINNOVATIONCOMPETITIVENESSORGANIZATIONCOMPETITORINBOUND OPEN INNOVATIONOUTBOUND OPEN INNOVAITON, PORTER’S FIVE FORCES (COMPETITOR, CUSTOMER, SUBSITUTE PRODUCT, NEW ENTRANT, SUPPLIER)ABSORPTIVE CAPACITYORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING OPEN INNOVATION SUCCESS FACTORS• COOPERATION• LEADERSHIP• CORE CAPABILITIES• COOPETITION• TRUST• RESOURCES• COMMERCIALIZATIONResearch Method
RESEARCH QUESTIONSSEARCH STRATEGYINCLUSION CRITERIAEXCLUSION CRITERIAARTICLEQUALITY ASSESSMENTSYNTHESISCOMMUNICATE FINDINGSMANAGEMENTIMPLICATIONSResearch Findings
•
Open innovation reduced costs for developing new products amongst competitors by providing a connection between the core capabilities of both organizations, while increasing innovation performance and output volume.
•
Open innovation offered flexibility, speed, innovation, and the ability to adjust to changing market conditions and new strategic opportunities.
•
Open innovation with competitors influenced radical innovation, thus improved innovation performance.
•
Open innovation becomes important where organizations jointly perform R&D in uncertain and high-risk areas
•
The commercialization of innovation revolved around organizational learning, trend scouting, technology acquisition groups, and strategic alliances.
•
The higher an organization's rate for commercializing innovation, the more likely the organization is to achieve and maintain a competitive advantage Implications for Management
•
Managing the implementation and collaboration specific to open innovation influences the innovativeness of the entire supply chain.
•
Open innovation introduced new products faster, which influenced access to early cash flows, external visibility, legitimacy, and early market share.
•
Broader knowledge base influences faster product commercialization.
•
Open innovation with competitors focused on radical innovation that created new markets
•
Open innovation with international competitors promotes foreign market access Future Research
•
The effects of open innovation on an organizations’ supply chain.
•Explore how universities influence the innovation process within the private sector.
•The effects of online market places on open innovation.
•Expand the study timeframe to analyze the effects of open innovation trends overtime
Towards a framework of the social franchise: A management construct for nonprofit leadership
No full textNonprofit management is increasingly looking to commercial business models for revenue generation, job creation and public awareness for their mission. The franchise model is complex and dynamic, and its historic and documented economic success is attractive to nonprofit leadership. “Social Franchise” is a nascent, evolving theory which gives scholars latitude for their interpretations, but is leaving practitioners with limited guidance.TOWARDS A FRAMEWORK OF THE SOCIAL FRANCHISE
A Management Construct for Nonprofit Leadership
Presented by Benjamin C. Litalien, CFE
Candidate for Doctor of Management Degree
2012 Problem Statement
•
Nonprofit management is increasingly looking to commercial business models for revenue generation, job creation and public awareness for their mission.
•
The franchise model is complex and dynamic, and its historic and documented economic success is attractive to nonprofit leadership.
•
“Social Franchise” is a nascent, evolving theory which gives scholars latitude for their interpretations, but is leaving practitioners with limited guidance. Purpose and Scope of the Research
•
A review of the extant research on social enterprise activities, nonprofit management of disparate business models and franchise theorem
•
Development of a conceptual framework for a Social Franchise theory that identifies key issues to be addressed by nonprofit management
•
Identification of gaps and limitations within the current body of research and recommendations for future research agendas Methodology Employed
•
Evidenced Based Research featuring a Systematic Review of nonprofit management research, the theories that explain the franchise model (i.e. Agency & Institutional) and Systems Theory
•
Detailed and relevant input from a panel of experts in Academia, Nonprofit Management and Franchising
•
Analysis of key case studies on nonprofit engagement in Social Enterprise and Social Franchise activities
Research Question
What are the key management issues nonprofit leadership must effectively address to generate a successful outcome with a Social Franchise strategy, and in particular:
the management attributes and skills necessary for effectively conflating a franchise program with a nonprofit organization’s long-term strategy,
the governance issues that must be effectively addressed in order to facilitate a franchise program within a nonprofit organization, and
the local market implications including the business, political and nonprofit communities? Systems Theory
Agency Theory
Institutional Theory
•Foundation for understanding Social Franchise
•Primary foundation of franchise model
•Partial explanation of franchise model
Theoretical Framework Conceptual Model: Entering the Social Franchise Arena
Joint External Factors
Social Franchise Arena
Nonprofit Agency
Legal, Tax & Regulatory Issues
Franchisor
Joint External FactorsConceptual Model: Nonprofit Internal Factors for Success
Management Attributes
Impact on Stakeholders
Effects on Funding
Key Skills & Abilities
Governance Issues
Organizational Structuring Board Involvement Long Term Strategy
Local Market Implications
Public Relations Reputation & Goodwill Local Business Community
Successful Venture
Failed Attempt
Nonprofit Internal Factors
Nonprofit Internal FactorsKey Findings
•
Nonprofit Organizations Need Sustainability
Donations are decreasing
Competition for funding sources is increasing
Traditional approaches are less effective
•
Franchising is a Complex & Dynamic Model
•
Nonprofit Leadership can successfully implement the Franchise Model
•
There is No Theoretical Foundation that Provides Nonprofit Management with Guidance Implications for Nonprofit Management Practice
•
Unless nonprofit management deploys a systematic and deliberate approach to engaging the franchise model it will not generate the intended results
•
Nonprofit management must possess the requisite skills to effectively identify, acquire and operate a social franchise business
•
The broad base of stakeholders with an interest in the nonprofit mission must be engaged and satisfied directionally to support and sustain a social franchise strategy
Future Research Agendas
•
How are franchise companies adapting to the advent of social franchising:
Changes in training programs, ongoing support and compliance
•
What unintended impacts are being felt by nonprofit organizations operating a social franchise?
Are there organizational insights from the franchise operation that can benefit the nonprofit agenc
Reducing emotional labor and burnout in non-profit organizations: Overcoming transformational leadership challenges
No full textResearch the emotional labor felt by human-service employees in a nonprofit, non-commercialized setting.
Research the effect emotional labor has on burnout of human-service employees
Determine if and how transformational leadership can reduce the emotional labor felt by human-service employees.Reducing emotional labor and burnout in non-profit organizations: Overcoming transformational leadership challenges Cari K. Ciancio Doctoral Candidate [email protected] keywords: emotional labor, burnout, transformational leadership Purpose and Scope of Research
•Research the emotional labor felt by human-service employees in a nonprofit, non-commercialized setting.
•Research the effect emotional labor has on burnout of human-service employees
•Determine if and how transformational leadership can reduce the emotional labor felt by human-service employees
Research Questions
•Does emotional labor negatively affect human-service employees?
•Do employees of human-service agencies experience burnout due to the emotional labor of their jobs?
•Does transformational leadership reduce the emotional labor of nonprofit human-service employees? If transformational leadership can reduce emotional labor of employees, would the use of transformational leadership counteract employee burnout? Management Significance
•The research of emotional labor is applied to the human service industry rather than the traditional focus of the customer service industry
•Focuses on emotional labor as a source of burnout among human service professionals
•Uses leadership theory to minimize emotional labor and reduce burnout Literature Themes and Authors
•Emotional Labor: Hochschild; Ashforth & Humphrey; Brotheridge & Lee; Morris & Feldman; Rafaeli & Sutton; Grandey; Himmelweit; Cordes & Dougherty
•Transformational Leadership: Bass; Avolio; Humphrey; Yukl; Ross & Offerman
•Burnout: Maslach & Jackson; Brotheridge & Grandey; Lee & Ashforth; Bakker & Heuven Propositions
•EL impacts how the employee manages situations & understands what is right for the individuals in their care.
•Employees will experience a high level of emotional labor due to the demands placed on their interactions with clients.
•Employees’ emotional displays will be guided by the expectations of the nonprofit leadership/agency and by the interaction with the client.
•Agency leadership has a direct impact on emotional labor and burnout experienced by human-service employees. •Components of transactional leadership are not conducive to the human-service employee’s development and success.
•TL benefits human-service employees: the emphasis on purpose, commitment, trust and ethical consequences of decisions, generating feelings of loyalty, confidence and a shared sense of purpose.
•TL is the most effective form of leadership in human-service nonprofits & will result in a reduction of EL felt by human-service employees.
•The practice of transformational leadership will reduce burnout felt by employees in small, nonprofit human-service agencies. Conceptual Framework Thesis Statement
•Where transformational leadership reduces emotional labor felt by human service employees, then there will be a reduction in burnout experienced by human-service employees.
