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Development of a reliable, valid, multi-dimensional measure of student engagement in group projects
No full textThe Study Purpose: Assess SGPEQ reliability and internal consistency; establish criterion-related and construct validity, for measure to be usable with confidence for quantitative analysis. Data: All students form 25 ITEC 620 sections and 15 TLMN sections from two semesters in 2012 were invited to participate. Data was gathered from 260 students, from which four declined to fill in the survey and 24 did not answer the questions. Method: • Study on SGPEQ initial data reliability and validity. • Initial item reduction and factors identification through exploratory factor analysis • Further verification of validity through a study on relationships between factors and students’ self-reported engagement and endorsement of self-theories.Development of a Reliable, Valid, Multi-Dimensional Measure of Student Engagement in Group Projects
Irena Bojanova, Ph.D.
The Graduate School
University of Maryland University College Main Result
A reliable, valid, multi-dimensional measure of student engagement in group projects was created.
Empirical evidence of its usefulness allows the measure to be easily administrated, while providing a comprehensive snapshot of students’ engagement in group projects.
Agenda
1.Introduction and Background.
2.The Study
3.Initial Data Reliability and Internal Consistency.
4.Explanatory Factor Analysis and Reliability Estimates.
5.Further Verification of Validity
6.Conclusion Introduction and Background
•Graduate programs have to emphasize on group projects
•How to optimize students’ learning experiences and projects’ outcomes?
•“Student engagement in group projects” was identified as a distinguishable construct and Student Group Project Engagement Questionnaire (SGPEQ) instrument was developed, and face and content validated.
Immersive vs. Traditional Project
Definitely Not
No
Maybe
Yes
Definitely Yes
All Yes
3 |3
9 | 7
15 | 22
52 | 43
21 | 26
73 | 69%
3 |4
3 | 12
15 | 19
55 | 42
24 | 23
79 | 65%
3 |3
12 | 7
6 | 11
42 | 46
37 | 34
79 | 80%
3 | 3
9 | 8
30 | 22
33 | 50
25 | 18
58 | 68%
3 | 3
6 | 3
27 | 16
46 | 52
18 | 26
64 | 78%
0 | 1
12 | 5
18 | 16
49 | 54
21 | 23
70 | 77%
0 | 1
9 | 3
12 | 11
46 | 57
34 | 28
79 | 85%
0 | 1
0 | 1
3 | 19
30 | 51
67 | 27
97 | 78%
0 | 1
0 | 8
0 | 32
39 | 39
61 | 19
100 | 58%
0 | 4
3 | 16
15 | 30
36 | 31
46 | 19
82 | 50%
Survey Questions
Communication/ presentation skills
Technical skills
Team-building skills
Leadership skills
Understand better course material
Academically challenging
Develop critical thinking& problem solving
Provoke curiosity and sense of discovery
Engaging and fun experience
Would like similar in other classes The Study
Purpose:
•Assess SGPEQ reliability and internal consistency.
•Establish criterion-related and construct validity, for measure to be usable with confidence for quantitative analysis.
Data:
•All students form 25 ITEC 620 sections and 15 TLMN sections from two semesters in 2012 were invited to participate.
•Data was gathered from 260 students, from which:
four declined to fill in the survey
24 did not answer the questions.
Gender
Female
24.8%
Male
75.2%
Age
20-30 years
16.2%
31-40 years
34.7%
41-50 years
36%
51-60 years
10.4%
Over 60 years
2.7% Method
•Study on SGPEQ initial data reliability and validity.
•Initial item reduction and factors identification through exploratory factor analysis
•Further verification of validity through a study on relationships between factors and students’ self-reported engagement and endorsement of. Initial Data Reliability and Internal Consistency
•Reliability refers to the ability of the measurement instrument to give similar results for similar inputs.
•Reliability analysis was conducted based on the following models: Cronbach’s Alpha (model of internal consistency, based on the average inter-item correlation) and Split-Half (model splits the scale into two parts and examines the correlation between the parts).
•The Cronbach's alpha (0.940) and Split Half (0.894 vs 0. .884) values for the analyzed survey instrument confirms high level of reliability –Appendix C.
•The Inter-Item correlations (783 of the 1225 are larger than 0.30) also confirm suitability of the data for factor analysis – Appendix D. Explanatory Factor Analysis and Reliability Estimates
•Item reduction and factors identification: Principal axis factoring with Varimax rotation was performed on the 35 student engagement in group projects items.
•The questions were: "How many components (factors) are needed to represent the variables?" and "What do these components represent?"
•Analysis of a six-factor (Appendix E) and a four-factor (Appendix F) solution and the inspection of a scree plot (Appendix G) 4 factors were retained. Interpretability was difficult after four factors and the scree plot confirmed the slope decreases a little after four factors.
•Only one question, “Stepped in when a teammate was not performing”, was dropped due to low communality and low loading on all factors. Explanatory Factor Analysis and Reliability Estimates
•The four factors accounted for 59.15% of the variance. Appendix I shows the factor solution and the items for each factor.
•Each factor comprised 19.69%, 14.04%, 11.69%, and 8.23% of the variance correspondingly.
•The factors were titled: Effort, Teamwork, Motivation, and Organization.
•Factors reliability and preliminary evidence of discriminant validity: The four student engagement in group projects factors show:
reasonable reliability (.926, .838, .889, .766 correspondingly)
the inter-item correlations (the highest is .088) support the discriminant validity of the SGPEQ measure.
Further Verification of Validity
SGPEQ validity was further verified through a study on the relationship between the identified factors and:
Students’ self-reported engagement
Endorsement of self-theories
Appendix B and Appendix K. Self-Reported Engagement
•Factors predicting absolute engagement (in this group project) and relative engagement (compared with other projects) were determined.
•For that two analyses that regressed each of the two dependent variables on the four factors of SGPEQ were performed.
Absolute engagement “How engaged were you in this group project?”
Regression of relative engagement on the four factors shows:
the factors account for 63.1% (R Square from Model Summary table) of the variance in absolute engagement
70% of absolute engagement was explained by the model: F(4, 166)=70.81, p < .001 (F and Sig. from ANOVA table).
Factor 1 (β=.611); Factor 2 (β=.174), Factor 3 (β=.325), Factor 4 (β=.236) are all positive predictors of absolute engagement. Self-Reported Engagement
Relative engagement “How engaged were you in this group project compared to other group projects you worked on during the same semester?”
Regression of relative engagement on the four factors shows:
the factors account for 44% of the variance in absolute engagement
33% of relative engagement was explained by the model: F(4, 166)=32.54, p < .05.
Factor 1 (β=.387); Factor 2 (β=.259), Factor 3 (β=.326), Factor 4 (β=.233) are all positive predictors of absolute engagement. Incremental Self-Theories
•Incremental and entity self-theories: “You have a certain amount of intelligence and you cannot do much to change it.”
Regression of belief in incremental theory on the four factors shows:
the factors account for 59% of the variance in absolute engagement
3% of belief in incremental theory was explained by the model: F(4,166)=2.6, p < .001
Factor 1 (β=.024); Factor 2 (β=.141)Factor 4 (β=.171) are positive predictors of belief in incremental theory. The Validated SGPEQ
Effort
•Did good work on my part
•Communicated clearly and effectively
•Was creative and productive
•Was organized and prepared
•Fulfilled the assigned role
•Presented the final research product clearly and effectively
•Contributed to discussions with ideas and opinions
•Applied critical thinking and problem solving
•Completed all assigned tasks on time
•Attended all group meetings
•Put forth effort
•Developed leadership skills
Motivation
•Thought about project activities between meetings
•Was inspired to learn and contribute
•Found ways to make project interesting to me
•Found project activities relevant to my life
•Found project academically challenging
•Was motivated and enthusiastic
Teamwork
•Had fun during team activities
•Trusted teammates will do well on their project parts
•Felt presence of team members during meetings/ presentations (as if in person)
•Got to know teammates' strengths
•Preferred team-work than working on my own
•Would like to have similar projects in other classes
•Experienced sense of discovery and accomplishment
•Was confident that we can learn and do well on the project
•Incorporated teammates ideas and opinions
•Preferred to work on my own Organization
•Helped/ tutored teammates during project activities
•Found ways to involve non-participating team members
•Took detailed notes during discussion meetings
•Rehearsed for project presentation
•Wished my teammates were working harder than me
•Worked on the project on a regular basis References
[1] AERA, APA, NCME (1999). Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, http://teststandards.org
[3] Carini, R., Kuh, G., Klein, S. (2006). Student Engagement and Student Learning: Testing the Linkages, Research in Higher Education, Vol. 47, No. 1,
http://gov.alaska.edu/faculty/StudentSuccess/TintoReview-Carini-Kuh-Klein.pdf
[4] Clark, L. & Watson, D. (1995). Constructing validity: Basic issues in objective scale development. Psychological Assessment, 7, 309-319.
[5] Community College Survey of Student Engagement. University of Texas at Austin, www.ccsse.org.
[6] Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP) Surveys. Higher Education Research Institute (HERI), http://heri.ucla.edu/herisurveys.php
[7] DeVellis, R. (2003). Scale development: Theory and applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
[8] Dweck, C. (1999). Self-Theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Philadelphia: The Psychology Press.
[9] Handelsman, M, Briggs, W., Sullivan, N., & Towler, A. (2005). A Measure of College Student Engagement. Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 98, No. 3, pp. 184-191; http://www.stanford.edu/dept/SUSE/projects/ireport/articles/self-regulation/self-course%20engement%20measure.pdf
[10] Hinkin, T. (1998). A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires. Organizational Research Methods, 1, 104–121.
[12] Kerlinger, 1F.N., (1986). Foundations of Behavioral Research. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
[13] Likert, R. (1931). A technique for measurement of attitudes. Archives of Psycology. New York: Columbia University Press.
[14] Litwin, M. S. (2003). How to assess and interpret survey psychometrics, 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
[15] McMillan, J. & Schumacher, S. (2001). Research in education: A conceptual introduction. New York: Longman.
[16] Molinari, J. & Huonker, J. (2010). Diagnosing student engagement in the business school classroom. Journal of the Academy of Business Education.
[17] National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE). Center for Postsecondary Research, Indiana University in Bloomington, http://nsse.iub.edu/
[18] O'Donnell, A., Reeve, J., and Smith, J. (2009) Educational Psychology: Reflection for Action, Chapter 11. Wiley.
[19] Pike, G., Kuh, G. (2005) A Typology of Student Engagement for American Colleges and Universities, Research in Higher Education, Vol. 46, No. 2,,
http://cpr.iub.edu/uploads/Pike,%20Kuh%20(2005)%20A%20Typology%20of%20Student%20Engagement%20for%20American%20Colleges%20and%20Universities.pdf
[20] Robinson C. &Hullinger, H. (2008). New Benchmarks in Higher Education: Student Engagement in Online Learning. Journal of Education for Business.
http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/communia2010/sites/communia2010/images/Robinson_et_al_2008_New_Benchmarks_in_Higher_Education_Student_Engagement_in_Online_
[21] Schoenfeldt, L. F. (1984). Psychometric properties of organizational research instruments. In T. S. Bateman & G. R. Ferris (Eds.), Method & analysis in organizational research (pp.68-80). Reston, VA: Reston.
[22] Skinner, E.A., and Belmont, M.J. (1993). .Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(4). p. 572. Questions and Answer
2nd Annual ShareFair 2012: Poster session presentation
No full text2nd Annual ShareFair on UMUC Faculty Research and Scholarship
September 20, 2012 Noon-3pm
Largo Auditorium/1st Floor Hallway/Classroom 1380
Schedule:
12:00-12:30pm Lunch starts promptly at noon: Welcome Comments from Actin Provost Marie Cini (Largo Auditorium)
12:30-1:30pm Faculty Research Poster Session
1:30-2:30pm Birds of a Feather Sessions/ Knowledge Cafes Round Table Discussions
2:30-3:00pm Recognition Awards for Research and Scholarship (including Best Posters, etc.)
