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Established theory and violent female offenders
No full textAbstract: According to Uniform Crime Report (UCR) arrest data, women’s violent offending has increased while men’s has decreased. The increase is slight for all violent offenses (less than 1%) and men continue to be arrested for over 80% of violent crime. However, the increase for women is significant not only because men’s arrests decreased by nearly 12%, but because it confirms a trend in an important measure of women’s serious involvement with the criminal justice system. In addition, we have not known if this increase is associated with arrests for offending not typically perpetrated by women, something that this study was designed to address. To better understand women who resort to violence, this research examined: trends and patterns in arrests of serious violent female offenders nationally and in Maryland from 2000 to 2010; the criminal histories of women incarcerated for violent offending in Maryland; and the extent to which violent female offending varied from offenses typically associated with women. Examples: Are these “typical” offenses in which victims are intimate partners or family members? To what extent do established theories on serious violent female offending explain violence by women over the last decade?Established Theory and Violent Female Offenders Michele Davis “Criminology knows next to nothing about women, since it has concentrated all along on the doings of men”. Ann Jones, 2009 Focus of Theories Explaining Violent Women
•Feminist Theory = men’s violence against women, women’s defense against their violent victimization, institutional bias against female offenders.
•Frustration-Aggression Theory = violence as a lashing out in response to stress, pain, failure or suffering. •Instrumental Aggression Theory = violence as instrumental aggression, a means to achieve dominance (implied masculinity), or as expressive aggression meant to satisfy bad feelings or frustration (implied femininity).
•Rational Choice Theory = violence resulting from incentives for aggression proceeded by a process toward aggression.
•Learned Helplessness Theory = the motivation and behavior of battered women.
•Shame and Rage Theory = non-violence vs. violence resulting from solidarity vs. alienation as opposite poles on a spectrum of cognitive and emotional attunement. •Violentization Theory – violence as an incremental process by which she has developed a violent self image. For a violent self-image to develop the process, generally begun in childhood, must be completed.
1. brutalization by an authority figure
2. violent coaching
She is not just a “receptor” but an “agent” taking part in the process toward a fully developed violent self-image. What do we really know (empirically) about women who resort to violence?
How much can we learn from authoritative sources? Trends in Arrests for Violent Offenses in the U.S. 2001 to 2010
Arrests for violent crime from 2000 to 2010 decreased by 9.6%. (murder, rape, robbery, assault).
•However, according to FBI arrest data, women’s violent offending in the United States from 2001 to 2010 increased while men’s decreased.
•The increase is slight for all violent offenses (less than 1%) and men continue to be arrested for over 80% of violent crime.
The overall 9.6% decrease is attributable to fewer arrests of adult (-10%) and juvenile males (-21.6%) and females under 18 (-20.7%). In contrast, arrests of adult women have increased by .045%. Arrests for Violent Offenses in the U.S. for Last Decade - 2001 and 2010 UCR arrest data 2001-2010
Year
Total Males
% change
Males under 18
% change
Total Females
% change
Females under 18
% change
2001
328,259
49,544
69,652
11,014
2010
289,501
-11.8
38,721
-21.6
70,019
+.07
8,729
-20.7 Violent Arrests - Adult Females vs. Juvenile Females
Over 18 (+.045)
Under 18 (-20.7)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
2000
2010
Over 18 (+.045)
Under 18 (-20.7)
100,000 Maryland does not share the U.S. trend toward increased arrests of adult women.
From 2001 to 2009, the most recent trend data available at the state level, arrests for adult men and women decreased. Women’s arrests decreased (-14%) even more than men’s arrests (-7%). Arrests for Violent Offenses in the MD. for Last Decade - 2000 and 2009
Year
Total Male
% change
Male under 18
% change
Total Female
% change
Female under 18
% change
2000
11,084
2,714
2,324
587
2009
10,346
-7
2,703
-.04
2,039
-14
505
-8 Future increase in Arrests of Women for Violent Crime in Maryland
With Maryland’s small baseline numbers, four high profile cases occurring in the state could result in an increase in the 2011 UCR data:
LULU Lemon
Frostberg
Bowie State
Howard Why Should a Slight Increase in Adult Women’s Violent Arrests Nationally be a Concern?