•Where human service employees experience less burnout when they are supported and given a sense of independence and self-efficacy in their work, then transformational leadership may be as best practice in small NPOs will lead to greater employee retention Research Approach
•Subject matter expert interviews were used for this study as well as secondary research
•Human-service non-profit agencies were used when possible
•For profit or commercial nonprofits were used when appropriate such as hospitals, nursing homes or hospices and/or and private companies
•All research was peer reviewed for validity reasons Findings of the Research
•Subject matter is significant to nonprofit management
•Emotional labor can have negative effects on employees
•Leadership support reduces emotional labor
•Leadership support of employee self-efficacy and autonomy can reduce burnout/emotional exhaustion Implications for Management: Using Transformational Leadership
•Works best in flexible, non-bureaucratic organizations that allow the leader to provide individualized attention and understand the difficult work the employees participate in
•Helps reduce emotional labor and burnout by employees feeling needed/wanted and by providing employees with autonomy
•Transformational leaders allow employees to express genuine emotion reducing emotional labor Future Research
•How do passive leadership styles, such as Passive Management-by-Exception or Laissez-faire, contribute to emotional labor felt by human-service workers in nonprofits?
•How do passive leadership styles contribute to burnout of human-service workers in nonprofits?
•How does co-worker support reduce burnout from emotional labor?
•Do transformational leaders experience emotional labor which can cause burnout
Telework as part of a business continuity strategy: A path toward organizational resilience
No full textThis paper explores the impact an established telework program included in a Business Continuity Plan (BCP) has on the resiliency of an organization during and after an unexpected event. Two important realities are beginning to force old management traditions to evolve and transform. First, distance-spanning technologies challenge "same time, same place" models of work. Second, and most important, business interruptions and work stoppages are crucial to an organization's productivity. A changing world demands new ways of using our digital infrastructure to survive in business. Natural disasters, terrorist attacks, and unexpected business crises have the capacity to change the way businesses and societies function.
This study utilizes literature from to the areas of telework, business continuity, and resilience, along with real-world business cases relating to the three areas of focus. The literature chosen provides insight into the impact a telework strategy integrated into an organizations BCP has on an organization's ability to maintain business functions during and after an unexpected event. The paper defines telework and discusses the benefits and issues related to a telework program, and defines the concept of business continuity, making the argument that an established telework program is a critical component of a BCP in continuing business operations during a crisis: keeping an organization's reputation and assets intact. The review of literature and supporting real-world business cases resulted in four findings: (1) management resistance in telework adoption exists, (2) a BCP ensures essential functions during an unexpected event and it is crucial for organizations to be prepared for all types of disasters, (3) telework as part of a BCP is a proactive management approach to disaster planning, and (4) resilient organizations are prepared to continue operations during and after an unexpected event. The study also presents a conceptual model that shows that when needed, executing telework within a BCP will decrease downtime and minimize the impact of a business interruption during a crisis, which leads to less lost revenue, less disruption of operations and improved responsiveness to customers.Telework as Part of a Business Continuity Strategy: A Path toward Organizational Resilience
Carrie J. Colbert
A Dissertation
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Dr. Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D.
Dr. James P. Gelatt, Ph.D.
December 13, 2010
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Abstract
This paper explores the impact an established telework program included in a Business
Continuity Plan (BCP) has on the resiliency of an organization during and after an unexpected
event. Two important realities are beginning to force old management traditions to evolve and
transform. First, distance-spanning technologies challenge “same time, same place” models of
work. Second, and most important, business interruptions and work stoppages are crucial to an
organization’s productivity. A changing world demands new ways of using our digital
infrastructure to survive in business. Natural disasters, terrorist attacks, and unexpected business
crises have the capacity to change the way businesses and societies function.
This study utilizes literature from to the areas of telework, business continuity, and
resilience, along with real-world business cases relating to the three areas of focus. The
literature chosen provides insight into the impact a telework strategy integrated into an
organizations BCP has on an organization’s ability to maintain business functions during and
after an unexpected event. The paper defines telework and discusses the benefits and issues
related to a telework program, and defines the concept of business continuity, making the
argument that an established telework program is a critical component of a BCP in continuing
business operations during a crisis: keeping an organization’s reputation and assets intact. The
review of literature and supporting real-world business cases resulted in four findings: (1)
management resistance in telework adoption exists, (2) a BCP ensures essential functions during
an unexpected event and it is crucial for organizations to be prepared for all types of disasters,
(3) telework as part of a BCP is a proactive management approach to disaster planning, and (4)
resilient organizations are prepared to continue operations during and after an unexpected event.
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The study also presents a conceptual model that shows that when needed, executing telework
within a BCP will decrease downtime and minimize the impact of a business interruption during
a crisis, which leads to less lost revenue, less disruption of operations and improved
responsiveness to customers.
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Acknowledgements
This challenging journey would not have been possible without the support,
encouragement and expertise of several people. I would like to extend a very special thanks to
two University of Maryland University College (UMUC) professors who were instrumental in
my progress and completion of the Doctor of Management program: Dr. Leslie Dinauer for her
vision and continual support of my academic pursuits, and Dr. Kathleen Edwards (a.k.a Dr. Kay)
who continually challenged me in my thinking and provided valuable feedback that drove the
final output.
I’m not sure I would have made it to the finish line without the social and emotional
support of my cohort support group – Randee Sanders, Kathleen Locklear, Mark Stanley, and
Gbemi Acholonu. Thank you for being there for me and keeping me sane when I was at my wits
end and was on the verge of quitting the program, and for making me laugh when all I wanted to
do was to scream or cry. I wish you all continued success and I look forward to hearing our
names being called at the 2011 Commencement.
Last but not least, I am profoundly thankful for the loving support of my family,
especially my husband Commander Charles W. Colbert, U.S. Navy and my beautiful daughter
Cheyenne J. Colbert whose strength, patience and support provided the balance I needed to
complete the program. A special thanks to my mother Dorothea L. Belrose who has been my
“biggest fan” throughout this program and in my life in general. Thank you for being there when
I needed you to read the paper “one more time” and working through the night to make sure my
T’s were crossed and I’s were dotted!
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract
Acknowledgements
Chapter One: Introduction .............................................................................................................................7
Statement of the Problem .........................................................................................................................7
Thesis ......................................................................................................................................................7
Research Questions and Propositions .......................................................................................................9
Definition of Key Terms.....................................................................................................................10
Research Methodology..........................................................................................................................12
Summary ...............................................................................................................................................14
Organization of Dissertation...................................................................................................................14
Telework................................................................................................................................................15
History of Telework as a Management Concept.................................................................................15
What is Telework?.............................................................................................................................16
Advantages and Disadvantages of Telework......................................................................................17
Barriers to Telework..........................................................................................................................23
Knowledge Worker (Telework Candidate).........................................................................................26
Business Continuity...............................................................................................................................27
Evolution of Business Continuity Planning........................................................................................27
Continuity Planning and Telework.........................................................................................................32
Organizational Resilience......................................................................................................................35
Business Cases ......................................................................................................................................38
Summary ...............................................................................................................................................44
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Chapter 3: Analysis and Discussion ............................................................................................................46
Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................46
Findings .................................................................................................................................................47
Conceptual Model .................................................................................................................................54
Summary ...............................................................................................................................................59
Chapter 4: Conclusion ................................................................................................................................60
Analysis of Implications of Future Trends .............................................................................................60
Implications for Management Practice ...................................................................................................66
Areas for Further Research.....................................................................................................................70
Summary ...............................................................................................................................................72
References...................................................................................................................................................73
Figure 1.The U.S. Capitol Building in Washington D.C.............................................................................50
Figure 2.Conceptual Model. ........................................................................................................................56
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Chapter One: Introduction
Statement of the Problem
The objective of this paper is to evaluate the role of telework as a critical component of a
Business Continuity Plan (BCP). Two realities are beginning to force old management traditions
to evolve and transform. First, distance-spanning technologies challenge “same time, same
place” models of work. Second, and most important, business interruptions and work stoppages
are crucial to an organization’s productivity. A changing world demands new ways of using our
digital infrastructure to survive in business. Societies have evolved from simple to complex.
Complex societies evolved with advancements in technology and communication, which have
had a profound impact on organizations. Daniel Bell (1973) attributes this transformation to the
growth in technology and communication, which in turn has changed the way organizations
operate.
Natural disasters, terrorist attacks, and unexpected business crises have the capacity to
change the way businesses and societies function, making it necessary for planning and
preparation within the organization before a crisis occurs.
Thesis
On October 17, 1989, the Loma Prieta Earthquake struck Northern California, causing
the collapse of a two-level, 1.25-mile-long section of the Cypress Viaduct on Interstate 880 in
Oakland. A section of the Bay Bridge connecting San Francisco and Oakland also collapsed. The
earthquake forced closure of eleven major transportation structures (bridges, overpasses, and the
raised freeways).