Poster Session list is available at http://www.umuc.edu/library/libresearch/sharefair.cf
Business continuity amidst a crisis: Challenges associated with the advent of new technologies in crisis communication efforts of U.S. and U.S.-affiliated corporations
No full textThe scope of this study is to examine the affect of communication before, during, and after a crisis, on business continuity in U.S. and U.S.-affiliated corporations.Business Continuity Amidst a Crisis:
Challenges Associated with the Advent of New Technologies in
Crisis Communication Efforts of U.S. and U.S.-Affiliated Corporations
W. Christopher Cason, Doctoral Candidate E-mail: [email protected] Key Words: crisis management, crisis communication, business continuity, business recovery, contingency planning, trust, reputation, organizational learning, resilience, crisis management models
1 Business Continuity Amidst a Crisis: Challenges Associated with New Technologies in Crisis Communication
•The crisis management literature points to communication as a necessary component in crisis management planning, but communication only appears at certain points in various crisis management conceptual frameworks presented by many scholars. In addition, missing in the literature is detailed examination of how communication before, during, and after a crisis impacts the efforts of U.S. and U.S.-affiliated corporations in maintaining business continuity
•The way that corporations manage communication as well as benefit or suffer from technological advances in communication in times of crises has helped to determine, in part, the business continuity of the crisis management effort
•Regarding the role of communication in crisis management, the advent of new technologies including the Internet and myriad other electronic-based communication such as e-mail, blogs, webcasts and podcasts, and social media, has also caused a paradigm shift in how corporations must now manage crises
•This study examines the use of communication made possible by these new technologies within the context of crisis management and business continuity
Background and Context
2 Business Continuity Amidst a Crisis: Challenges Associated with New Technologies in Crisis Communication
•The crisis management, business continuity, and crisis communication literatures discuss many of the same converging concepts including the escalating cost of human-caused crises, the proliferation of high-risk technologies and their associated crisis threat, the need for a systems approach to crisis management, the importance of maintaining a sense of reputation and trust among organizational stakeholders, ongoing development of crisis management portfolios and planning, and the organizational learning required to avoid repetitive crisis-prone mistakes
•Missing in the literature is detailed examination of how communication before, during, and after a crisis affects the efforts of U.S. and U.S.-affiliated corporations to maintain business continuity
•The study addresses a neglected area of research, namely, identifying an intersection of business continuity and crisis communication
•The advent of new technologies, including the Internet and myriad other electronic-based communication such as e-mail, blogs, webcasts, and social media, potentially enhances the benefits of communication within the context of effective crisis management
•Complicating the matter is that the same technologies are not the sole province of the corporation embroiled in a crisis because in an era when intended message impact is not so easily controlled, corporations must constantly adopt ways to maximize benefits and minimize risks associated with communication in this new technological paradigm
Significance
3 Business Continuity Amidst a Crisis: Challenges Associated with New Technologies in Crisis Communication
Purpose: To examine the affect of communication before, during, and after a crisis, on business continuity in U.S. and U.S.-affiliated corporations
RQ: How does communication before, during, and after a crisis, affect business continuity in U.S. and U.S.-affiliated corporations?
Argument/Propositions
P1: The use of crisis communication made possible by the advent of new technologies represents an important factor distinguishing crisis-prepared organizations from crisis-prone organizations
P2: The use of new technologies can both aid and hinder organizational crisis communication efforts
Purpose and Research Question
4 Business Continuity Amidst a Crisis: Challenges Associated with New Technologies in Crisis Communication
•Benoit, W.L. (1995a). Accounts, excuses, and apologies: A theory of image restoration strategies. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
•Boaz, A., & Pawson, R. (2005).The perilous road from evidence to policy: Five journeys compared.Journal of Social Policy, 34(2), 175-194. doi: 10.1017/S00472799404008530
•Cerullo, V., & Cerullo, M.J. (2004). Business continuity planning: A comprehensive approach. Information Systems Management, 21(3), 70-78. doi: 10.1201/1078/44432.21.3.20040601/82480.11
•Coombs, W.T. (2007). Protecting organization reputations during a crisis: The development and application of situational crisis communication theory. Corporate Reputation Review, 10(3), 163-176. Retrieved from http://www.palgrave-journals.com/crr/index.html
•Coombs, W.T., & Holladay, S.J. (2007). The negative communication dynamic: Exploring the impact of stakeholder affect on behavioral intentions. Journal of Communication Management, 11(4), 300-312. doi: 10.1108/13632540710843913
•Gough, D., Oliver, S, & Thomas, J. (2012). Clarifying differences between review designs and methods. Systematic Reviews, 1(28), 1-19. doi: 10.1186/2046-4053-1-28
•Hearit, K.M. (1994). Apologies and public relations crises at Chrysler, Toshiba, and Volvo. Public Relations Review, 20(2), 113-125. doi: 10.1016/0363-8111(94)90053-1
•Jin, Y. (2010b). Making sense sensibly in crisis communication: How publics’ crisis appraisals influence their negative emotions, coping strategy preferences, and crisis response acceptance. Communication Research, 37(4), 522-552. doi:10.1177/0093650210368256
•Mei, J.S.A., Bansal, N., & Pang, A. (2010). New media: A new medium in escalating crises? Corporate Communications, 15(2), 143-155. doi: 10.1108/13563281011037919
•Mitroff, I.I. (2004). Crisis leadership: Planning for the unthinkable. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Key Literature
5 Business Continuity Amidst a Crisis: Challenges Associated with New Technologies in Crisis Communication
•Myer, R.A., Conte, C., & Peterson, S.E. (2007). Human impact issues for crisis management in organizations. Disaster Prevention and Management, 16(5), 761-770. doi: 10.1108/09653560710837055
•Pauchant, T.C., Mitroff, I.I., & Lagadec, P. (1991). Toward a systemic crisis management strategy: Learning from the best examples in the U.S., Canada and France. Industrial Crisis Quarterly, 5(3), 209-232. doi: 10.1177/108602669100500303
•Pawson, R. (2002). Evidence-based policy: The promise of realist synthesis. Evaluation, 8(3), 340-358. doi: 10.1177/135638902401462448
•Pawson, R., Greenhalgh, T., Harvey, G., & Walshe, K. (2004). Realist synthesis: An introduction. ESRC Research Methods Programme, University of Manchester. Retrieved from http://www.mendeley.com/research/realist-synthesis-an-introduction/
•Pawson, R., & Tilley, N. (1997). Realistic evaluation. London: Sage.
•Pearson, C.M., & Clair, J.A. (1998). Reframing crisis management. Academy of Management Review, 23(1), 59-76. Retrieved from http://www.aom.pace.edu/amr/
•Pearson, C., & Mitroff, I. (1993). From crisis prone to crisis prepared: A framework for crisis management. Academy of Management Executive), 7(1), 48-59. Retrieved from http://www.aomonline.org/aom.asp?id=263
•Perrow, C. (1994). The limits of safety: The enhancement of a theory of accidents. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 2(4), 212-220. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-5973.1994.tb00046.x
•Perry, D.C., Taylor, M., & Doerfel, M.L. (2003). Internet-based communication in crisis management. Management Communication Quarterly : McQ, 17(2), 206-232. Retrieved from http://mcq.sagepub.com/
•Sawalha, I.H., & Anchor, J.R. (2012). Business continuity management in emerging markets: The case of Jordan. Journal of Business Continuity & Emergency Planning, 5(4), 327-337. Retrieved from http://www.henrystewart.com/jbcep.aspx
Key Literature (Continued)
6 Business Continuity Amidst a Crisis: Challenges Associated with New Technologies in Crisis Communication
Conceptual Framework A Crisis Management Conceptual Model Illustrating Maintenance of Business Continuity in the Context of Crisis Communication Made Possible by the Advent of New Technologies
Advent of New Technologies in Communication
7
The framework illustrates the cyclical relationship that exists between the crisis stages (the pies) and the presence of key components within each stage (the boxes) that helps to identify a crisis-prepared organization. The advent of new technologies in communication is at the center of this cyclical crisis management framework. A crisis-prepared organization successfully manages the cyclical crisis management stages depicted in the conceptual framework, and does so in part by maximizing the benefits and minimizing the risks associated with the advent of new technologies in crisis communication efforts. Business Continuity Amidst a Crisis: Challenges Associated with New Technologies in Crisis Communication
•An evidence-based research synthesis (EBRS) approach must be rigorous and transparent in its application (Gough, Oliver, & Thomas, 2012), and ensuring that attention is paid to these important methodological criteria will help safeguard the researcher from what Boaz and Pawson (2005) described as “a propensity for delivering unequivocal policy verdicts on the basis of ambiguous evidence” (p. 175)
•A systematic review of research identifies and describes the relevant research, critically appraises research reports in a systematic manner, and brings findings together into a coherent statement in a process known as synthesis (Gough, Oliver, & Thomas, 2012)
•The methodological approach of this study consists of three components: 1) realist synthesis; 2) configuring the findings from heterogeneous studies in crisis management, crisis communication, and business continuity; and 3) thematic synthesis, which codes research findings and arranges them by descriptive and analytical themes
•Realist synthesis focuses upon what works but it also examines why certain interventions work with specific attention paid to contextual factors, and it uses a generative approach to causation (Pawson, 2002; Pawson, Greenhalgh, Harvey, & Walshe, 2004; Pawson & Tilley, 1997)
Methodology
8 Business Continuity Amidst a Crisis: Challenges Associated with New Technologies in Crisis Communication
•In realist synthesis, the efficacy of a program is expressed in terms of the causal power of an initiative resting in its underlying mechanism (M). It addresses how program resources may influence a subject’s actions. Triggering the mechanism depends upon conditions of context (C). Programs will also likely have diverse impacts over a range of outcomes (O) (Pawson, 2002)
•Pawson and Tilley’s (1997) CMO construct, also known as the generative causation model of realist synthesis, illustrated below, proposes that causal outcomes follow mechanisms acting in context (The dissertation topics of crisis management, crisis communication, and business continuity are introduced parenthetically in this model to illustrate their relationships in the dissertation’s synthesis of the literature)
Methodology (Continued)
An action (Crisis Management and Recovery)
Context (Crisis Event)
is causal only if…
… its outcome is triggered by a mechanism acting in context
Outcome (Business Continuity)
Mechanism (Crisis Communication)
9 Business Continuity Amidst a Crisis: Challenges Associated with New Technologies in Crisis Communication
•The advent of new technologies can assist and hinder organizational crisis communication efforts and maintenance of business continuity
•The use of crisis communication made possible by the advent of new technologies represents an important factor that distinguishes crisis-prepared organizations from crisis-prone organizations
•Effective crisis management reflects a systems perspective, and its associated crisis communication/response component takes into account the potential affective, behavioral, and cognitive reactions of stakeholders
•Crisis-prepared organizations exhibit several of the same characteristics
•Crises represent distinct opportunities not only in relation to business recovery, but also to potentially securing new competitive advantages through innovation
•When faced with a crisis, the prospect of maintaining business continuity is severely jeopardized if corporations or organizations do not conduct crisis management concurrently with pre- and post-crisis stakeholder management
•A reservoir of goodwill implies that a good reputation alone will resolve a crisis, but it is reputation management, not reputation strength, that will likely determine the outcome of a crisis, particularly maintenance of business continuity
Findings/Results
10 Business Continuity Amidst a Crisis: Challenges Associated with New Technologies in Crisis Communication
•The study has the potential to bridge the gap between business continuity and crisis management involving crisis communication and have an impact on management practices
•The study addresses the overlooked aspect of how the advent of new technologies may not only assist, but also hinder, crisis management and crisis communication efforts intended to assist U.S. and U.S.-affiliated corporations in maintaining business continuity following a crisis
•The intersection between business continuity and crisis communication has been neglected by past research in which crisis communication has also been dominated by a focus on reputation and reputation repair
•The study addresses the importance of taking into account the potential affective, behavioral, and cognitive reactions of stakeholders affected by crises and developing appropriate situation-based crisis response strategies
Management Practice Implications
11 Business Continuity Amidst a Crisis: Challenges Associated with New Technologies in Crisis Communication
•Since corporations exist in dynamic environments, future studies may address how consumers process negative information and corresponding changes in identification with and attitude about targeted brands over time
•Restoration theory is primarily descriptive and as such it represents a tool for identifying which strategies were used in a given situation, but the assumptions about relative effectiveness become dubious without empirical evidence
•Longitudinal studies of corporations impacted by crises to investigate how, based on context, their crisis management and crisis communication efforts either assisted or impeded business continuity objectives
Future Research
1
Evidence synthesis of business process outsourcing and its impact on an organization: is it more than cost reduction?