•It opposes a trend begun in the 90’s of decreased violent arrests and runs counter to findings for the most prolific violent offenders – men - whose arrests decreased by nearly 12%.
• An approximate 21% decrease for juvenile females counters earlier projections that violent juvenile female offending would increase.
•It confirms a trend in an important measure of women’s serious involvement with the criminal justice system. Research Focus on Gender
Attention given to male offenders has been justified on the basis of the disproportionate number of men arrested for violent offenses.
This has diverted attention from a better understanding of violent female offending. Arrests for Violent Offenses in the U.S. 2001 and 2010 UCR arrest data 2001-2010
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
2001
2010
100,000
Total Females
Females under 18
Males under 18
Total MalesDoes an Increase in Violent Arrests indicate that women are increasingly violent?
Researchers attribute the increase in arrests not to a real increase in offending but to heightened police interest in arresting possible female offenders.
(Steffensmeir et. Al, 2005; Irwin and Chesney-Lind, 2008; Yin, 2008). Homicide Data Provides Specifics on Offenders as Well as Victims
The FBI’s Supplementary Homicide Reports (SHR) contain information on
•victim and offender demographic characteristics
•murder weapon
•circumstance (limited) Trends in Offenders’ Demographic Characteristics
U.S.
•One in three women who murder are between the ages of 18 and 25 in the U.S..
•A majority of women arrested for murder were white (52% to 57%).
•Less than one percent were Hispanic (.05% to .08%) and fewer than 1% were Asian or native American.
Maryland
•The 18-25 age cohort ranged from one in three to one in two women arrested for murder.
•A majority were Black, from 52% to 88%. However arrests of Black women for murder dropped to 44% in 2009.
•Maryland does not report ethnicity. As with all violent crime, the number of murders for which women were identified as perpetrators are small. In Maryland, fewer than 34 women were arrested for murder each year from 2000-2009.
A low of one-third (2005) to a high of two-thirds (2003) of these arrests occurred in Baltimore City/Baltimore County. Traditional Stereotypes
Literature on violent offending by adult women has led to the popular stereotype that if women kill, they kill “significant others” in their lives:
•Their children
•Their partners ( spouses/lovers)
•Other family members An Unexpected Finding
In contrast to previous analysis emphasizing women’s victimization of family members and partners, women are as likely to be arrested for murdering victims who are not family members or partners. U.S. Victims 2000-2009 Not Family/ Not Partner vs. Family/ Partner
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
family member/partner
not family member/not
partnerThe finding that victims murdered by women are as likely not to be family members or partners holds to a greater degree in Maryland. Maryland Victims Not Family/Not Partner vs. Family/Partner
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
family/partner
not family/not partnerConvention Used to Designate Murder Victim’s Relationship to Offender
Family Member/Partner
Mother Husband In-Law
Father Wife Step-Mother
Brother Ex-Husband Step-Father
Sister Ex-Wife Step-Daughter/Son
Son Common Law: Girl Friend
Daughter Husband/Wife Boy Friend
Non Family Member/Partner
Stranger
Acquaintance
Employee
Employer
Neighbor
Other Known Victim
•“Friend” not included.
•“Homosexual relationship” not included. Despite Attention Paid to High Profile Cases…
Victims Murdered by Women in the U.S. are more Likely to be adults than children.
Approximately 4 times more victims of women are over 18 years of age than under 18. U.S. Homicide Victims adults and children 2000-2009 FBI Supplementary Homicide Data 2000-2009
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
under 18
over 18Infants and Toddlers are Children Most at Risk
Nearly twice as many children under the age of four (1080) than over four (609) were murdered by women in the U.S. from 2000-2009.
The difference is even greater in Maryland with over twice as many children under four (32) murdered than those over four (15) from 2000-2009.
Children Murdered by Women In the U.S. 2000-2009
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
14 to 17
11 to 13
7 to 10
4 to 6
infant to 3
In raw numbers Children Murdered by Women in Maryland 2000-2009
0
2
4
6
8
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
14 to 17
11 to 13
7 to 10
4 to 6
infant to 3
In raw numbers In the U.S. Victims are More Likely to be 66 and over than Previously Noted in Research
In the U.S. as a whole, arrests of women for murdering victims age 66 and over are greater than arrests for murdering victims in any single age cohort of children.