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On September 11, 2001, 50,000 people were already at their desks in the twin towers of
the World Trade Center when commercial jetliners hijacked by terrorists slammed into the
buildings and tore out the heart of the financial center of New York City. Another hijacked
airliner, American Airlines Flight 77, crashed into the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. The nerve
centre of the US military burst into flames and a section of the five-sided structure collapsed.
On April 29, 2009, The World Health Organization (WHO) raised the pandemic alert
level for swine flu (influenza A H1N1) to Phase 5, meaning that the virus has caused sustained
outbreaks in at least two countries in one region (in this case, Mexico and the United States).
Less than a month later (May 14, 2009), there were 6,497 cases of swine flu officially reported in
33 countries – including 3,352 laboratory confirmed cases in the United States (Goldman, 2009).
On April 10, 2010, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated between 43
and 89 million Americans have contracted pandemic H1NI, between 195,000 and 403,000 have
been hospitalized, and between 8,870 and 18,300 have died (CDC, 2010).
Natural disasters, terrorist attacks, and unexpected business crises have the capacity to
change the way businesses and societies function. Like the human biological nervous system that
triggers our reflexes to react quickly to danger or need, companies that want to survive and thrive
before, during, and after a crisis, need to maximize the use of information technology (IT) and
human capital to respond quickly, smoothly, and efficiently. Hurley-Hanson (2006) and Burke
(2005) make the argument that the primary goal of any organization is to get up and running as
quickly as possible after a disaster has occurred: keeping its reputation and assets intact.
There is evidence that the use of telework as part of a Business Continuity Plan has been
successful for organizations that have undergone a major disaster. For example, during
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California’s major earthquakes in 1990 and 1993, many companies established remote work
centers and telework arrangements because damage to roads and railway systems made
commuting difficult for many employees. In the aftermath of the Los Angeles earthquake, the
City of Los Angeles and Pacific Bell set up a special agency to assist companies on using
telework to avoid transportation chaos. In Florida, some employees who lost their homes as a
result of Hurricane Andrew in 1993 became teleworkers at the homes of friends and relatives
who took them in. That same year, employees of the World Trade Center worked from home and
remote offices after the building was bombed and closed for repairs. A Texas newspaper allowed
writers to telework after it burned to the ground in 1992. In addition, it borrowed presses from
another paper and coordinated writers and reporters by telephone; its prior experience with
telework helped the work flow smoothly during the crisis (DiMartino & Wirth, 1990).
Di Martino and Wirth’s (1990) study of the 1990 Loma Prieta earthquake in San
Francisco showed that companies which had telework programs in place before the disaster
struck were significantly less affected by the commuter crisis than those who attempted telework
“on the fly,” when their staffs could not come to work as they normally would. This earthquake
forced closure of eleven transportation structures, including the high traffic bridge that connects
the East Bay and San Francisco.
Research Questions and Propositions
It is imperative to businesses that employ knowledge workers, where work duties, inside
and outside the organization, can take place anytime and anywhere, to understand:
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• How, if at all, an organization with an existing telework program is more likely to
minimize the negative impact of a business interruption than an organization without
an existing telework program.
• How, if at all, a telework program as part of a Business Continuity Plan (BCP)
decreases downtime in the event of a business interruption.
The literature review, business case studies, and conceptual model presented in the paper
are applied to argue the following propositions:
1. An organization with a telework program as part of its business process before a
disaster is more likely to make quick decisions in regards to its Business Continuity
Plan.
2. An efficient and well-coordinated use of teleworkers enables a company to react to its
customers’ needs, organize timely responses, and minimize lengthy interruptions for
their customers.
Definition of Key Terms
Telework. An organization’s strategic plan that allows a worker to work from a remote location,
including but not limited to, a home office, satellite office, telework center, or on the road such
as airport, hotel/motel, or restaurant, where communication is primarily performed through
communications (telecommunications, fax, mail, etc.), with very little or no physical interaction
with the main office location.
Teleworker. Any employee who performs his or her work functions from a remote location.
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Telecommunications. Voice, video and internet communication services that provide the
primary means of communication for a teleworker to conduct business, such as cellular phone,
broadband and mobile internet, and a landline telephone.
Remote Office Center. Leased fully equipped offices for teleworkers from multiple companies to
conduct business where access to their respective company network is via the internet using a
virtual private network (VPN).
Knowledge Worker. A professional worker who is compensated for his/her knowledge and the
application of that knowledge. These workers are considered intellectual capital to organizations,
the resource that determines the value and competitiveness of the organization. They use
knowledge to plan, acquire, search, analyze, organize, store, program, distribute and market and
contribute to the transformation and commerce of information and those who work at using
knowledge.
Unexpected Event. Often referred to as a disaster or crisis situation that is unintentional and
unexpected which cause a business interruption or work stoppage. These include events of
natural, technological and human origin, such as (partial list):
NATURAL TECHNOLOGICAL HUMAN
Avalanches, earthquakes,
epidemic diseases (avian flu),
floods, hurricanes, tornadoes,
wildland fires, tidal waves,
lightening storms, snow and ice
storms
Traffic accidents,
building/structure collapse,
transportation strikes, fire and
explosions, fuel shortages,
hazardous material accidents,
equipment breakdowns, water
damage to building structure
Arson, bombings, financial
collapse, food
poisoning/contamination,
shootings, riots/civil unrest,
theft, vandalism, epidemic
diseases, security violations,
public transportation strikes
(buses, trains, underground, etc)
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Business Interruption/Work Stoppage. An unexpected or unintentional event, including but not
limited to the disaster/crisis list above, that destroys productivity, and where there is some or
significant customer or revenue impact.
Business Continuity (BC). Ability of an organization to continue operating and providing service
to customers when the organization or one/more of its critical business elements has suffered a
business interruption/work stoppage.
Business Continuity Planning/Plan (BCP). A proactive planning process aimed at ensuring
critical services and products are delivered during a disaster/crisis, which causes a business
interruption/work stoppage.
Resilience. An organization’s ability to take proactive steps that will allow the organization to
respond, rebound and adjust quickly and easily to an unexpected event; resuming operations in a
“business as usual” manner and quality.
Research Methodology
The methodology applied to this study is to connect the concepts of telework, business
continuity and organizational resilience. In order to define the meaning of each concept and to
understand how the integration of telework and business continuity affects an organization’s
ability to respond, react and recover after it is faced with adversity, emphasis was placed on
scholarly and professional journal articles, books, and website sources. Articles found on
company websites (i.e., AT&T and Cisco Systems) and telework associations (i.e.,Telework
Exchange), provided valuable information on company policies and industry statistics on
telework and business continuity planning. A review of relevant business cases concludes the
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literature review to provide a real-world view on the impact a telework program integrated into a
business continuity plan has on an organization’s resilience in the case of an unexpected event.
Following the analysis of the literature a conceptual model was developed to form the
ba
An Overview of Malcolm Knowles' Concept of Andragogy - DE Oracle
No full textDE Oracle @ UMUC
An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty
Center for Support of Instruction
An Overview of Malcolm Knowles' Concept of Andragogy
Jack Boeve
Instructional Technologist
Center for Support of Instruction
Published: September-October 2012
Category: » Online-pedagogy » Teaching-strategies
Introduction
This article provides a brief overview of the concept of andragogy as put forth by Malcolm Knowles and
suggests that his work in this area may contain some helpful ideas for educators to consider.
The concept of andragogy has been around for less than 200 years, and more formal theorizing and
study of the idea that adults learn differently than children and, therefore, require another approach for
education, has been around for less than 100 years. During that time, theorists, educators, and
practitioners have discussed and debated whether a distinction between pedagogy and andragogy
actually exists, and if so, what the implications may be. Part of the conversation, too, has included the
question of what sort of model lies behind andragogy, whether it is a process or a body of content.
Background on the Concept and the Educator
Andragogy reportedly first appeared as a term in 1833, when German teacher Alexander Kapp used it
in reference to elements of Plato's educational theory (Smith, 1996; 1999), but the term did not
achieve mainstream use and was not used for decades thereafter. In the 1920s, educators Eugen
Rosenstock-Huessy and Eduard Lindeman revived the term somewhat in the United States and used it
to refer to a concept of adult education, a set of requirements that included a particular philosophy and
special teachers and methods (Smith, 1996, 1999).
Malcolm Knowles (1913-1997) is considered to be a central 20th-century figure in U.S. adult education.
A lifelong educator in both informal and formal settings, Knowles is credited as the one who popularized
for English language readers the concept of andragogy-the discipline that focuses on the process and
science of adult education (Smith, 1996; 1999).