No full textA comprehensive study related to the impact of BPO on organizations beyond cost reduction, would benefit organizational stakeholders, management practitioners, and academic researchers.An Evidence Synthesis of Business Process Outsourcing and its Impact on an Organization: Is It More than Cost Reduction?
By: Akm N. Islam
University of Maryland, University College
contact: [email protected]
Keywords: Business process outsourcing, BPO, process outsourcing, outsourcing, offshore outsourcing, managed services, competitive advantageBackground and Context
•
Business process outsourcing (BPO) as one of the outsourcing trends is gaining much attention in business world in recent years
•
The “cost factor” is the key decision-making argument that companies point to when deciding on outsourcing
•
Management continues to neglect their organizational improvements due to the focus on cost reduction
•
Lack of focus on non-financial factors related to BPO may have a significant negative impact on organizational performance, the organization’s competitive advantage, and organizational financial objectives
•
The non-financial factors (like turnover, morale etc.) eventually may impact the organizational bottom line and become financial
•
A comprehensive study related to the impact of BPO on organizations beyond cost reduction, would benefit organizational stakeholders, management practitioners, and academic researchers. Significance
•
Previous research predicted significant growth in global BPO spending (from USD 712 billion in 2001 to over USD 1.24 trillion by 2007)
•
Recent predictions suggest that the BPO market in the U.S. alone could reach over USD 975 billion in 2012
•
Not only major companies increasingly accepting BPO as their standard business practice; this trend applies also for many mid-size and small-size companies
•
Research suggests increased focus in recent years by the organizations and their managers on utilizing both on-shore and off-shore BPO
•
BPO research still narrowly focuses on specific area of concerns
•
Comprehensive knowledge of how BPO affects an organization beyond cost reduction relates to how successful decision making can help management direct resources effectively within the organizationResearch Question
Primary Research Question:
•
What is the non-financial impact of BPO on an organization?
Sub-questions:
•
Is there an association between the non-financial impact of BPO and the impact to the employees?
•
Are there hidden costs associated with BPO that affect organization innovation beyond cost reduction?
•
Does the non-financial impact of BPO effect organizational competiveness and its quality?Key Literature
•
Beverakis, Dick, and Cecez-Kecmanovic (2009)
•
Bharadwaj and Saxena (2009)
•
Daityari, Saini, and Gupta (2008)
•
Duan, Grover, and Balakrishnan (2009)
•
Gewald and Dibbern (2009)
•
Gewald (2010)
•
Ghodeswar and Vaidyanathan (2008)
•
Jiang and Qureshi (2006)
•
Kern and Willcocks (2003)
•
Lacity, Willcocks, and Rottman (2008)
•
Lacity, Solomon, Yan, and Willcocks (2011)Key Literature
•
Perçin (2008)
•
Saxena and Bharadwaj (2009)
•
Stauss and Jedrassczyk (2008)
•
Willcocks, Hindle, Feeny, and Lacity (2004)Conceptual ModelMethodology
•
This study utilizes systematic evidence-based research synthesis (EBRS) as the research methodology for reviewing BPO and its impact on an organization beyond cost reduction. This evidence synthesis, therefore, relies on secondary data collected from the existing research on BPO
•
In addition to using EBRS as the research method, this study employs the use of an expert panel to ensure rigor and validity of this research. This expert panel consists of three eminent scholars who are subject matter experts in the field with both academic and practice background Findings/Results
•
Synthesis of the existing evidence confirms that BPO has significant non-financial impact on organization
•
Understanding of the hidden costs associated with BPO (like employee turnover, morale, trust, etc.) is essential for organizational effectiveness
•
Vendor relationship management in BPO is critical to sourcing success and organizational competitiveness
•
Understanding of the non-financial issues unique to BPO (like BPO vendor’s employee issues such as attrition, stress, and burnout) is essential for the host organization’s success
•
Organizational innovation is impacted by BPO vendors’ knowledge transfer, diffusion, and retention capabilities Management Practice Implications
Understand the impact of BPO on organization beyond cost reduction
•
Capability to identify hidden costs associated with BPO before making a significant investment of financial and other resources
•
Through effective BPO vendor management, managers of the host organizations will be able to improve their organizational competitiveness and the long-term sustainability
•
Through knowledge of BPO impact on employees (like their trust, morale, and commitment), managers of the host organizations will be able to direct resources effectively within the organization Future Research
•
Study the relationship between management actions and employee behavior related to BPO effectiveness
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Conduct research to understand the role BPO vendors play in host organizations’ competitiveness and their long term sustainability
•
Study the impact of open innovation on BPO capabilities of the Contemporary Fir
Managing self-efficacy for employee engagement and commitment: Planning employee success patterns
No full textPurpose of research: To examine ways in which employee engagement can be enhanced in the organization by managing employee self-efficacy, to propose a conceptual framework of employee engagement and self-engagement that integrates research and theory and help provide a compelling case for action, and to highlight gaps in the literatures on the effectiveness of managing self-efficacy to increase employee engagement and commitment in the organization.Purpose and Scope of Research
A.
To examine ways in which employee engagement can be enhanced in the organization by managing employee self-efficacy.
B.
To propose a conceptual framework of employee engagement and self-engagement that integrates research and theory and help provide a compelling case for action.
C.
Highlight gaps in the literatures on the effectiveness of managing self-efficacy to increase employee engagement and commitment in the organization. Personal Reasons for Research Topic
It is the premise that “ …psychological and sociological understanding of the self is a far better predictor and motivator of employee engagement and commitment than tasks, jobs, and role performances” (Kahn, 1990).Importance to Management Practice
A.
A growing body of evidence suggests that employee engagement is crucial for organizational productivity and success. It encompasses more than the commonly held belief of job satisfaction. It involves an active commitment to performing a task well and helping the organization achieves its goals and objectives.
B.
In a global competitive environment, many organizations face strong headwinds, and because of that, employee engagement assumes increasing significance. Managers have a unique role to play in managing employees self-efficacy to build employee engagement and self-engagement.Line of Argument
A.
To the extent that you want to create employee engagement or self engagement one must first develop a plan for how self-efficacy can be managed.
B.
Effectively managing employee self-efficacy involves planning along a gradient of incremental success based on goal setting and job fit.Most Important Theoretical FrameworksResearch Question
“What does a review of the literature say about how managing employee self-efficacy along a gradient of success patterns influences employee engagement, self-engagement, and commitment to the organization?”Research Propositions
Proposition 1 A strong and significant relationship exists between self-efficacy and employee engagement. Proposition 2 A Strong and significant relationship exists between self-efficacy and organizational commitment. Proposition 3 Goal setting is a mediator between self-efficacy and employee engagement. Proposition 4 Control for job fit and goal, and positively managing loosely planned gradients of success events over time lead to self-efficacy reinforcement and predict employee engagement and commitment.Primary Practitioner Scenario
Leaders of a sales organization were taking part in an employee development program. A key theme that emerged in the discussion was that employees had difficulty leading balanced lives because of job demands and increasing pressures they were facing in their jobs. The discussion continued for some time, and the tension in the room began to escalate. The facilitator then asked two important questions: first, she asked, “how many of you feel overworked and feel you really cannot do any more if asked by your organization?” Virtually every hand in the room was raised. Clearly this group was feeling overworked. Then came the second question: “how many of you feel there is a part of you – your creativity, passion, ingenuity – that is sitting, untapped by this organization?” Virtually all the same hands were raised.
Source: Molinaro , V., & Weiss, D. (2005). The Leadership Gap: Developing leaders for competitive advantage . Main Literature Themes & Authors
Theme 1 -- Employee engagement (self-engagement)
Authors: Kahn; Harter; Saks; Schmidt; Blacksmith; Maslach and Leiter ; Schaufeli and Bakker ; Salanova; Bakker
Theme 2 -- Social cognitive theory (e.g.,self-efficacy)
Authors: Bandura; Pajares; Bem;
Theme 3 -- Organizational commitment
Authors: Meyer ; Allen; Bergman, Lester, De Meuse & Grahn; Mowday; Becker, Vandenberghe
Theme 4 -- Goal settings
Authors: Locke; Latham
Theme 5 -- Symbolic interactionism
Authors: Mead; Ritzer; Cooley; Blumer; Dewey; Charon
Theme 6 -- Organizational citizen behavior (OCB)
Authors: Organ; Katz; Van DyneWarrants
A.
Goals, in conjunction with self-efficacy (task-specific confidence; Bandura, 1997), often mediate or partially mediate the effects of other potentially motivating variables (e.g. employee engagement) (Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002).
B.
High goals lead to greater effort and/or persistence than do moderately difficult, easy, or vague goals. Feelings of success in the workplace occur to the extent that people see that they are able to grow and meet job challenges by pursuing and attaining goals that are important and meaningful (Locke & Latham, 2002). Conceptual Framework Conclusions
The conclusion of this study shows that by gradually and systematically managing success to attain high levels of self-efficacy within a programmed alignment of employee-manager interaction, goal-setting and job fit will be a significant predictor of employee engagement self-engagement in the organization
Institutional adaptation under conditions of environmental turbulence in U.S. higher education: An application of stakeholder theory
No full textHow does the identification and mapping of salient organizational stakeholders enhance understanding of the university’s external (environmental) conditions?
What roles do organizational stakeholders play in the development, implementation, and delivery of on-line and hybrid courses and programs at public (state) institutions?Institutional Adaptation Under Conditions of Environmental Turbulence in U. S. Higher Education: An Application of Stakeholder Theory
Robert W. Gould, M.B.A.
Doctoral Candidate, UMUC
Adjunct Associate Professor, UMUC-Europe
[email protected]
210-557-4559Background and context of the management problem
•
Institutions of higher education are called upon to perform a variety of complex and often competing tasks
•
Higher education as an industry has been historically viewed as immune to disruption
•
Changing economic, technological, and demographic factors are now driving an increasing need for adaptation in institutions of higher education
•
Stakeholder theory provides a comprehensive organizing structure for the analysis of the individuals and organizations that comprise higher education’s operating environment Significance of the problem
•
Dramatic changes in structure, strategy, organizational processes, and content delivery are challenging established norms in higher education
•
Higher education and human capital development play a central role in innovation and in economic development
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Change in higher education is significant for researchers in management, practitioners in government and academia, members of the general public
•
For practitioners in the field of higher education the benefits of this study may also include insights as to how to manage academic programs under changing environmental conditions Research questions
General RQ:
•
How does the university, viewed as an organization/institution, adapt under complex and turbulent conditions?
Specific RQs:
•
How does the identification and mapping of salient organizational stakeholders enhance understanding of the university’s external (environmental) conditions?
•
What roles do organizational stakeholders play in the development, implementation, and delivery of on-line and hybrid courses and programs at public (state) institutions?Argument
•
Turbulent conditions exist across a broad range of drivers and create pressures for organizational change
•
Among a range of organizational responses is increasing use of technology in content delivery, as represented by on-line and hybrid courses and programs
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Technology is both a driver of change and a method of responding to change
•
The recognition and mapping of salient organizational stakeholders allows the university to enhance its understanding of and response to its environment Key literature that influenced the research
Stakeholder theory
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Freeman, R. E. (1984). Strategic management: A stakeholder approach.
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Freeman, R. E., Harrison, J. S., & Wicks, A. C. (2007). Managing for stakeholders: Survival, reputation, and success.
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Freeman, R. E., Harrison, J. S., Wicks, A. C., Parmer, B. L., and de Colle, S. (2010). Stakeholder theory: The state of the art.
Stakeholder salience
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Mitchell, R. K., Agle, B. R., & Wood, D. J. (1997). Toward a theory of stakeholder identification and salience: Defining the principle of who and what really counts.
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Neville, B., Bell, S., & Whitwell, G. (2011). Stakeholder salience revisited: Refining, redefining, and refueling an underdeveloped conceptual tool.