Knowles' role in adult education began in 1935 under the influence of Lindeman. He latched onto the
idea of adult education and delved into it over the course of the next several decades as he led adult
education programs for the YMCA, served as executive director of the Adult Education Association of
the United States in the 1950s, and then was a university faculty member for 20 years (Smith, 2002).
Along the way, he became more focused on adult informal education as he sought for "a coherent and
comprehensive theory of adult learning" (Knowles, 1989, p. 76). For Knowles, formal educational
programs were most likely to be sponsored by established educational institutions, while informal
programs were more likely to occur within the contexts of community associations and centers,
organizations, unions and industries, and religious institutions (Smith, 2002). He thought that formal
programs were usually better for "new learning of an intensive nature" while informal settings provided
the best opportunities for practicing and refining what had been learned already or for arousing
interests (Knowles, 1950, p. 125).
Knowles' Assumptions About Adult Learners...and Some Possible
Questions for Application
An Overview of Malcolm Knowles' Concept of Andragogy - DE Oracle
Malcolm Knowles
Source: http://www.nl.edu
/academics/cas/ace/resources
/malcolmknowles.cfm (http://www.nl.edu
/academics/cas/ace/resources
/malcolmknowles.cfm)
Knowles initially based his concept of andragogy on four
assumptions about the characteristics of adult learners
that are distinct from those traditionally held for pedagogy
(Smith, 2002) and subsequently added two more in later
publications (Keesee, 2010). He assumed that as people
mature, they move along a continuum in areas that reflect
each of these six assumptions, and that this movement is
from a level of dependence and passivity toward greater
levels of independence, initiative, and action.
As you teach your courses, what do you think about these
assumptions about adult learners? Do they appear true?
Do you consider these ideas when you are teaching
courses and interacting with students? Drawing on these
assumptions about adult characteristics, how might you
incorporate any of these ideas into your courses or
faculty-student interactions?
Learning
Characteristic
Assumption: Pedagogy Assumption: Andragogy Application
Self-Concept The learner is a dependent
personality and is directed
by a teacher whose societal
responsibility is to determine
the conditions and outcomes
of learning.
As a person matures, he/she
moves from being a
dependent personality
toward being a self-directed
human being whose
movement a teacher
encourages and nurtures.
What do you observe of
students' self-concepts and
where they are on the
spectrum of dependence/
independence or being
other- versus self-directed?
Experience A learner's own experience
is limited, of little worth, and
may be only a starting point.
Valuable experience is that
of the teacher, content
author/producer, and
expert. Teaching methods
are didactic and focus on
transmission.
As a person matures, he/she
accumulates a growing
reservoir of experience that
becomes an increasing
resource for learning.
Teaching methods are more
experiential and encourage
incorporating experience
into education.
How are students drawing
upon the various reservoirs
of experience available to
them, either their own or
those of others within their
spheres? Are they applying
experience as an
educational resource? How
might you encourage them
to do so?
Readiness
to Learn
Readiness to learn is
determined by a learner's
age and developmental
stage; learning and
curriculum are organized
around a standardized,
uniform progression for all
learners (learning what
As a person matures,
his/her readiness to learn
becomes orientated
increasingly to the
developmental tasks of
his/her social roles (learning
what one needs to know to
fulfill particular roles).
Are students ready to learn
and apply knowledge to
their wide range of roles and
tasks? How might you assist
students in the process,
being open to new
information and integrating
and applying new
An Overview of Malcolm Knowles' Concept of Andragogy - DE Oracle
society and school expects
one to know).
knowledge?
Orientation
to Learning
Learners see education as a
process of acquiring subject
matter content, the greatest
application of which is
sometime in the future.
Accordingly, curriculum is
organized into subject
matter units following the
logic of the subject.
Learners are subject-centered
in their orientation
to learning.
As a person matures,
his/her time perspective
changes from one of
postponed application of
knowledge to immediacy of
application, and accordingly
his/her orientation toward
learning shifts from one of
subject-centeredness to one
of task- or problem-centeredness.
How might you assist
students with their
application of knowledge,
whether intended for later
application or directed to
present, more immediate life
situations? Do your course
materials focus on either
subject knowledge or
problem solving-or do you
maintain a focus on both
concerns?
Motivation
to Learn
Learners are motivated by
external rewards and
punishment.
As a person matures, the
motivation to learn is
internal.
Do you know what
motivates students to learn?
How might you discover, tap
into, and support their
motivations?
Relevance Learners may be less
inclined to question why
they need to learn
something.
As a person matures, he/she
increasingly needs to know
why he/she needs to learn
something.
Do students know why they
need particular courses or
content? Are they able to
answer this for themselves,
or do you inform and guide
their understanding of
content relevance?
Desired Outcomes of Adult Learning
Over the course of his career, Knowles also identified desired outcomes of adult learning that he
believed were crucial to the formation of "citizen-rulers" in a democratic society. He believed that these
aptitudes and abilities were developed best within diverse educational settings. Knowles' (1950, pp.
9-10) seven baseline outcomes (followed by shortened or paraphrased descriptions) include:
Adults should acquire a mature understanding of themselves. This includes their "needs,
motivations, interests, capacities, and goals," as well as possessing self-acceptance, self-respect, and a
desire to become better.
Adults should develop an attitude of acceptance, love, and respect toward others. They need
to "learn to distinguish between people and ideas, and to challenge ideas without threatening people."
Ideally, this leads to empathy and the desire to help others.
Adults should develop a dynamic attitude toward life. They should accept change, including
personal, and develop the skill and "habit of looking at every experience as an opportunity to learn."
Adults should learn to react to the causes, not the symptoms, of behavior. This entails seeking
solutions at the level of root causes, not in the symptoms.
Adults should acquire the skills necessary to achieve the potentials of their personalities. A
goal of education should be providing skills and nurturing capacities necessary for human flourishing in
individuals and societies.
Adults should understand the essential values in the capital of human experience. This refers
to "the heritage of knowledge," ideas, and traditions of their world and a respect for common, binding
values.
Adults should understand their society and should be skillful in directing social change. Every
adult should know enough about the diverse aspects of social order in order to be intelligent, effective,
and productive participants.
Do you agree with these stated outcomes? If so, how does education at UMUC-and your course
An Overview of Malcolm Knowles' Concept of Andragogy - DE Oracle
instruction specifically-support these broad goals?
Critique
If you find yourself questioning elements of Knowles' theory, you are not alone. Each of his assertions
and the claims of difference between andragogy and pedagogy have been the subject of considerable
debate and critique over the years. Smith (1996, 1999; 2002) highlights and summarizes some points
of critique, including that of Hartree (1984), who asserts that it is not clear whether Knowles' work is a
theory or set of assumptions about learning, or a theory, or model of teaching, or a set of guidelines for
practice. She believes "The assumptions can be read as descriptions of the adult learner...or as
prescriptive statements about what the adult learner should be like" (Hartree, 1984, quoted in Merriam
and Caffarella, 1999, p. 250).
Knowles (1980) later reconsidered his ideas and admitted that the line between pedagogy and
andragogy was not always so clear and that the two are more properly understood as different models
of assumptions--not as dichotomous but as two ends of a spectrum. According to Clark (2011), he
conceded that a number of his key assumptions could apply equally to adults and children and that
possibly the main distinction between them within this arena was that of experience. Thus, andragogy
is perhaps more concerned with being learner-focused while pedagogy traditionally has been more
concerned with being teacher-directed; both concepts exist on a spectrum shared by both adults and
children.
Conclusion
In spite of these critiques, as educators you may still find ideas of merit within either Knowles'
particular set of learning outcomes or his six educational assumptions. You may wish to consider some
of the questions posed above in response to Knowles' ideas, or perhaps reflecting on these assumptions
and learning outcomes generates questions and potential applications of your own. In either case, the
six assumptions related to adult learners may influence or help guide you in your instruction and
interactions with your students.
References
Clark, D. R. ( 2011). Malcolm Knowles. Retrieved from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark
/hrd/history/knowles.html (http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/knowles.html)
Hartree, A. (1984). Malcolm Knowles' theory of andragogy: A critique. International Journal of Lifelong
Education, 3, 203-210.
Holmes, G. & Abington-Cooper, M. (2000 Summer/Fall). Pedagogy vs. andragogy: A false dichotomy?
The Journal of Technology Studies, 26(2). Retrieved from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals
/JOTS/Summer-Fall-2000/holmes.html (http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JOTS/Summer-Fall-2000
/holmes.html)
Keesee, G. (2010). Andragogy-Adult learning theory. Retrieved from
http://teachinglearningresources.pbworks.com/w/page/30310516/Andragogy--
Adult%20Learning%20Theory (http://teachinglearningresources.pbworks.com/w/page/30310516/Andragogy--
Adult%20Learning%20Theory)
Knowles, M. S. (1950). Informal adult education. New York: Association Press.
Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Cambridge Adult Education.
Knowles, M. S. (1989). The making of an adult educator. An autobiographical journey. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
An Overview of Malcolm Knowles' Concept of Andragogy - DE Oracle
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Knowles, M. S. & Associates. (1984). Andragogy in action. Applying modern principles of adult
education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S. B. & Caffarella, R. S. (1991). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Smith, M. K. (1996; 1999). Andragogy. In The Encyclopaedia of Informal Education. Retrieved from
http://www.infed.org/lifelonglearning/b-andra.htm (http://www.infed.org/lifelonglearning/b-andra.htm)
Smith, M. K. (2002). Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education, self-direction and andragogy. In The
Encyclopaedia of Informal Education. Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/thinkers
/et-knowl.htm (http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-knowl.htm)
About the Author(s)
Jack Boeve joined the CSI staff as an instructional support specialist in November 2011. Prior to joining CSI, he was a project
specialist for with UMUC's Center for Intellectual Property, where his roles included Web and resource development,
instructional support for courses and conferences, and creative communications and publications. He has also worked in the
publishing industry and the nonprofit sector. Jack has a BA in English literature and an MDiv.
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Engaging Students in Online Classes with Multimedia - DE Oracle
No full textDE Oracle @ UMUC
An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty
Center for Support of Instruction
Engaging Students in Online Classes with Multimedia
Wendy McDonough
School of Undergraduate Studies
Published: March-April 2012
Category: » Online-pedagogy » Teaching-strategies
Introduction
How do we as instructors project ourselves as real people to our students in online classes? How can
we clarify concepts and assignments beyond using written text? How can we help students engage with
course material, one another, and us—the instructors? Building community in an online course where
students cannot hear or see one another or their instructors can be a challenge. Best practices for
online teaching point to a myriad of text-based questions and activities instructors can use to help
students feel comfortable participating in a learning community; however, I wanted to see if using
audio and/or video helped further students' sense of community in the online classroom. This article
provides highlights from an eight-week study of how some UMUC undergraduate writing and
communications instructors are using multimedia in their online classes and presents recommendations
for faculty who are interested in learning how to use multimedia in their own online courses.
Background
I have been teaching writing and communication courses face-to-face and online at UMUC since 2004.
From my first online course, I found myself wanting to build community in my online classes that
mimicked my face-to-face classes. In an effort to strengthen relationships in my online courses, I held
chat sessions two times a week for students to ask questions, for me to clarify concepts, and for
students and myself to get to know one another. By engaging in informal chats, I noticed an increase in
student conference responses. I noted that those students who routinely entered in classroom chats
would work together well in online groups, and these students asked me more questions than students
who did not participate in chats. Even with the chats, I felt as though something were missing from my
online courses.
When a student had a particular question about a concept that would take quite a bit of time to explain,
I would call the student to clarify assignments and key concepts. I wanted to find a way to record and
copy my clarification of assignments for all students to hear. A year after I was hired, a colleague
showed me how to create narrated PowerPoint slides and upload them into my online classrooms. My
students loved the lectures. Student comments ranged from stating that they enjoyed hearing my
voice to claiming that the lectures helped them rethink assignments and better understand course
topics.
Encouraged by student feedback and responses, I sought to find other faculty who were using
multimedia in their online classes. I took any Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL) course that
provided information about integrating technology. At the 2008 Summer Institute (a two-and-a-
half-day conference offered by CTL for UMUC faculty), we were taught how to use Wimba, a suite of
tools available to all UMUC faculty that allows instructors to create audio and video lectures in addition
to holding synchronous online meetings with students with audio and video capabilities. We were
taught how to use the tools and then met in small groups to brainstorm possible uses for audio and
video in the online class. Instructors created narrated syllabi, audio conferences, video chats, and
Engaging Students in Online Classes with Multimedia - DE Oracle
embedded links to supplemental materials. The possible uses for audio and video as educational
supplements seemed limited only by the imagination of the instructor.
Multimedia Technology Study
In response to UMUC’s call for faculty research proposals in the spring 2010, I wrote a proposal seeking
permission to study how technology is used in UMUC undergraduate writing and communications online
classes. Specifically, I sought to understand:
Who is using technology?
Why and how is technology being used?
What are the issues/barriers with technology use?
How can we support champions of technology?
How do we encourage others who want to use technology?
With permission from the Office of Evaluation and Assessment, I spent eight weeks interviewing and
surveying undergraduate faculty and students in writing and communication courses.
In fall 2010, I created and collected results of a faculty survey using Zoomerang
(http://www.zoomerang.com) . Five hundred and nine writing and communication faculty members—drawn
from the lists of faculty rostered into the WRTG and COMM faculty community classrooms in
WebTycho—were e-mailed a link to the survey with a greeting and invitation from me to complete the
survey. The survey sought to obtain general information regarding faculty use of and interest in
integrating multimedia technologies into their online courses. Questions included what type of
technology the participant uses in the classroom, the purpose for using technology in the classroom,
any barriers to using technology in the classroom, and future interest in using technology in the
classroom. Faculty were also asked to share any comments or views about the use of multimedia
technology in online courses.
In addition to the survey, I phone-interviewed approximately 30 instructors (who used multimedia in
their online classes) and students (who completed classes in which multimedia was used). I also
observed 10 online classes (with permission from the instructors) in which multimedia was used. I
sought to understand faculty and student opinions on the effectiveness of the multimedia technology.
Specifically, I sought to understand if multimedia use in online classes affects instructor-to-student
interaction, student-to-student and student-to-instructor interaction, and student interaction with
course content.
Study Findings
Faculty Feedback
During the 30 days the survey link was active, 98 completed surveys were collected. Results of the
faculty survey and faculty interviews show that a majority of survey participants and interviewees
believe that the use of multimedia in the online classroom improves faculty-to-student interaction and
student-to-student interaction. Surveyed faculty agreed that the use of multimedia advances student
engagement with key course concepts and material. Of equal importance is the significant finding that
all faculty interviewed and surveyed who use multimedia technology in the classroom have grounded
their use of technology in an effort to connect with students and improve students’ understanding of
course material. Of the 98 instructors who responded to the survey:
80% stated that audio/video technology use is relevant to their classroom
70% agreed that technology helps students understand course content
68% agreed that multimedia technology helps students engage with their instructor
49% believed that the use of multimedia helps students engage with other students in the class
Engaging Students in Online Classes with Multimedia - DE Oracle
Some faculty strongly argued for the use of multimedia in the classroom. One participant stated,
“Today ‘instruction’ and ‘media’ should be synonyms.” Another faculty member commented, “I think,
deployed intelligently, and in a way that does not overwhelm or detract from the rest of the classroom
experience or material, tech resources are invaluable ways of presenting material in alternate
modalities, or in ways not possible with ‘traditional’ classroom resources.” The comments from faculty
may coincide with how comfortable they felt with integrating technology. Faculty seem to believe that
the use of multimedia in the online class can help students engage with course material, faculty, and
classmates; at the same time, however, faculty hold various opinions on how to effectively integrate
multimedia technologies into the online classroom to achieve this enhanced engagement.
During the faculty interviews and online classroom observations, I found faculty using multimedia in
the classroom to:
Provide orientation to the course;
Hold ice-breaking community-building exercises;
Deliver class announcements;
Provide lecture material;
Provide feedback to students (assignments and comments);
Hold office hours and synchronous class meeting times for question-and-answer sessions;
Clarify assignments; and
Encourage student-to-student interaction and discussion of course material.
Faculty mentioned numerous multimedia tools used in their online classes. Instructors use presentation
technology such as narrated PowerPoint files, Prezi presentations, and private YouTube videos to create
instructional lectures to further explain course content to students. They embed links to materials such
as Google Docs and wikis for students to work in small groups to create assignments and to discuss
course material. In addition, many use multimedia synchronous technologies such as ooVoo, Skype,
Wimba, and Adobe Connect to meet with students to hold office hours, conduct question-and-answer
sessions, and discuss course material. A communications faculty member who has been using Adobe
Connect since 2006 describes the synchronous meetings as: “the missing link to online education. My
students have commented that our sessions are even better than live face-to-face courses because
they can go back and review sessions.”
Faculty reported an increased student perception of instructor presence when using multimedia in the
online classroom. For example, one writing instructor stated that students have commented that his
use of Skype to hold office hours in addition to his use of MP3 audio files to provide feedback on
assignments makes them feel connected to him as a teacher. Students noted that the class feels like a
face-to-face class when they can see him online; as one student stated, “I feel as though you are here
giving me personalized feedback.”A faculty member who uses audio and video multimedia in his writing
classes to provide an overview of the week’s assignments, feedback on assignments, and lecture
material noted seeing a trend in higher student engagement both in the class and with him: “Students
e-mail me more often since I started using audio in the classroom. Multimedia use has made my
classes more interesting and engaging, with students having more interest in the course and building
stronger rapport with me as a teacher.”