Stakeholders in higher education
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Chapleo, C., & Simms, C. (2010). Stakeholder analysis in higher education. Key literature that influenced the research (continued)
Stakeholder mapping
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Bourne, L., & Walker, D. T. (2005). Visualising and mapping stakeholder influence.
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Fassin, Y. (2008). Imperfections and shortcomings of the stakeholder model’s graphical representation.
Stakeholder engagement
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Svendsen, A. (1998). The stakeholder strategy: Profiting from collaborative business relationships.
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Noland, J., & Phillips, R. (2010). Stakeholder engagement, discourse ethics and strategic management.
Turbulence in higher education
•
Christensen, C. M., Horn, M. B., Caldera, L. & Soares, L. (2011). Disrupting college: How disruptive innovation can deliver quality and affordability to postsecondary education. Conceptual model of influential factors Propositions
RQs:
•
How does the identification and mapping of salient organizational stakeholders enhance understanding of the university’s external (environmental) conditions?
•
What roles do organizational stakeholders play in the development, implementation, and delivery of on-line and hybrid courses and programs at public (state) institutions?
Propositions:
•
Stakeholder recognition, mapping, and engagement impact the ability of institutions of higher education to make adaptations to turbulent environmental conditions.
•
Stakeholder engagement is a key driver in the development, implementation, and delivery of on-line and hybrid courses and programs at public (state) institutions. Methodology used to assess propositions
•
Systematic literature search captured peer reviewed articles in business and education on-line databases
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Business Source Complete, Emerald Fulltext and Management Reviews, ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), and JSTOR used for the systematic search
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Keywords used included the phrases distance learning, online learning, distance education, or online education paired with higher education, university, or stakeholder
•
5,316 articles were initially returned. 185 of these were indentified for possible inclusion during preliminary screening. After review of the full text, 53 articles were included in the data set. Findings/results
RQs:
•
How does the identification and mapping of salient organizational stakeholders enhance understanding of the university’s external (environmental) conditions?
•
What roles do organizational stakeholders play in the development, implementation, and delivery of on-line and hybrid courses and programs at public (state) institutions?
Propositions:
•
P1: Stakeholder identification and mapping impact the ability of institutions of higher education to make adaptations to turbulent environmental conditions.
•
P2: Stakeholder engagement is a key driver in the development, implementation, and delivery of on-line and hybrid courses and programs at public (state) institutions.
Findings:
•
Preliminary findings generally support P1 but do not support P2. While institutions of higher education are increasingly identifying salient stakeholders, they are not always engaging them with other than market-oriented approaches.Management practice implications; Management theory implications; Future research potential
•
Stakeholder engagement best practices generated in corporate settings may be applicable in different sectors, such as higher education
•Stakeholder theory may be expanded to consider new sectors, such as higher education
•Stakeholder theory may be expanded to explicitly address the impact of turbulent environments on the nature of organization-stakeholder relationships
•This study may be considered as preliminary to field research addressing these issues, such as structured interviews with sector thought leaders / champions, case studies of first-movers / key institutions, and tracking of organizational behavior / trends across sub-sector
Strategic management approach to curriculum internationalization for undergraduate business schools: Focus on small U.S.-based colleges and universities
No full textThis dissertation will discuss a strategic management approach to curriculum internationalization. Curriculum internationalization is viewed as a means to an end with the end being undergraduate business programs graduating students capable of operating effectively in a global society and a global economy. The focus will be on meeting the human capital needs of multinational corporations and on small schools with limited resources that grant a traditional bachelor's degree and possess limited experience with internationalization. A conceptual model is presented that identifies the critical variables essential to internationalizing the curricula. In the process, the core competencies (i.e., knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes) that graduates will be required to possess to operate effectively in a multinational corporation setting will be identified.ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation: A STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT APPROACH TO CURRICULUM INTERNATIONALIZATION FOR UNDERGRADUATE BUSINESS PROGRAMS: FOCUS ON SMALL U.S.-BASED COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES
Tom C. Hogan Doctor of Management, 2011
Dissertation Advisory Committee: James P. Gelatt, Ph.D. Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D.
This dissertation will discuss a strategic management approach to curriculum internationalization. Curriculum internationalization is viewed as a means to an end with the end being undergraduate business programs graduating students capable of operating effectively in a global society and a global economy. The focus will be on meeting the human capital needs of multinational corporations and on small schools with limited resources that grant a traditional bachelor’s degree and possess limited experience with internationalization. A conceptual model is presented that identifies the critical variables essential to internationalizing the curricula. In the process, the core competencies (i.e., knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes) that graduates will be required to possess to operate effectively in a multinational corporation setting will be identified. 2
A STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT APPROACH TO CURRICULUM INTERNATIONALIZATION FOR UNDERGRADUATE BUSINESS PROGRAMS: FOCUS ON SMALL U.S. BASED COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES
By
Tom C. Hogan
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management 2011
Advisory Committee:
James P. Gelatt, Ph.D. Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D.3
Preface
This topic is important to me because many years ago I was an economically disadvantaged student of color seeking a college education. I was one of seven in my family born in the “Hill District,” an inner-city neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The Hill District was predominantly African American and characterized by a high crime rate and the regular use and sale of illegal drugs. Prostitution and numbers running were common. Conventional wisdom held that there were two ways out of the ghetto: sports and education. Although my father was illiterate and had only completed six years of formal education, his vision was clear; he preached “get an education or be a bum.” I chose the former. I was the first in my immediate family to graduate with a college degree, and in the process I fell in love with learning. Higher education transformed me as an individual, enabled me to raise a family, and afforded me an upper middle class income and lifestyle. My personal mission is to give back to society by leveraging my experience, knowledge, and skills as a practitioner-scholar to help others obtain a university education and prepare for joining the global work force. 4
List of Tables
Table 1. Research propositions and associated indicators………………………………………………………………………………….…11 Table 2. The views of American multinational CEOs on internationalized business
education for prospective employees: areas of expertise……………………………………………..………………………………………28 Table 3. List of internationalization elements………………………………………………………..……………………………42
Table 4. Literature review mapping chart…………………………………………………………...............................................52
Table 5. Chronology of government-related ESD activities in Japan………………………………..…………………………………………………….…85
List of Figures
Figure 1. A conceptual model for internationalizing U.S. institutions of higher education
and undergraduate business programs……………………………………………………………….…………………..55
Figure 2. MNC CEOs desired international business training for new college graduates…………..………………………………………………………………………...63
Figure 3. MNC’s human capital requirements…………………………………………………………………………………64
Figure 4. A strategic management continuum for undergraduate business programs……………….…………………………………………………………………...665
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………………………………………………...6
Purpose Statement…………………………………………………………………...6
Problem Statement………………………………………………………………......7
Context/Background……………………………………………………………….. 8
Research Question…………………………………………………………………..9
Assumptions………………………………………………………………………...9
Propositions………………………………………………………………………..10
Research Methodology…………………………………………………………….14
Definition of Terms………………………………………………………………...15
The Significance of the Study……………………………………………………...20
Organization of the Dissertation…………………………………………………...21
Chapter 2: Literature Review……………………………………………………………….22
Impact of Globalization on Organizations………………………………………....22
Internationalizing Curricula………………………………………………………..31
Organizational Adaptation…………………………………………………………48
Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework and Conceptual Model………………………………..55
Globalization………………………………………………………………………..56
MNCs………………………………………………………………………………..56
College/University…………………………………………………………………..57
Enterprise-Wide Strategy…………………………………………………………...57
Internationalization Strategy………………………………………………………..58
Institutional Commitment…………………………………………………………..59
Faculty Investment………………………………………………………………….59
Curriculum Investment……………………………………………………………...60
Undergraduate Business Program Curriculum……………………………………...61
Globally Literate Graduates………………………………………………………....61
Feedback Loops……………………………………………………………………...61
Chapter 4: Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….68
Analysis and Implications of Future Trends………………………………………...68
Sustainability and Sustainable Business Development……………………………...70
Market Failures in Undergraduate Business Education……………………………..71
The Role of Higher Education in Promoting Sustainable Business Development….77
Consequences of Market Failures…………………………………………………….83
Higher Education for Sustainable Development in Japan…………………………...84
Implications for Management Practice……………………………………………….88
Areas for Further Research…………………………………………………………...89
Summary……………………………………………………………………………...96
Appendix: List of External Content Experts……….………………………………………...99
References…………………………………………………………………………………….1006
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study is to explore a strategic management approach to curriculum internationalization for small U.S.-based colleges and universities. Curriculum internationalization is viewed as a means to an end with the end being undergraduate business programs graduating students capable of operating effectively in a global society and a global economy. The focus will be on meeting the human capital needs of multinational corporations and on small schools with limited resources that grant a traditional bachelor’s degree and possess limited experience with internationalization. For purposes of this study, a traditional bachelor’s degree refers to in-residence programs serving a target population between the ages of 18 and 24.
A conceptual model is presented in Chapter 3 that identifies the critical variables essential to internationalizing the curricula. In the process, the core competencies (i.e., knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes) that graduates will be required to possess to operate effectively in a multinational corporation setting are identified in Chapters 2 and 3. In addition, an analysis and implications of future trends relative to curriculum internationalization and areas for further research are discussed in Chapter 4.
Although small schools with small undergraduate business programs may be disadvantaged in comparison to a large public research university, from a resource perspective, size and wealth do not preclude organizational focus, organizational engagement, creativity and innovation, value creation, and time-to-market. This study also explores how small schools with small undergraduate business programs with successful internationalization initiatives can thrive 7
in a hypercompetitive global higher education market by adapting, innovating, and transforming themselves into more resilient organizations. It is argued that doing so will enable small schools with small business programs to differentiate themselves in the marketplace and gain a competitive advantage in their selected target markets. The approach discussed is relevant to schools that desire to increase student enrollment or improve quality.
Problem Statement
Understanding how globalization affects institutions of higher education from the perspective of curriculum design, development, and validation is an issue of national importance. Having a national work force capable of effectively conducting business across-cultures, borders, and time zones, particularly in a multinational corporate setting, is a cornerstone of the nation’s continued success in the global economy. Institutions of higher education, including small colleges and universities, are critical links in the production of a globally literate citizenry.
A subset of this national challenge pertains to curriculum internationalization. This study identifies critical variables that are essential to internationalizing the curricula of small undergraduate business programs. The outcome of curriculum internationalization would involve producing graduates with the required core competencies to operate effectively within a multinational corporate setting.
Some critics may argue that we are doing enough in the area of curriculum internationalization. This study seeks to provide evidence to refute that claim. 8
Context/Background
To promote a national dialogue regarding the future of the U.S. higher education system, the secretary of education’s Commission on the Future of Higher Education was formed. It released its final report on September 2006. The report, commonly referred to as the Spelling Commission Report, identified challenges and offered analysis and recommendations. According to the Spelling Commission Report (U.S. Department of Education, 2006):
The need to produce a globally literate citizenry is critical to the nation’s continued success in the global economy. The federal government has recently embarked on an initiative to dramatically increase the number of Americans learning critically needed foreign languages from K-16 and into the work force. Higher education, too, must put greater emphasis on international education, including foreign-language instruction and study abroad, in order to ensure that graduates have the necessary skills to function effectively in the global work force (p. 27).
The American Council on Education, an education advocacy group, reports in Mapping Internationalization of U.S. Campuses: 2008 Edition (American Council on Education Website, 2008):
Every institution needs to pay attention to internationalization if it is to prepare students for the multicultural and global society of today and tomorrow. In order for that to happen, colleges and universities need to build student interests and demographics, focus on the curriculum, invest in faculty opportunities, create a strategic framework for action, and ensure active leadership in making internationalization an institutional priority 9
(http://www.acenet.edu/Content/NavigationMenu/ProgramsServices/cii/pubs/ace/Mapping_2008.htm).
A key finding of both reports is that there is a linkage between the need to produce a globally literate citizenry and the nation’s continued success in the global economy.
Research Question
The following research question guided this study:
• How can small, resource-constrained U.S.-based colleges and universities with small business programs approach curriculum internationalization of the undergraduate business program from a strategic management perspective, thereby differentiating their institutions and creating a competitive advantage in the global higher education market?
The author supports the position that effective management strategies take implementation concerns into consideration and engage individuals who will be responsible for strategy implementation. However, this study will focus on strategy formulation rather than implementation. Assumptions
There are a number of underlying assumptions implicit to the study. First, the study assumes that the independent variables are interdependent and reinforcing and that the presence of all independent variables is essential for the implementation of a successful internationalization initiative. Second, the study assumes that, from an external environmental perspective, globalization is more influential on small schools relative to internationalization 10
than are other environmental factors (e.g., geographic location, demographics, government, competitors, accreditation bodies, prospective students, prospective faculty/staff, alumni, and taxpayers). Third, the study assumes that these critical variables are to some extent portable and thus may be replicated, adapted, and employed by small schools to improve their undergraduate business programs and the student experience. No claims are being made that the findings and conclusion of the study will fit any undergraduate business program regardless of its size, focus, and composition. Instead, as stated elsewhere in this dissertation, the target audience is the business programs of small colleges and universities with limited resources and limited experience with curriculum internationalization. Finally and most importantly, given the diversity of the U.S. higher education system, it is assumed that a study can be conducted that informs the decision-making process of academic leaders, improves the curriculum, and produces globally literate graduates from an array of different and unique small institutions with limited experience with curriculum internationalization. That is, the findings and conclusions drawn from a literature review are generalizable and can provide valuable insights to a subset of institutions of higher education and to their academic leaders. Ultimately, academic leaders of small colleges and universities will have to determine if the model is relevant and useful for them. These underlying assumptions were tested with external-practitioner content experts, and the results of those tests are found in Chapter 3.
Propositions
The following propositions are hypothesized to be critical factors for small colleges and universities relative to implementing an effective curriculum internationalization change initiative. These propositions were tested with the external content practitioner experts. 11
1. Institutions and undergraduate business programs that build on student interests and demographics; create, implement, and regularly assess a strategic framework for internationalization; and exhibit active leadership in making internationalization an institutional priority will be more effective at preparing students to operate in a global society and global economy within a multinational corporate setting than those programs that do not.
2. Undergraduate business programs that focus on internationalizing will be more effective at preparing students to operate in a global society and global economy within a multinational corporate setting than those programs that do not.
3. Undergraduate business programs that invest in faculty developmental opportunities (see examples below) will be more effective at preparing students to operate in a global society and global economy within a multinational corporate setting than those programs that do not.
Table 1 below list the propositions and their associated indicators or evidence of internationalization at the institutional and curriculum levels.
Table 1
Research Propositions and Associated Indicators
Propositions
Indicators
• Institutions and undergraduate business programs that build on student interests and demographics; create, implement, and regularly assess a strategic framework for internationalization; and exhibit active leadership in making internationalization an institutional priority will be more effective at preparing students to operate in
• Mission, strategic plan, priorities, policies, and programs support internationalization (e.g., institutional strategic framework)
o Do the strategies (e.g., mission, vision, priorities) and policies related to institutional, faculty and curriculum investments, student learning outcomes assessment, and undergraduate business 12
a global society and global economy within a multinational corporate setting than those programs that do not.
program descriptions identify internationalization as institutional priorities?
• Board of trustees or board of visitors reflect international composition and student representation
o Review the official biographies of members of the board of trustees or board of visitors to ascertain if they have international experience.
• Promotes cultural diversity and strives to create a welcoming and inclusive environment
o Review the institution’s diversity strategy or framework, if applicable.
o Does the diversity strategy or framework identify promoting cultural diversity and creating an inclusive and welcoming environment as an institutional priority?
o Is there a chief diversity officer?
o Review the official biographies of members of the board of trustees or board of visitors to ascertain if the body is culturally diverse.
o Review the content of student orientation programs.
o Review equal opportunity/affirmative action profiles for institution and undergraduate business programs.
• Recruitment of foreign students
o Percentage of foreign students and their national distribution
• Implement programs designed to support English as a second language
o Existence of programs designed to support English as a second language
o Number of program participants and their national distribution
o Success rates
• Foreign language studies and requirements for students
o Existence of programs designed to support foreign language studies
o Number of program participants and their national distribution
o Success rates
• Recruitment of foreign faculty
o Percentage of foreign faculty and their national distribution
• Senior-level staff support for internationalization
o Designation of a dean’s office or higher to be accountable for coordinating and leveraging internationalization across the enterprise and to function as a champion for the initiative
o Budget and additional staff resources assigned to support internationalization13
• Undergraduate business programs that focus on internationalizing will be more effective at preparing students to operate in a global society and global economy within a multinational corporate setting than those programs that do not.
• Review of curriculum, program description, and syllabi to ascertain if there is an emphasis on the development of a global mindset including the following attributes:
o Ability to think beyond geographic boundaries
o Viewing the firm as having a global identity
o Comprehending the global business environment
o Comprehending global needs with local responsibilities
o Valuing integration across boundaries
o Possessing tolerance for the unexpected
o Appreciating cultural diversity
• International content incorporated into courses
o Interview faculty
o Review of curriculum and program descriptions and course syllabi
• Study abroad opportunities
o Review of curriculum and program descriptions and course syllabi
o Number of program participants and a distribution of country destinations
• Establish and assess international student learning outcomes (e.g., pretest/post-test methodology and benchmarking against peer institutions and programs)
o Specific published statement regarding expected learning outcomes for the undergraduate business program
o Formal process to establish and assess international student learning outcomes
o Collection and analysis of data pertaining to international student learning outcomes
o Development and distribution of reports to the senior leadership team consisting of presentation and analysis of data, findings, and recommendations
o Recommendations considered and acted on
• Cross-cultural leadership knowledge, skills, and competencies
o Definition of these terms and incorporation into curriculum and program descriptions as well as course syllabi (e.g., cultural awareness, contextual knowledge/regional specific knowledge and foreign-language skills)
• Foreign-language entrance and graduation requirements
o Definition of these terms and incorporation into curriculum and program descriptions
• Joint degree programs with foreign universities14
o Ascertain if programs exist and that students are taking advantage of them.
o Number of program participants by program
• Undergraduate business programs that invest in faculty developmental opportunities will be more effective at preparing students to operate in a global society and global economy within a multinational corporate setting than those programs that do not.
• Establish international experience as a criterion of hiring, tenure, and promotion.
o Review of university policies and criteria related to the hiring, granting of tenure, and p
Academic continuity plans and strategic fit within Tennessee public universities
No full textFocus of study: The focus of this study was the public universities within Tennessee, specifically the most senior academic officer of each public university, the two university systems, and the statewide regulator. These academic officers represented universities delivering primarily face-to-face instruction with some online course offerings. The scope of the work included consulting relevant literature, developing a model of disaster response for universities, interviewing senior academic officials, documenting these interviews, and analyzing the interview transcripts within a model of strategic fit between an identified potential strategy of academic continuity and the other factors within the control of a university.ACADEMIC CONTINUITY PLANS AND STRATEGIC FIT WITHIN
TENNESSEE PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES
By
Michael B. Becraft
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Management
2011
Advisory Committee:
Dr. Claudine SchWeber, Chair
Dr. Leslie Dinauer
Dr. Irmak Renda-Tanali
© Copyright by
Michael B. Becraft
2011 i
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to those who would adapt during any disaster to protect the interests of others.
ii
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank those who have assisted or encouraged me in the completion of this goal. Using the fewest possible words, I would like to recognize all involved in my formal as well as informal education, my significant other, extended family, close friends, professional colleagues, and the librarians willing to locate any resources I sought. Due to a fear of omitting points of inspiration or support, I will remind each of my gratitude as we meet again.
iii
Table of Contents
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... ix
List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................................ x
Chapter One: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
Background of Tennessee Public Universities and Disasters ..................................................... 2
Management Problem and Purpose Statement ........................................................................... 3
Management problem. ............................................................................................................ 5
Purpose statement. .................................................................................................................. 5
Relevance to the Study of Management ..................................................................................... 5
Context of the Research .............................................................................................................. 6
Definition of terms. ................................................................................................................. 6
Body of literature. ................................................................................................................... 8
Focus and Scope of Work ........................................................................................................... 9
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................. 10
Background of the Literature Review ....................................................................................... 10
Sequential Evolution of Academic Continuity ......................................................................... 11
Academic continuity before Hurricane Katrina. ................................................................... 11
Hurricane Katrina in 2005. ................................................................................................... 12
Academic continuity in 2006. ............................................................................................... 12 iv
Academic continuity in 2007. ............................................................................................... 13
Academic continuity in 2008. ............................................................................................... 17
Academic continuity in 2009. ............................................................................................... 20
Academic continuity in 2010. ............................................................................................... 20
Academic continuity in 2011. ............................................................................................... 21
Past Example of Academic Discontinuity ................................................................................ 22
Human impact of disasters in higher education. ................................................................... 22
Financial impact of disasters in higher education. ................................................................ 24
Enrollment management and academic support issues. ........................................................ 27
Existing Areas of Research Supporting Academic Continuity ................................................. 28
Emergency Management .......................................................................................................... 30
Definition of emergency management. ................................................................................. 31
Focusing events of U.S. emergency management. ............................................................... 31
Policies and guidelines shaping U.S. emergency management. ........................................... 34
Professionalization and advancement of U.S. emergency management. .............................. 35
Universities and U.S. emergency management. ................................................................... 36
Crisis Management ................................................................................................................... 38
Definition of crisis management. .......................................................................................... 38
History of crisis management research. ................................................................................ 40
Theory of enactments and relevance to crisis management. ................................................. 43
Universities, research, and crisis management. .................................................................... 44
Business Continuity .................................................................................................................. 47
Definition of business continuity. ......................................................................................... 48 v
History of business continuity. ............................................................................................. 48
Sequential developments in business continuity................................................................... 49
Business continuity among colleges and universities. .......................................................... 52
Connection of the Literature to Model of Strategic Fit ............................................................. 53
Revision of 7-S model of strategic fit. .................................................................................. 55
Previous use of the 7-S model of strategic fit. ...................................................................... 58
Selection of the 7-S model of strategic fit. ........................................................................... 58
Relationship between the literature and model of strategic fit. ............................................ 61
Chapter Three: Research Method ................................................................................................. 63
Research Question .................................................................................................................... 63
Research Method ...................................................................................................................... 63
Connection between Research Question and Method .............................................................. 64
Population ................................................................................................................................ 65
Description of population. .................................................................................................... 65
Recruitment of participants. .................................................................................................. 66
Interview Process ...................................................................................................................... 67
Development of interview skills. .......................................................................................... 67
Development of interview questions. ................................................................................... 68
Data Collection Procedures ....................................................................................................... 70
Pre-interview preparation process......................................................................................... 70
Interview process. ................................................................................................................. 71
Issues during interviews. ....................................................................................................... 73
Transcription of Interviews ....................................................................................................... 73 vi
Data Analysis Procedures ......................................................................................................... 74
Content analysis. ................................................................................................................... 75
Raw data and coding. ............................................................................................................ 76
Coding the 7-S constructs. .................................................................................................... 77
Exclusions from 7-S constructs. ........................................................................................... 78
Analysis under 7-S framework. ............................................................................................ 79
Verification and Reporting ....................................................................................................... 80
Reporting of results. .............................................................................................................. 80
Identifying relevant passages within transcripts. .................................................................. 81
Chapter Four: Data Analysis, Findings, and Discussion .............................................................. 82
Results and Data Interpretation within 7-S Model of Strategic Fit .......................................... 82
Results for strategy construct. ............................................................................................... 85
Results for structure construct. ............................................................................................. 89
Results for systems and processes construct. ........................................................................ 91
Results for style construct. .................................................................................................... 93
Results for staff construct. .................................................................................................... 96
Results for resources construct. ............................................................................................ 98
Results for shared values construct. .................................................................................... 102
Findings in Relation to Strategic Fit ....................................................................................... 104
Strategy construct as the basis of strategic fit. .................................................................... 104
Structure construct and finding. .......................................................................................... 104
Systems and processes construct and finding. .................................................................... 105
Style construct and finding ................................................................................................. 105 vii
Staff construct and finding .................................................................................................. 106
Resources construct and finding ......................................................................................... 106
Shared values construct and finding ................................................................................... 107
Summary of findings........................................................................................................... 107
Summary of Findings in Relation to Literature ...................................................................... 108
Chapter Five: Summary, Discussion, and Conclusions .............................................................. 112
Overview of the Study ............................................................................................................ 112
Summary and Discussion of Results....................................................................................... 114
Existing gap in the literature. .............................................................................................. 114
Discussion and interpretation within model of strategic fit. ............................................... 115
Conclusion and Research Question ........................................................................................ 118
Implications for Management Practice ................................................................................... 119
Limitations of the Study.......................................................................................................... 121
Recommendations for Future Study ....................................................................................... 123
References .................................................................................................................................. 126
Appendix A: Sample Hazards Relevant to Tennessee Universities ........................................... 140
Appendix B: Stakeholder Feedback............................................................................................ 141
Appendix C: Research Population .............................................................................................. 145
Appendix D: List of Basic Interview Questions ......................................................................... 146
Appendix E: Each of the 7-S Constructs and Associated Terms in the Lexicon ........................ 151
viii
List of Tables
Table 1: Percentage of Terms and Raw Counts related to 7-S Constructs by Respondent... 84
Table 2: Frequency Count of 7-S Constructs and Sub-constructs…………………..............86
ix
List of Figures
Figure 1: Model of disaster recovery for public universities, where effective emergency management, business continuity, and academic continuity allow for operations…...54
Figure 2: Rendering of strategic fit model of Higgins (2005) without connections……….....59
Figure 3: Percentage of terms related to construct of Strategy and Purposes by respondent...87
Figure 4: Percentage of terms related to construct of Structure by respondent……………....89
Figure 5: Percentage of terms related to construct of Systems and Processes by respondent..92
Figure 6: Percentage of terms related to construct of Style by respondent…………………..94
Figure 7: Percentage of terms related to construct of Staff by respondent………………… ..97
Figure 8: Percentage of terms related to construct of Resources by respondent…………......100
Figure 9: Percentage of terms related to construct of Shared Values by respondent………...103
Figure 10: Rendering of strategic fit model of Higgins (2005), demonstrating impediments to the development of academic continuity plans…………………………………………...108
x
List of Acronyms
COOP – Continuity of Operations
DHS – United States Department of Homeland Security
EMI – Emergency Management Institute
EOP – Emergency Operations Plan
FEMA – Federal Emergency Management Agency
FERPA – Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974
HSPD – Homeland Security Presidential Directive
ICS – Incident Command System
NFPA – National Fire Protection Association
NIMS – National Incident Management System
NOAA – National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
RODP – Regents Online Degree Program
SACS-COC – Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
TBR – Tennessee Board of Regents
THEC – Tennessee Higher Education Commission
UT – University of Tennessee System
USGS – United States Geological Survey 1
Chapter One: Introduction
Disasters have impacted, and may continue to impact, the ability of universities to deliver instruction. Without effective plans in place before a disaster overwhelms the response capability of local emergency management, the viability of a university could be threatened due to inaccessible, damaged, or destroyed resources that impact the ability to continue instruction. The ability of a university to continue offering instruction despite crises is termed academic continuity and defined as “the process of maintaining continuity of learning in a crisis situation caused by a natural disaster, human-induced (‘man-made’) disaster, or other precipitating factor” (Sloan Consortium, 2008). The threat posed by disasters is not merely theoretical because many universities are affected by disasters each year.