Many faculty interviewed embed YouTube videos in addition to asking their students to post links to
relevant videos to encourage student-to-student interaction. One faculty member reports, “Students
tend to participate more with one another when they see a video in the conference. They will respond
with more depth to each other’s comments about a video than just text-based prompts.” A writing
adjunct faculty member noted similar experiences: “When I post videos, students are engaged with one
another. They want to react to one another’s comments about videos.”
Many of the faculty indicated that they began using technology after seeing a colleague’s use of
multimedia in an online class. One instructor stated, “I went to a faculty meeting for Education
Engaging Students in Online Classes with Multimedia - DE Oracle
Principles (EDCP) where a few faculty members gave a presentation and provided examples of tools
they use to teach the class.” The same faculty member went on to say, “a lot of the tools I learned
from someone else. For example, I tried using Jing after seeing [name withheld] use it in her class. I
am looking for different things to incorporate into my class.” A faculty member who teaches a speech
class explained that a course chair helped her integrate YouTube videos into her online class.
Additionally, a writing instructor stated that he began using audio files to provide comments to student
papers after he saw an example of an audio response posted by his academic director three years ago.
Some faculty commented that UMUC events such as the Summer Institute and CTL workshops
motivated them to begin using multimedia in their own online classrooms. For example, a writing
faculty member stated, “I took a CTL course, and the instructor linked a video to a brief Shakespeare
performance. It was a revelation to me. I have always read Shakespeare, but when you see it, it is a
fuller, deeper experience.” A communications instructor remarked, “The Summer (Leadership) Institute
inspired me. I saw how we could create audio messages and embed them into our WebTycho class.”
Student Feedback
Interviewees were asked to provide feedback and any information about how the instructor used
multimedia to connect with the students. Many of the interviewees stated that they felt a connection to
the instructor because of the use of technology in the class. For example, one student remarked, “After
a while, it felt like you knew the instructor and helped when problems arose to contact him more freely.
I have taken online classes for 10 years, and I feel like I know Professor [name withheld] better than
any other professor due to our chat sessions, his video lectures, and our e-mail and WebTycho
correspondence.” Another student stated, “The videos made me feel like I was in a real classroom
listening to the professor. I feel like she cared how I performed in the class.”
Students noted that the use of multimedia furthered student interaction with the faculty member as
well as with classmates. For example, one interviewee stated, “I feel like he cared about the students
and me.” Another interviewee commented, “The only time I felt connected to my classmates or my
professor was during the online speech class where the professor used video and Skype. I feel as
though I have never had interaction with the professor in my online courses in the past.”
Students were asked whether the instructor’s use of multimedia helped facilitate student-to-student
interaction or helped the student feel comfortable contributing to the online class. One student stated
that multimedia usage enabled him to meet with classmates to work on a group presentation. He said,
“In one class we used Skype to meet with our instructor and classmates. I could meet with my group
even though I was literally halfway around the world. We selected a time each week and met using
Skype to discuss our group project.”
One interviewed student relayed how the use of technology personalized the class for her. She noted,
“Online classes as a whole are impersonal; there is no interaction.” This same student continued:
In an online class using video conferencing I could see my classmates and my professor. I got to know
everyone in the class, and it made me want to log in to see the class. I learned more in the class with video
than any other class I have taken at UMUC because I really got to know my classmates and my professor.
In short, students indicated that multimedia in online courses was beneficial to them.
Recommendations
Faculty are using a variety of multimedia in countless ways in their online classes. The rationale for
beginning multimedia use varies from inspiration from colleagues to the desire to improve faculty
evaluations to the desire to create community in the online classroom. Student interviews and class
observations pointed to student satisfaction and even excitement with the use of multimedia in the
online classroom. Students cite a perceived sense of faculty caring and a sense of connection with
faculty who use multimedia in the online classroom.
Engaging Students in Online Classes with Multimedia - DE Oracle
UMUC offers a wealth of information for those faculty who are interested in integrating multimedia into
their online courses. The Center for Support of Instruction (CSI) as well as CTL provide numerous
articles, tutorials, and online classes for faculty to learn how to use multimedia audio and/or video. In
addition, the Effective Writing Center (EWC) is a great place to begin integrating multimedia into online
courses. The EWC has a library of close to 50 interactive tutorials that instructors can add to an online
class by merely entering the URL for the lecture. The tutorials include presentations on APA and MLA,
how to write a thesis statement, and numerous interactive tutorials on grammar and document design.
The EWC also offers online advisers who will provide a one-week multimedia conference to help guide
students through any assignment an instructor creates.
Many of the interviewed faculty learned how to integrate multimedia technologies by trial and error.
Many faculty are unaware of the technical support available through departments such as CSI and CTL,
which employ experts of multimedia technology. In addition, faculty who are interested in using
technology can use the faculty 999 online classrooms to connect with champions of technology use in
the online environment. I encourage faculty who are interested in learning about multimedia
technology to visit the following Web sites:
Sloan-C Online Workshops:
http://sloanconsortium.org/workshops/2012schedule (http://sloanconsortium.org/workshops
/2012schedule)
DE Oracle Tech Skills/Software (UMUC Center for Support of Instruction):
http://deoracle.org/tech-skills-software/
UMUC Center for Teaching and Learning:
http://www.umuc.edu/ctl/upload/CTL-Workshop-Schedule-2012.pdf (http://www.umuc.edu
/ctl/upload/CTL-Workshop-Schedule-2012.pdf)
UMUC Effective Writing Center:
http://www.peakwriting.com/UMUC/mawca/michelle/michelle.html (http://www.peakwriting.com
/UMUC/mawca/michelle/michelle.html)
http://effectivewritingcenter.org/ (http://effectivewritingcenter.org/)
http://polaris.umuc.edu/ewc/pdfs/virtual_tour.pdf (http://polaris.umuc.edu/ewc/pdfs/virtual_tour.pdf)
About the Author(s)
Wendy McDonough joined UMUC in 2004 and is a full-time associate professor. She has been teaching college courses in
English and communications since 1991 and has taught at Purdue University, Ivy State Tech College, Kent State University,
and Youngstown State University. Wendy has 13 years of strategic communications planning and writing experience in the
government, academic, and industry sectors and has worked as a communications consultant for the IRS, IBM, GE, and
Packard General Electric. Wendy is fortunate to teach in a field where students can see the direct benefit of writing and
communication skills in their workplace and social lives. She is inspired by the tenacity of UMUC students who constantly
juggle careers, military service, and family life with their academic goals.
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Taking EBSCO Discovery Service (EDS) to the distance: Implementation at University of Maryland University College
No full textProblem Statement: No effective one-stop search interface for electronic resources. Objective: Find and implement a discovery tool to meet patrons’ research needs at a distanceTaking EBSCO Discovery Service (EDS) to the Distance:
Implementation at University of Maryland University College
Lenore England, Digital Resources Librarian | Li Fu, Digital Services Librarian | Stephen Miller, Associate Provost
John Coogan, Systems Librarian | Cynthia Thomes & Rocco DeBonis, Reference and Instruction Librarians
[email protected]
Poster Session | The Fourth CUA Symposium Washington D.C. | Friday, January 27, 2012
UMUC Library OneSearch
Overview
UMUC Student Population
92,000 students worldwide
75% of total enrollments are online
Non-traditional students Problem Statement No effective one-stop search interface for electronic resources Objective Find and implement a discovery tool to meet patrons’ research needs at a distance Solution: EBSCO Discovery Service (EDS)
Searches majority of our electronic resources
Best user interface
Normalized subject terms
Library Administration Initiated selection and acquisition of EDS and coordinated with USMAI library consortium
Electronic Resources Management Handled pricing and licensing negotiations, implementation planning, content setup, and administration
Reference and Instruction Considered needs of undergraduate and graduate students and assisted in creating instructional material
Systems Managed customizations and integration of EDS into the library website
UMUC EDS Implementation
Reference questions down
Database usage up
Integrated into the new, shorter undergrad courses
Outcome
Our Particular Setup
Comprehensive as possible:
46 databases searched directly
45 federated as additional resources
33 unable to include
Catalog records not loaded
Branded EDS differently from other EBSCO databases, but search settings the same Results
Now have one-stop search for most resources
Database usage up for all resources
Reference questions down Future Development
Integrate into online courses
Build subject-specific and other search boxes
Customize Web 2.0 features for faculty
Harvest open resource
Out of the shadows: Learning and knowledge generation in low-resource organizations
No full textOrganizations in resource-constrained settings serve essential functions in society by reaching the world’s most vulnerable people. Yet learning theory has focused primarily on how well-resourced organizations generate new knowledge. The purpose of this paper is to shed light on how organizations in severe resource-constrained settings (SRCS) generate new and relevant knowledge. Organizations and organizational learning take place within a sociocultural context. Low-resource organizations learn, process input, and generate knowledge differently from mainstream learning theories. Therefore, this theoretical inquiry will be conducted from a social constructivist perspective.Out of the Shadows:
Learning and Knowledge Generation in Low-Resource Organizations
Dr. Roxanne Ward Zaghab
INTRODUCTION
Organizations in resource-constrained settings serve essential functions in society by
reaching the world’s most vulnerable people. Yet learning theory has focused primarily on
how well-resourced organizations generate new knowledge. The purpose of this paper is to
shed light on how organizations in severe resource-constrained settings (SRCS) generate new
and relevant knowledge. Organizations and organizational learning take place within a socio-cultural
context. Low-resource organizations learn, process input, and generate knowledge
differently from mainstream learning theories. Therefore, this theoretical inquiry will be
conducted from a social constructivist perspective.