In the State of Tennessee alone, four tornadoes have struck three different colleges and universities since 1999 (Carlson, 2008; “Chronicle of Higher Education,” 1999; McCarthy & Schaefer, 2007). In early 2007, the Wolf Creek Dam was categorized by the Army Corps of Engineers at high risk of technology failure (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2007), where Geographic Information System (GIS) models predicted extensive flooding of Nashville in the event of dam failure, engulfing many prominent landmarks, much of the industrial base, and major civic centers. If that dam failure occurred, Clarksville also would face widespread flooding further downriver from Nashville. In September 2007, the Center Hill Dam along the same river was deemed at high risk of failure with the potential for 500 lives lost (Paine, 2007). A record flood event occurred along this river after a 1,000+ year rainfall in May 2010 (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [NOAA], 2010), damaging communities but less extensive than a potential dam failure. 2
Background of Tennessee Public Universities and Disasters
The public universities in Tennessee—the focus of this research—face hazards with the potential to cause disasters. Tennessee has two public systems of higher education, the Tennessee Board of Regents System (TBR) and the University of Tennessee System (UT), both reporting to the statewide regulator Tennessee Higher Education Commission (THEC). The Tennessee Board of Regents system was a 46 institution system with six universities, 13 community colleges, and 27 technology training centers. The University of Tennessee System had three universities, three institutes, and one health sciences center. The nine public universities (six from TBR and three from UT), the two system offices (TBR and UT), and the public regulator for the state (THEC) were the focus of the research.
Disasters within Tennessee have affected colleges and universities as the result of many potential hazards. These hazards include those easily identified (e.g., earthquakes, fires, floods, tornadoes, technology failures, and chemical spills) and well as emerging (e.g., pandemic influenza and intentional human actions). Some of these hazards are quantifiable and have probabilities assigned to occurrence. For instance, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimated the probability at greater than 90% of a magnitude 6 to 7 or higher earthquake occurring along the New Madrid Fault in the next 50 years (2007). Potential technology failures such as those at the Center Hill and Wolf Creek Dams are also quantified as a risk over time by the Army Corps of Engineers. Three Tennessee colleges and universities (two public, one private) have been directly struck by four tornadoes since the beginning of 1999, a hazard that cannot be easily quantified in terms of probability of occurrence. Finally, there are unexpected hazards for which a probability cannot be assigned, including the inadvertent or intentional release of toxic chemicals making
Defining a developmental lifecycle of a knowledge management (KM) initiative to forecast maturity and growth
No full textThe need to better capitalize on the knowledge and experience found within the employees of an organization results in initiatives based on the tools, procedures and principles of Knowledge Management (KM); however, studies suggest that a majority of KM initiatives may be failures rather than successes. As a result, organizations not only realize a loss of the resources that were dedicated to the initiative; perhaps more importantly is the loss of the valuable knowledge and experience they sought to harness.
This paper proposes that a lifecycle framework that identifies developmental maturity stages of a KM initiative could illuminate expected initiative plateaus and potential growth spurts; further, it could identify appropriate nurturing and intervening measures, thus reducing the number of KM initiatives that are deemed failures. To substantiate this proposal, this paper provides a thorough literature review to support the organizational necessity to manage knowledge followed by literature review that identifies foundational requirements for an environment that is conducive to the success of a KM initiative. A number of lifecycles are reviewed to determine if these lifecycles provide a framework for developing developmental lifecycle that could be applied to a KM initiative.
From the review of these lifecycles, it is determined that it is possible to develop a developmental, cognitive-growth potential lifecycle framework that could be applied to a KM initiative, and a potential developmental lifecycle framework is presented for consideration. This lifecycle framework provides decision-makers with a new method of forecasting resources and timelines for KM initiatives possibly resulting in increased KM initiative success and ultimately in improved opportunity to leverage organizational knowledge.
Finally, the flexibility of this lifecycle is highlighted as a benefit when it is used for planning KM initiatives, given future KM trends. Future research suggested includes: testing the proposed lifecycle by applying it to a KM initiative from the planning phase through the termination phase of its lifecycle; testing if the lifecycle can be modified to address generational differences, to determine if this lifecycle can be applied to non-KM projects; and testing if the lifecycle could further define the cognitive maturity of an organization.1
Defining a Developmental Lifecycle of a Knowledge Management (KM) Initiative
to Forecast Maturity and Growth
Susan Camarena
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Dissertation Committee:
Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D.
James P. Gelatt, Ph.D.
December 2, 2010
2
Abstract
The need to better capitalize on the knowledge and experience found within the employees of an organization results in initiatives based on the tools, procedures and principles of Knowledge Management (KM); however, studies suggest that a majority of KM initiatives may be failures rather than successes. As a result, organizations not only realize a loss of the resources that were dedicated to the initiative; perhaps more importantly is the loss of the valuable knowledge and experience they sought to harness.
This paper proposes that a lifecycle framework that identifies developmental maturity stages of a KM initiative could illuminate expected initiative plateaus and potential growth spurts; further, it could identify appropriate nurturing and intervening measures, thus reducing the number of KM initiatives that are deemed failures. To substantiate this proposal, this paper provides a thorough literature review to support the organizational necessity to manage knowledge followed by literature review that identifies foundational requirements for an environment that is conducive to the success of a KM initiative. A number of lifecycles are reviewed to determine if these lifecycles provide a framework for developing developmental lifecycle that could be applied to a KM initiative.
From the review of these lifecycles, it is determined that it is possible to develop a developmental, cognitive-growth potential lifecycle framework that could be applied to a KM initiative, and a potential developmental lifecycle framework is presented for consideration. This lifecycle framework provides decision-makers with a new method of forecasting resources and timelines for KM initiatives possibly resulting in increased KM initiative success and ultimately in improved opportunity to leverage organizational knowledge.
Finally, the flexibility of this lifecycle is highlighted as a benefit when it is used for planning KM initiatives, given future KM trends. Future research suggested includes: testing the proposed lifecycle by applying it to a KM initiative from the planning phase through the termination phase of its lifecycle; testing if the lifecycle can be modified to address generational differences, to determine if this lifecycle can be applied to non-KM projects; and testing if the lifecycle could further define the cognitive maturity of an organization.
3
Dedication
It is my honor to dedicate this dissertation to my parents, Gustavo and Adela Camarena and to my son, Sean Gregory Camarena Wallace.
Mom and Dad, you always encouraged me to strive for excellence; you are the reason I’ve accomplished so much. If I can attain half of the loving, selfless commitment you consistently demonstrate to your three children, I will be a true success. I am proud of you both, and I am proud to be your daughter.
Sean, my desire to follow in my parents’ footsteps and make you proud served as my inspiration to complete this paper and this degree. I am proud of you and I am proud to be your Mom.
4
Acknowledgements
Completing this paper and this degree was a journey and there are many people who supported me along the way. I want first and foremost to acknowledge my husband, Virgil L. Liedy, Jr., whom I met and married during this adventure. More than once, he provided the encouragement to finish the dissertation when I was ready to put it off “just for a little while.”
My child and step-children, Sean Wallace, Cierra Liedy and Virgil L. Liedy, III. The entire basis of my paper, the notion of a KM initiative developmental lifecycle, was the result of my interactions with them. I appreciate their patience and understanding and support.
My brothers, Rudy and Dan Camarena and my sister-in-law Cindy Camarena, all of whom supported me from afar.
My mother-in-law, Peggy Liedy, sister-in-law, Barbara O’Brien, and brother-in-law Bill O’Brien who always understood when I had to miss family gatherings to work on my paper.
Alice Shaffer, my roommate during the coursework portion of the Doctoral program, who made sure I had the time to study and served as my “conscience” by insisting that I attend to my homework when I occasionally tried to avoid it.
My expert panel reviewers, Dr. Jay Liebowitz and Dr. Robert Frey. Thank you for your input and advice. My paper was greatly improved after incorporating your suggestions.
UMUC faculty members Dr. Claudine SchWeber and Dr. Saad Laraqui who were both instrumental in helping to focus my research topic.
And, finally, I want to acknowledge Dr. Kay Edwards, who serves as a role model for all aspiring doctoral candidates. This paper is the result of her sound advice and sage guidance in directing my efforts over the past nine months.
5
Table of Contents
Section Title/Description
Page
Abstract
2
Dedication
3
Acknowledgements
4
Table of Contents
5
List of Figures and Tables
7
Chapter 1: Introduction
8
Statement of the Problem
8
Thesis
10
Research Question
12
Research Assumptions
14
Methodology
15
Summary
16
Organization of the Dissertation
17
Chapter 2: Literature Review
19
Introduction
19
Knowledge, the Competitive Edge
19
Knowledge Management: Managing Knowledge for Optimal Use
21
Foundations for KM Initiative Success:
Defining the Supporting Environment
25
-KM Maturity Model
25
-KM and the Business Strategy-Ensuring a Linkage
27
-KM and the Business Strategy- Defining the Drivers
29
-KM and the Business Strategy- Applying KM for Improvement
30
-KM and the Business Strategy- Determining Success
32
Lifecycles: A Means for Forecasting Growth
37
-Overview of Lifecycle Thinking
37
-The Human Development Lifecycle
37
-The Organizational Lifecycle
43
-The Project Lifecycle
44
-The Knowledge Lifecycle
45
-The KM Lifecycle
46
-A KM Initiative Lifecycle
47
-The Capability Maturity Model Integration Methodology
49
Summary of Findings
50
6
Section Title/Description
Page
Chapter 3: Analysis and Discussion
53
Research Question in Light of Findings
53
Conclusions
57
Summary
58
Chapter 4: Conclusion
59
Analysis and Implications of Future Trends
59
Implications for Management Practice
61
Areas for Further Research
62
Summary
64
References
66
Appendix- Expert Panel Review Biographies
74 7
Figures and Tables
List of Figures
Figure #
Description
Page
Figure 1
Transfer of tacit to explicit knowledge
22
Figure 2
Spiral of organizational knowledge creation
23
Figure 3
The fit between KM and business strategy
28
Figure 4
Drivers of KM
29
Figure 5
Linkages between causes and strategic effects
35
Figure 6
KM enabled value creation cycle
35
Figure 7
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
42
Figure 8
The knowledge lifecycle
46
Figure 9
What is CMMI?
47
Figure 10
Literature methodology to develop a KM initiative lifecycle
54
List of Tables
Table #
Description
Page
Table 1
Human lifespan stages
38
Table 2
Erickson’s eight stages of human development
40
Table 3
Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development
41
Table 4
Organizational lifecycle-Miller & Friesen, Drazin & Kazanjian
43
Table 5
Organizational lifecycle- Lester et al.
44
Table 6
International project lifecycle
45
Table 7
Summary of reviewed KM lifecycles
47
Table 8
KM initiative lifecycle
48
Table 9
Table of reviewed lifecycles
55
Table 10
Proposed KM initiative developmental lifecycle
56
Table 11
Example of KM initiative lifecycle if modified to address generational differences
64
8
Chapter One: Introduction
Statement of the Problem
The word “manage” is defined as “to handle or direct with a degree of skill, such as to exercise executive, administrative and supervisory direction” (Merriam-Webster, 2009). Khalil (2000, p. 6) defines the application of management as an art. Directing, he states, means to provide a direction and establish a path that allows an organization to achieve its mission. He further identifies the management functions to include planning, organizing, staffing, motivating and controlling activities of the organization (p. 6).
In 1985, well-known management theorist Peter Drucker defined the need for management to support innovation and to apply knowledge, ingenuity and focus to ensure innovation (p. 8). Drucker later (1988) expressed that organizations, in twenty years, would have half the levels of management and no more than one third of the managers. At that time, Drucker proposed that to remain competitive, and perhaps to survive, business will need to transform into organizations of “knowledge specialists” (1988, p. 11) and further refined the concept to include the “knowledge worker.”
The relationship between management functions and knowledge were further developed by Peter Senge who introduced the concept of a “learning organization” in which “learning in organizations means the continuous testing of experience into knowledge- accessible to the whole organization, and relevant to its core purpose” (Senge, Klenner, Roberts, Ross, & Smith, 1994, p. 49). Some reasons provided for the importance of this knowledge sharing and learning are to sustain competitive advantage, ensure an energized workforce, and to manage change (Senge, et al., p. 11). Senge notes that one single thing that a learning organization does well is 9
to help its people embrace change. Learning organizations have the ability to react quickly to change as well as to create desired change.
The introduction of organizational change and implementing effective, sustainable change, as well as developing a business-process based strategy for introducing new capabilities, is vital. For example, in today’s globalized and competitive society, organizations must effectively use every resource they possess. As noted above, one resource considered vital for an organization’s competitive advantage is knowledge; “simply put, knowledge and other intangibles are valuable commodities for organizations” (Liebowitz, 2008b, p. 3). Intangible, yet critical, the need to better capitalize on the knowledge and experience found within the employees of an organization is leading to more initiatives that are based on the tools, procedures and principles of Knowledge Management.
The practice of Knowledge Management (KM) includes “all activities that use knowledge to accomplish the organizational objectives in order to face the environmental challenges and stay competitive in the marketplace” (Greiner, Bohman & Krcmar, 2007, p. 4). The outcome of each knowledge management initiative is important; however, studies (Lucier & Torsiliera, 1997 as cited in Lam & Chua, 2005b) indicate that eighty-four percent of KM projects “exerted no significant impact on the adopting organizations” suggesting that a majority of KM initiatives may be failures rather than successes.
Perhaps, however, these “failed” initiatives were prematurely laid to rest. Investments in such initiatives might have been considered worthwhile had a method for determining the stage of maturity of that initiative and its potential for organizational growth or revival been provided. A framework that identifies developmental maturity stages of a KM initiative could illuminate 10
expected initiative plateaus and potential growth spurts; further, it could also identify appropriate nurturing and intervening measures. Decision-makers of an organization applying this development timeline could use such a framework as a forecasting tool. They could determine that, rather than failing, a KM initiative is at an appropriate phase of development. The organization could then provide relevant remediation as necessary.
This paper seeks to determine if it might be possible to develop a means to measure stages of a KM initiative by analyzing different lifecycle theories and consolidating different and complementary stages of these lifecycles into a new, blended lifecycle framework. Developing an initiative-focused framework may provide a desirable method for determining adequate growth and maturity, and may support resource decisions and strategy direction for the initiative.
Thesis
With the increased reliance on knowledge as a resource that provides a competitive edge, managing that knowledge is critical. While the capture and sharing of knowledge has a long history, KM provides a more systematic approach of providing the tools and procedures for better sharing and using organizational knowledge. Gaining recognition and acceptance, KM has withstood the test of time and continues to exist; it is firmly established as a determinant of competitive advantage (Jain, 2006, p. 211). Methods to formalize metrics and identify the maturity of an organization’s knowledge culture are now developed (Kulkarni & Louis, 2003; Desouza, 2006). The awareness of the organizational knowledge culture maturity should help to posture KM initiatives success, and yet KM initiatives still fail.
Perhaps, it is because these measurement methods are more strategic in nature. That is, they evaluate the organization as a whole. Based on literature review, there are few frameworks 11
geared towards the KM initiative when taken as one component of a fuller KM strategy. Frameworks that propose lifecycles in this regard are focused on either knowledge (Birkenshaw & Sheehan, 2002) or to KM in general (Wiig, 1997, Davenport and Prusak, 1999, Bhatt, 1997 as cited by Moteleb & Woodman, 2007).
In addition, the current KM-related lifecycles tend to follow frameworks that better relate to a project or to planning lifecycles rather than the developmental lifecycle of an evolving, even living, entity; stage description is defined in the context of the planning and implementation of the project aspects of the initiative. Thus, while expected activity or events in the organization as a result of the initiative’s introduction are identified, expected stages of growth or stagnation of the initiative itself are not. The emphasis remains on successful project or program management rather than on the developmental growth of the initiative itself. The focus of such lifecycles is to ensure timelines related to the project remain on track without regard to the potential future developmental growth of the initiative.
This thesis presented in this paper is that it is possible to develop a lifecycle which identifies expected developmental changes, environmental impacts and personality traits of KM initiatives at different stages. It further proposes that these lifecycle stages of a KM initiative could be used to manage and forecast KM initiative resources and timelines. The lifecycle, combining developmental growth and cognitive maturity of a KM initiative, is presumed to identify potential developmental changes, environmental impacts and even personality traits of initiatives at different stages. It is assumed that such a lifecycle framework, if developed, could address an existing gap and provide a practical approach to measuring the life stages of a KM initiative. 12
The purpose of this paper was to determine if, after reviewing a variety of lifecycles, it was possible to identify a developmental growth based KM Initiative lifecycle that could serve as a new framework to describe the lifecycle of KM initiatives. If such a lifecycle framework were developed, the field of management would benefit as decision-makers learn and understand a simple framework as a means of forecasting the future growth of a KM initiative. The framework could help determine the feasibility and consequences of providing continued resources to stalling initiatives, propose suggested measures to correct delayed growth and potentially apply resources on what might otherwise be considered a failed initiative.
This thesis is relevant to KM initiatives or projects that comprise a full KM program that are initiated in an organization that demonstrates the foundations for a KM success. These foundations, discussed further in chapter two, are assumed to be present, in some degree, before the KM initiative is initiated and before the KM Development Lifecycle is applied as a forecasting tool.
Research Question
A number of new KM initiatives will be launched as more organizations realize the competitive advantage that can be realized through better “management” of their knowledge. Assuming that the basic requirements for introducing change, such as ensuring cultural acceptance, management support and ensuring a direct relationship to the business needs, are included in the planning of such initiatives, why will such a large number of KM initiatives still fail? Was the initiative still moving through a “stage” in its lifecycle when the decision to conclude it was made? Is it possible that the determination that the initiative failed was reached too early? 13
Merriam-Webster (2009) defines the word “lifecycle” as “the series of stages in form and functional activity through which an organism passes between successive recurrences of a specified primary stage; a series of stages through which something (as an individual, culture or manufactured product) passes during its lifetime.” Different lifecycles, such as the human lifecycle, organizational lifecycles and project lifecycles have been studied to determine the expected lifecycle progress, or to explain the lack thereof, of the studied entity (Birkinshaw & Sheehan, 2002; Moteleb and Woodman, 2007; Frid, 2004; Khang & Moe, 2008; Lester, Parnell & Carraher, 2003; Drazin & Kazanjian, 1990; Slater, 2003; Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010)
It is assumed that the ability to forecast challenges is strengthened with a framework by which to judge growth, or the lack thereof, according to expected developmental maturity. Avoiding premature termination of a KM initiative by applying this framework could result in ultimate success of the initiative and a realized return on investment. Further, successes could be attributed to a KM initiative that matures appropriately even if it does not reach full maturity and must be terminated due to considerations that a maturity lifecycle cannot address.
From the above discussion, the research questions posed for this paper are:
(1) Can the stages and descriptions of different lifecycles be integrated to develop a new lifecycle?
(2) Can this new lifecycle describe the expected growth and maturation of a KM initiative?
(3) Can applying this lifecycle to a KM initiative be used to identify steps for reinvigorating stunted growth or the realization that the demonstrated growth is as should be expected? 14
Research Assumptions
This paper contains a number of assumptions. The first assumption is that a KM initiative is an evolving, maturing entity that passes through a number of stages that are similar to the stages defined in the lifecycles of other entities. Therefore, it assumes that it is possible for KM initiatives to be described in similar terms as used to identify the developmental lifecycle of an entity. Each stage would be described with existing terminology applied in other lifecycles. Likewise, expected challenges previously defined in these other lifecycles, with possible solutions, could also be identified for a KM initiative lifecycle framework.
Current research provides a number of requirem
Function of narrative in leadership: Theoretical foundations and empirical evidence
No full textThis research is focused on the differential impacts of narrative and facts and figures on the understanding of corporate strategy or competitive advantage. In this way a theoretical (philosophical) foundation can be laid for narrative and the understanding of corporate strategy. Additionally, much needed theoretically sound, empirical validation can be offered for the use of narrative and storytelling by leaders within organizations as a means of creating, disseminating, and executing strategy.
Employing a model derived from the tension between modern and post-modern thinking about the nature of ideas and concepts a conceptual framework is offered to try to explain the possible usefulness of narrative as a leadership tool. Data are presented to substantiate that narrative presentation of corporate strategy, competitive advantage, is more effective at producing a consistent and confident choice of competitive advantage among an audience than a presentation of corporate strategy using a PowerPoint style, bulleted list approach. Results are discussed in light of the conceptual model put forth.Leadership and Narrative 1
The Function of Narrative in Leadership: Theoretical Foundations and Empirical Evidence
A Dissertation Presented by
Michael Carriger
Graduate School of Management and Technology
Doctor of Management Program
University of Maryland University College
December 13, 2010
Leadership and Narrative 2
Abstract
This research is focused on the differential impacts of narrative and facts and figures on the understanding of corporate strategy or competitive advantage. In this way a theoretical (philosophical) foundation can be laid for narrative and the understanding of corporate strategy. Additionally, much needed theoretically sound, empirical validation can be offered for the use of narrative and storytelling by leaders within organizations as a means of creating, disseminating, and executing strategy.