STRUCTURE OF THE PAPER
Constraints will be defined, and the distinction between single and double loop
learning will be discussed. The case of Gondar Hospital in Ethiopia during the Presidents’
Zaghab (2012). Organizational Learning in Low-Resource Settings
2
Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) (2006-2007) will help to elucidate and apply
learning theory to an organization in a low-resource setting. Through a review of select
literature, this paper will examine the gaps in learning and knowledge creation theory, and it
will further suggest improvisation is the “best fit” for the knowledge generation process. A
model will be proposed which conceptualizes the flow of knowledge and the synthesis of new
knowledge in light of the factors unique to low-resource organizations. Challenges, barriers,
and environmental influences on organizational learning in resource-constrained settings will
be analyzed. Findings will be summarized.
DEFINITIONS
Organizations in resource-constrained settings are the subject of this theoretical study.
Pfeffer and Salancik (1978) define “constraint” with open systems theory in mind. Constraint
denotes limitations of needed resources or something which prevents use of the resources. It
could be argued that all organizations and social systems experience some natural limitations
and constraints. However, this paper addresses severe and chronic resource constraints, as
those described in the case study examining the Gondar Hospital HIV/AIDS programs.
Attention has been focused on the exploration of organizations in SRCS where severe
shortages shape the organizational structure, routines, and interaction with the environment.
In brief, severe constraints restrict options and shape organizational culture and decision-making.
Constraints also influence an organization’s time orientation, skewing behaviors to
the immediate and very short-term range (Katz & Kahn, 1968).
Table 1. Single-Loop and Double-Loop Learning (Argyris, 1994)
Single-Loop Double-Loop
Time orientation Continuous-Inevitable Episodic Learning-intentional
Objective Adjust to the changing context and
environment
Growth and change
Outcome Survival Knowledge Generation
Stimulus Feedback from the environment and
stakeholders
Inputs, including new
knowledge
Zaghab (2012). Organizational Learning in Low-Resource Settings
3
Intentional Learning
Table1 outlines the differences between single- and double-loop learning and
distinguishes between continuous and episodic organizational learning. An open systems
lens (Katz & Kahn, 1968) is the guiding perspective throughout the paper. The concepts of
utility, relevance and immediacy of knowledge in the socio-cultural context are paramount,
especially as they relate to problem solving. The capacity for improvisation in these settings
will be further elucidated.
THE CASE EXAMPLE
The case study method is valuable for discovery of organizations in their social
context (Yin, 2009). Case studies can shed light on organizational values, decision making,
resource constraints, boundaries, and their unique knowledge and capabilities. The narrative
from case studies can provide “better stories” to refine and strengthen the theoretical
construct (Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007).
The study of organizational learning in severely low-resource settings is complex and
challenging. The example below has been drawn from the life experience of the author during
an assessment site visit and programmatic follow up (Zaghab, 2006). This example provides
an opportunity for case-based learning through which the reader can generalize the findings.
Gondar, Ethiopia is located 740 kilometers northwest of Addis Ababa in the Amhara
state. Gondar Town grew from 100,000 to 300,000 with rural families migrating to town for
health care, food, and economic opportunities. The resulting peri-urban areas were without
electricity, running water and sewage. Outside of town the rugged mountainous rural area
begins. Here the villages lacked infrastructure, roads, and telephones. North and South
Gondar occupy 64,941 square kilometers with 4.8 million inhabitants. In 2006, 73% of these
residents were five kilometers or more from the nearest health clinic of any kind. Patients
Zaghab (2012). Organizational Learning in Low-Resource Settings
4
were carried over the mountains to Gondar Hospital by relatives on foot, holding wooden,
handmade gurneys. Family members and often the waiting patients slept on the hard packed
soil in the hospital courtyard.
In the outlying areas during the study period, an estimated 135,000 paitents are
currently infected with new, preventable infections occurring daily. In Gondar Town, an
estimated 46,500 people were HIV+ in 2006.
The Gondar Hospital during the study was crumbling and overcrowded. The Italian
Army barracks from 1941 housed the medical clinical and the teams who treat hundreds of
very ill patients without the benefit of technological improvements. Extra mattresses were
placed on the floor for overflow. The hospital was the hub for treatment HIV/AIDS,
tuberculosis, malaria, in addition to other infectious diseases and life threatening illnesses.
The operating rooms were primitive with a restricted supply of medications of all types.
Diagnostic equipment was rare. The supply chain needed for medical supplies was
undeveloped.
Many Gondar doctors were multilingual and multicultural with training in Europe
and/or the United States. They returned to the hospital out of loyalty to their home region. In
addition, leading physicians worked with international leaders on a number of long-term
plans, including blueprints and specifications for a new hospital, and comprehensive training
in HIV/AIDS testing and treatment; and safe blood handling for hospital staff, community
leaders, and PLWHA.
Gondar University College of Medicine & Health Sciences operated and staffed the
existing hospital. Each year the University prepared 2,500 physicians, pharmacists, nurses,
public health professionals, midwives, clinical laboratory specialists, physical therapists,
nutritionists, anesthetists, and environmental health specialists. Ten to twelve students were
seen on rotation with a staff physician throughout the service.
Zaghab (2012). Organizational Learning in Low-Resource Settings
5
PROPOSITIONS
The following propositions frame the discussion of intentional learning.
Proposition 1: As constraints intensify, an organization’s reliance on routines and formal
structures decreases. In SRCS fewer resources (when compared to well-resourced
organizations) are dedicated to formal organizational structures such as routines in favor of
more immediate needs. Attending to urgently needed resources ensures survival whereas
formal structures and routines point toward longer term gains. The Gondar Hospital, for
example, forgoes regular cleaning and sterilization of exam rooms. Rather, all personnel
attend to the hundreds of desperately ill patients waiting for days to receive care. In this case,
the immediacy of the short-term medical needs of many serves to divert the hospital from the
long-term objectives such as sanitation, patient charting, and standard operating procedures.
Proposition 2: As constraints intensify, an organization’s reliance on complex
technologies decreases. Technology is a resource that requires an initial infusion of
resources to purchase, install, train responsible individuals, and prepare users. While the
initial resource infusion may be granted to an organization in a SRCS to complete project
requirements, ongoing resource commitments are needed to maintain, update and staff the
technology. Constraints create tensions for resources between immediate needs (provide
urgent medical care) and long-term objectives such as technology.
For example, also during the PEPFAR implementation, Nigerian public health officials
received an infusion of equipment to process medical tests necessary to monitor the safety of
patients on HIV medications. The personnel were trained in the use of this technology; and
standard operating procedures were established. However, when the time came to order
expensive (but necessary) reagents for the equipment, sterile water was used instead of
Zaghab (2012). Organizational Learning in Low-Resource Settings
6
reagents. This rendered the equipment completely dysfunctional. This example illustrates
how everyday decisions based in organizational values are impacted by limited resources.
Proposition 3: Severe constraints foster interdependence and group cohesion. Chronic
resource constraints encourage trust and interdependence within an organization. Trust and
resource exchange among the members created this interconnectivity (Pfeffer & Salanick,
1968). Edward T. Hall’s (1959) description of communal cultures suggests that when survival
is the primary concern, groups depend on cohesion and trust. This is especially true in
organizations with severe constraints. As the tension of resources becomes more intense,
shared meaning becomes stronger. For example the health care team serving surgical patients
in Gondar had extremely limited supplies of anesthesia and other pain-reducing medications.
The level and type of medication to be used in the surgery was determined tacitly among the
surgical group often with just a look across the table and nods all around. The author
witnessed this when a young mother waited patiently to have a two kilo growth removed
from her neck with local anesthesia. The patient also understood and tacitly agreed.
ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING IN SRCS
Single-Loop and Double-Loop Learning
Organizational learning theorists have defined, defended, and debated the nature
of the processes that transform information into organizational knowledge. Yet few
theories have shed light on how knowledge creation occurs in severely resource-constrained
settings (SRCS). This paper intends to fill this gap by examining the relevant
literature related to socio-cultural factors in organizational learning, and by briefly
discussing learning disabilities.
Single-loop organizational learning promotes adaptation of the organization to its
environment; it promotes organizational survival (Argyris & Schon, 1996). As table 1
Zaghab (2012). Organizational Learning in Low-Resource Settings
7
suggests, organizations embedded in SRCS are continuously in communication and
adjustment with their environment. Levitt and March argue that this adaptation is the
dynamic ecology of learning where “one organization’s action is another organization’s
outcome” (1988, p.332). It is possible that because less formal organizational boundaries,
organizations in SRCS are more “open” to receiving feedback from the context. The
HIV/AIDS programs at Gondar Hospital experienced this permeability when a
“grassroots”, “organic” flow of the HIV+ patients remained in contact with the hospital
daily for testing, interaction, and the promise of treatment.
The objective of double loop learning is to create new knowledge and change the
practice of the organization based on this knowledge. Double loop learning is intentional
on the part of the organization, and episodic. For example, Gondar Hospital HIV/AIDS
medical personnel had the most up-to-date scientific training regarding the prevention of
transfusion transmittable infections in the blood supply. But something other than
knowledge prevented this knowledge from guiding hospital practices. Constraints
influenced the hospital’s responsiveness. The hospital was often short on sterile bottles,
needles, gloves and test kits. There was a chronic shortage of safe blood. When a
patient’s life was threatened, person-to-person transfusions were used as needed. As the
hospital was able to regulate supply schedules, medical staff fostered the use of this
knowledge to change practices in blood collection, screening, and bedside transfusions.
The Cultural Grid
Edward T. Hall’s classic definition of culture has remained intact for 50 years:
“Culture is communication and communication is culture” (1959, p.186). Hall assigns
cultural meaning, particularly in high-context cultures where communication is tacit and
often involving nonverbal cues. He maps messages and social system constructs into a
Zaghab (2012). Organizational Learning in Low-Resource Settings
8
matrix which characterized high- and low-context cultures. Gondar Ethiopia can be
categorized as a high-context culture.
The discussion of tacit knowledge is particularly relevant to severe resource-constrained
settings (SRCS). Tacit knowledge is embedded in the person, group, community,
and organization. It is held closely and rooted in culture and action (Polayni, 1966).
Indigenous, traditional or local knowledge is a subset of tacit knowledge that can be held by
individuals and groups.
Saint-Onge’s (1996) work described the “collective mindset” of the organization
which impacts collective behaviors
and decision making (1996). Tacit
knowledge includes perspectives,
beliefs, and patterns of doing
business. Tacit knowledge, according
to Saint-Onge, acts as the mental grid
that filters incoming information and
shapes how organizations respond to
the input. Saint-Onge concluded by
proposing that, “the largest barrier to
[organizational] success in
implementing change is the lack of
fit between strategies and the
organization’s structures and culture” (1996, p.13) especially in a turbulent environment.
DeLong and Fahey (2000) provided an understanding of cultural factors in organizations
which shape or create barriers. These factors are organizational values, norms, routines,
decision making, social structures, and belief systems. Their theoretical study indicates how
Box. 1. Didactic Training for Experiential
Learners: The Case of Midwives
In the Simien Mountain region of Northwest
Ethiopia, midwives deliver 97% of all babies.
The importance of these barefoot midwives in
the prevention of mother to child transmission
(PMTCT) of HIV became clear during the
PEPFAR implementation. The midwives study
many years under the tutelage of an
experienced woman. However, they receive no
formal education and the majority of midwives
are not literate. With this experiential
orientation in mind, the transmission of new
knowledge about HIV/AIDS, health worker
precautions, and PMTCT was transmitted to
nurse midwives in a didactic format while they
were seated all day in a university classroom.
Many times throughout the project, the
midwives gathered to replenish supply kits. At
this time, much knowledge was distributed and
peer-to-peer learning took place in that format.
Zaghab (2012). Organizational Learning in Low-Resource Settings
9
culture influences knowledge creation, use, and storage. Four key assumptions about
knowledge and culture are derived from DeLong and Fahey: 1) culture shapes assumptions
about which knowledge is important (DeLong & Fahey, 2000, p.116), 2) culture mediates
relationships between levels of knowledge (2000, p.118), 3) culture creates context for social
interaction (2000, p.120), and 4) culture “shapes the creation and adoption of knowledge”
(2000, p. 123). Organizational culture and the societal culture both influence the value system
and decision making of organizations in the development process. Because knowledge and
culture are social, the link between the two is powerful.
An element missing from the SRCS cultural grid is the element of utility, or simply the
applicability of the learning input to the survival and growth of the organization. Knowledge
generated by low-resource organizations must be relevant and address available resources.
Embedded Knowledge
Because knowledge is embedded in the system of an organization’s routines,
structures, and procedures, “it is not easy to separate knowledge from the context in which it
has been created” (Inkpen, 2008, p.78). Perhaps in the process of conversion, organizations
begin to “claim” and give value to their own embedded knowledge. The caution is that some
knowledge loses meaning because the relevant context is missing when learning across
organizational boundaries, such as inputs into SRCS (Abou-Zeid, 2002; Nonaka, 1994).
Knowledge is embedded in the organizational routines, structures, procedures, and
processes. “Sticky knowledge” is deeply embedded in the organizational context and is
resistant to translation outside the organization (Inkpen, 2008, Szulanski, 1996). When
embodiment and deep understanding of the new knowledge is necessary, experiential
teaching or geographic proximity may be necessary. Szulanksi further found that tacit
knowledge is needed to bond with explicit knowledge for successful knowledge transfer.
Failure to fully integrate new and old knowledge results in an incomplete transfer (Szulanski,
Zaghab (2012). Organizational Learning in Low-Resource Settings
10
2000). Argote and Ingram (2000) analyzed the complexity of knowledge transfer within an
organization by considering three knowledge repositories: people, tasks, and tools.
Greenhalgh and colleagues (2004) reviewed the literature to find that organizations
are more likely to adopt innovations they could either observe or “try out”, including the
ability to reinvent or gradually adapt an innovation to its organizational processes. Highly
tacit and contextually embedded experiences did not transfer well without geographic
promixity (Gertler, 2003). His findings indicate that proximity is needed to foster transfer of
highly embedded or tacit knowledge (Gertler, 2003).
Learning Orientation
Various aspects of knowledge and culture in low-resource organizations, high-context
cultures are best described in learning orientation theory. A team led by DiBella and
colleagues conducted a multi-level in-depth observational study of three international
organizations to identify patterns in the learning orientation of the organizations. Their
objective was to better understand the ways that organizations learn, and to help
organizations develop the capacity to enhance their learning (DiBella et al., 1996). The
authors presented orientations in organizational learning capabilities as a continuum:
• source of knowledge (value given to knowledge from within or outside the
organization)
• focus of learning (prefer adaptive, single-loop, or innovative, double-loop feedback)
• manner of documentation (individuals or collective repositories of knowledge)
• skill development preference (individual or team)
• core knowledge preference (product or process orientation)
• core competencies in the value-chain (develop, produce, or deliver)
• dissemination and distribution of learning (formal vs. informal)
Zaghab (2012). Organizational Learning in Low-Resource Settings
11
Time orientation is a missing element from DiBellas’ framework. The immediacy of
needs in SRCS shapes the decisions, values, and actions of organizations and individuals
within the organization. This author proposes that a new category, “Time Orientation” be
amended to DiBella’s framework. Time orientation is the tension between immediate versus
longer-term gain of the organization. Time orientation is a critical issue in resource
constrained setting; and it will be integrated into the proposed conceptual model.
Knowledge Creation in SRCS
Once knowledge is screened by the cultural grid and enters the organization as an
input, the process of knowledge creation can occur. This author refers to this process as
blending or synthesis. The extent to which this knowledge is adapted and integrated into
the existing base of organizational knowledge in low-resource organizations is the subject
of this paper. Figure 1 models this process. The propositions guide the understanding of
how organizational knowledge is synthesized in SRCS.
Experiential Integration
In high-context cultures, embodied learning and group tacit knowledge are central to
organizational knowledge (Hall, 1959). Kupers (2008) explored embodied learning which
takes place through experiential processes, interactions, and social relations. Kupers’ model
represents a cycle of organizational learning which builds on capabilities and ends with
embodied learning or integration. Dodgson also asserted that embodied learning or “praxis”
is the most meaningful method of learning for organizations that rely heavily upon implicit
and tacit knowing (1993).
Huber (1991) stu