Employing a model derived from the tension between modern and post-modern thinking about the nature of ideas and concepts a conceptual framework is offered to try to explain the possible usefulness of narrative as a leadership tool. Data are presented to substantiate that narrative presentation of corporate strategy, competitive advantage, is more effective at producing a consistent and confident choice of competitive advantage among an audience than a presentation of corporate strategy using a PowerPoint style, bulleted list approach. Results are discussed in light of the conceptual model put forth. Leadership and Narrative 3
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
Chapter 1 ...................................................................................................................................................... 6
The Purpose ............................................................................................................................................. 6
The Context .............................................................................................................................................. 8
The Research Question ........................................................................................................................... 10
The General Data-Gathering Method ..................................................................................................... 15
Definitions and Terminology ................................................................................................................... 17
Assumptions, Delimitations, and Limitations ......................................................................................... 19
The Significance ..................................................................................................................................... 20
Chapter 2 .................................................................................................................................................... 21
The Nature of Narratives ........................................................................................................................ 21
How to Craft Narratives .......................................................................................................................... 29
Narrative and Application to Leadership Challenges .............................................................................. 34
Managing Change ............................................................................................................................... 35
Promoting Corporate Culture ............................................................................................................. 40
Other Leadership Skills ........................................................................................................................ 42
Encouraging Innovation ...................................................................................................................... 43
Knowledge Management .................................................................................................................... 44
Developing Managers ......................................................................................................................... 46
Narrative and Corporate Strategy ....................................................................................................... 48
Chapter 3 .................................................................................................................................................... 51
Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................................................... 51 Leadership and Narrative 4
Chapter 4 .................................................................................................................................................... 60
Business School Study ............................................................................................................................. 60
Sample ................................................................................................................................................ 60
Design ..................................................................................................................................................... 60
Procedure ............................................................................................................................................... 62
Analysis .................................................................................................................................................. 64
Corporate Study ..................................................................................................................................... 68
Sample ................................................................................................................................................ 68
Design ..................................................................................................................................................... 68
Procedure ............................................................................................................................................... 70
Analysis .................................................................................................................................................. 72
Chapter 5 .................................................................................................................................................... 76
Business School Study ............................................................................................................................. 76
Demographics .................................................................................................................................... 76
Non-parametrics .................................................................................................................................... 76
Parametrics ............................................................................................................................................ 78
Corporate Study ..................................................................................................................................... 79
Demographics .................................................................................................................................... 79
Non-parametrics .................................................................................................................................... 79
Parametrics ............................................................................................................................................ 81
Summary of Findings.............................................................................................................................. 82
Chapter 6 .................................................................................................................................................... 84
Limitations of the Study .......................................................................................................................... 90
Future Research ..................................................................................................................................... 92
References ................................................................................................................................................. 95 Leadership and Narrative 5
Figures ...................................................................................................................................................... 108
Tables ....................................................................................................................................................... 109
Appendices ............................................................................................................................................... 115
Leadership and Narrative 6
Chapter 1
The Purpose
The entire coterie of directors for a medium-sized, defense contractor sits around a conference table in April of 2007, being lead by a management consult through a corporate strategy exercise. The organization had experienced rapid growth over the past five years and shifting strategic priorities, much of which had been unplanned. The consultant asks the directors to explain their corporate strategy. The directors cannot comply. They cannot identify a consistent, comprehensive strategy. This is rather surprising given that three months earlier these same directors sat at the all-hands meeting at which the CEO of the organization delivered a PowerPoint presentation, replete with bullet points, graphs and charts, and a colorful pyramid graphic outlining the corporate strategy. Yet three months out various directors from different functional areas within the organization see the corporate strategy very differently. Some see the corporation as focusing on innovation and technology („Differentiation,‟ Porter, 1980), some see the corporation as focusing on markets and customers („Focus,‟ Porter, 1980), and yet some, though a minority, see the corporation as focusing on low cost leadership („Cost Leader,‟ Porter, 1980). When pressed by the consultant it is clear that each director in his or her own right sees the corporation as some combination of these three, but the combinations differ and vary. The conclusion these directors come to is that the corporation is a differentiated, market focused, low cost leader! This is exactly what Porter (1980) argues is the kiss of death of any company.
What is going on here? Why couldn‟t these directors identify a consistent, comprehensive corporate strategy? Was the CEO‟s PowerPoint presentation less than clear? Were the bullet points, graphs and charts not emphasized enough? Was the colorful, pyramid Leadership and Narrative 7
graphic not compelling enough? Is there a disconnection between the stated strategy in the PowerPoint presentation and the lived strategy in the day-to-day activities of the corporation? Or is there something else wrong; something else that may in fact be wrong with the creation, dissemination and execution of strategy across many corporations? Could it be that PowerPoint presentations of bullet points, charts and graphs, and colorful graphics are just not the most effective way to create, disseminate and execute strategy? Could it be that something else is needed? Perhaps that something else needed is a narrative or story outlining corporate strategy?
A re-emerging literature in the general field of management and leadership in business concerning the use of narratives or stories by leaders as a leadership tool might just substantiate that, in fact, a narrative or story is exactly what is needed in this case. One of the primary recent scholars contributing to this literature is Steven Denning (2008a, 2008b, 2006a, 2006b, 2005a, 2005b, 2004a, 2004b, 2001) at the James MacGregor Burns Academy of Leadership at the University of Maryland. Denning argues that narrative can be a formidable tool in the hands of a skillful business leader and suggests that the use of narratives across the vast expanse of human history militates against the notion that narratives are just a management or leadership fad that will eventually go out of fashion as so many management and leadership fads have (see also Fisher, 1984; Collison & McKenzie, 1999; Durrance, 1997; Guber, 2007; Harris & Barnes 2005; 2006; Kirsch, 2004; Neuhauser, 1993; Reamy 2002a; 2002b; Beslin, 2007). Denning (2004b) concludes that “the choice for managers in organizations is not so much whether to be involved in storytelling – they can hardly do otherwise – but rather whether to use storytelling (a) unwittingly and clumsily or (b) intelligently and skillfully (p. 16).”
However, this re-emerging work seems to be disconnected from previous work on narrative, stories, and conversation in organizations. Much of this earlier work, conducted in the Leadership and Narrative 8
early to mid 1990s (i.e., Boje, 1991a, 1995, 1999; and Gold 1996, 1997) came out of the organizational development and communications literature in Europe, primarily the UK, and this might account for the disconnection.
Further, and perhaps more fundamentally, leveraging three distinct literatures in philosophy and social sciences, social constructivist theory (Searle 1995), symbolic interactionism (Blumer, 1998) and critical social theory (Calhoun, 1995), may actually connect this re-emerging literature to a strong philosophical foundation. “Considered individually, each of these perspectives includes a point of view, a genealogy of sorts, regarding idea development, and examples of story research. Taken altogether, social constructivism, interpretative organizational symbolism, and critical theory provide a focused interdisciplinary lens for the review of studies in organizational story and storytelling.” (Boyce, 1996, p. 5)
But upon closer inspection both symbolic interactionism and critical theory resolve at base to social constructivism. Therefore, Searle‟s (1995) notion of the social construction of reality might prove to be the starting point for understanding the use of narratives by leaders in general and with regards to strategy creation, dissemination, and execution more specifically.
The Context
Interestingly, as this literature re-emerges, it appears to consist mostly of anecdotal pieces concerning the effectiveness of narratives as a means of communication and advice pieces informing leaders how to use narratives effectively. There is little empirical work in the management literature looking at the use of narratives by leaders. There also seems to be a lack of theoretical insight showing why narratives might be effective in general as leadership tools (Reamy, 2002a; 2002b). The lack of empirical evidence showing the effectiveness of narratives Leadership and Narrative 9
with regards to specific leadership challenges, combined with much opinion that narratives are nonetheless effective leadership tools, might be a particular problem.
This entire literature can be broadly divided into three parts. A substantial segment of the earlier literature (early to mid 1990s) is aimed at describing the nature of narratives with particular theoretical application to business settings. For example, Boje (1995) suggests that stories and storytelling within organizations can be understood from a pre-modern, modern, and post-modern perspective and that a deconstructive analysis can be used to investigate the various meanings that stories have within an organization and the meanings that are masked by official corporate stories. This segment of the narrative literature is primarily conceptual and focuses on reviewing tangential literature from philosophy, psychology, sociology, communication, anthropology and attempting to develop a solid theoretical foundation for the use of narrative.
The second segment of the literature, more recently presented (early 2000s to present), is aimed at teaching leaders how to craft narratives. For example, Denning (2006a) describes very specific kinds of narratives that he sees as particularly suited to leadership environments: the so-call „springboard story‟ and „identity story.‟ A „springboard story‟ is a concise, positive, action-oriented narrative aimed at communicating complex ideas and inspiring action in listeners. An „identity story‟ is a narrative aimed at conveying a leader‟s identity to followers, and is authentic, revealing, and laced with humor. This segment of the narrative literature is primarily theoretical and lays out various types of narratives and various leadership challenges these narratives might address.
Finally, a small segment of the literature, stretching across both earlier (early to mid 1990s) and later (early 2000s to present) instantiations, looks at the relationship between narrative and application to leadership challenges, such as creating a learning organization, Leadership and Narrative 10
knowledge management, setting corporate vision, and, particularly relevant here, creating, disseminating, and executing corporate strategy. For example, Marzec (2007) identifies the so-called “corporate story” as a narrative that explains a corporation and drives corporate strategy to action. However, again, this literature focuses more on theoretical pronouncements about types of narratives and how they might effectively address various leadership challenges, with little but anecdotal empirical support.
The Research Question
Although a somewhat reasonable theoretical foundation has been laid to suggest the benefits to leaders of using narratives, much empirical work must be done to show that, in fact, leaders‟ use of narrative is a valuable tool in addressing the various leadership challenges, such as executing strategy, strategic planning, developing new leaders, as opposed to using other analytic tools, such as management by objectives or balanced scorecards, for example. Further, above and beyond the general principle of whether narrative is empirically determined to be a valuable tool in a leader‟s toolbox, an empirical case must be made for the application of this tool to specific leadership challenges, such as, creating, disseminating, and executing strategy.
Much has been written about the importance of strategy (Mintzberg, 1994) in forging competitive advantage. For example, Michael Porter (1996) suggests that strategy plays a critical role in an organization and strategy is the responsibility of the leadership of the organization. Porter (1980 and 1985) defines strategy as the process of defining the organization‟s position in the market, making tradeoffs concerning what not to do and consequently what to do in order to promote competitive advantage, and forging a fit among all the different activities necessary to carry out all of an organization‟s goals to fruition. Porter (1980) identifies three strategic approaches to competitive advantage. Some companies forge a Leadership and Narrative 11
competitive advantage by differentiating themselves, their products and technologies, for example, from competitors. Other companies forge competitive advantage by pushing cost down and becoming a low cost leader. Finally, still other companies forge a competitive advantage by being close to their markets and customers. Porter (1980) argues that every company must identify which one, or perhaps two, but not all three, of these competitive advantage types characterizes that company. Porter (1996) goes on to suggest that in the process of making this distinction about competitive advantage a leader must identify established industry rivals, customers, suppliers, potential entrants, and substitute products. These complex notions are not easily conveyed by leaders to followers, though their conveyance is crucial for the success of a business enterprise.
On the other hand, not much has been written about the execution of strategy to sustain competitive advantage. For example, Neilson, Martin, and Powers (2008) argue that strategy execution is “the result of thousands of decisions made every day by employees acting according to the information they have and their own self-interest.” (p. 62) They go on to argue that, although the traditional means of executing strategy is to restructure the organization; fundamentally, corporations must clarify decision rules, promote in