However, this national finding does not apply to Maryland, where fewer women were arrested for murdering elderly individuals than murdering children of any age. Ages at Risk of Homicide in U.S. FBI-SHR data 2000-2009
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
18-25
under 7
66 & overAlthough not specifically addressed in past research, the finding that hand-guns are the weapons most often used in murders by alleged female perpetrators suggests that the availability of guns in the U.S. is linked to murder regardless of the offender’s sex. So what do the data tell us about Violent Women?
•In the U.S. but not Maryland, police are increasing their arrests of adult but not juvenile females for violent offending.
•In the U.S. and Maryland, women are as likely to murder victims that are not family members or significant others.
This could be an artifact of a dated convention categorizing women’s victims as those “closest to them” in terms of physical distance or emotion and/or fear of random violence by strangers. Age Cohorts Found to be at Comparatively High Risk of Murder by Women:
In addition to young adults, 18 to 25, and children under 7 identified at high risk in past research…
•Infants and toddlers (children at most risk)
•Adults over 65. What the data does not explain
Data from authoritative sources tells us who and how women murder but not why they murder.
Research focusing on process using the narratives of violent women themselves are a potential, as yet untapped, source for explanations as to why women resort to violence. Theories Focusing on the Process or Pattern of Development Leading to Violent Behavior
•Rational Choice
•Shame and Rage
•Violentization Criminal Histories of Maryland Women Prison Inmates
Maryland Department of Public Safety and Corrections data for 375 women currently serving sentences for violent crimes.
66% Black, 33% white, 3% Asian or Native American.
Maryland does not include ethnicity in criminal histories.
Demographics Current Sentence
A majority were currently serving sentences for either assault (35%) or murder (36%).
Maryland’s female prisoners have multiple arrests for both non-violent and violent crimes in their histories. Type of Violent Offense Arrests
Fewer women had arrests for robbery (42%) than for assault (80%) and murder, attempted murder, or conspiracy to murder (51%) in their criminal histories. Violent Offenses in Women’s Histories
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Assault
Murder
Robbery
Rape
Percentage of violent offense types based on 100%. Age and Violent Arrests
Although the majority of women serving sentences in Maryland prisons are under 50 years of age, they have multiple violent arrests in their records. Nearly one-half, (46%) are between the ages of 22 and 35. Despite their relative youth, over one third (36%) have been arrested 5 to 10 times for violent offending. Age of Maryland’s Violent Female Prison Inmates
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
22-25
26-30
31-35
36-40
41-45
46-50
51-55
56-60
61-65
66+
In
Raw
Number
Effectively managing copyright clearance: Electronic reserves in a large distance education university
No full textThis presentation describes the automated copyright clearance process for electronic reserves materials by the electronic reserves staff at the Information and Library Services (ILS), at the University of Maryland University College (UMUC). Besides the standard practice to handle and post required course readings in digital format for UMUC’s distance education online classes, a large portion of the electronic reserves process is devoted to obtaining copyright permissions. This is to ensure that UMUC is in compliance with all laws that control the use of copyrighted materials. The ILS’s small team of electronic reserves staff takes the lead in managing a high volume of copyright requests each semester for the three UMUC geographic divisions: United States, Europe and Asia. The experiences and practices of the in-house copyright request management system for the electronic reserves services will be featured, including related data and statistics.Effectively Managing Copyright Clearance:
Electronic Reserves
in a Large Distance Education University
Yu-Hsiu Wang
&
Megan Baker
Electronic Reserves Team
Information and Library Services
University of Maryland University College
April 2012
W&B1 UMUC Geographic Divisions: Stateside (USA), Europe, and Asia
W&B2
Background History
Founded in1947
For U.S. military service members stationed overseas in Europe and Asia after WWII
Non-traditional students around the globe in twenty five countries
First U.S. college to provide on-site classes to U.S. military personnel in the Middle East and Central Asia, including the war zones of Iraq and Afghanistan
W&B3
UMUC’s Information & Library Services
Distance education library
24/7 library Online services
Over 125 mostly full-text subscribed online library databases
- 103,944 journals/41,000 E-book
Required course on information literacy and research methods
User satisfaction survey annually
In-depth user survey every five years
W&B4 Electronic Reserves Services
Ereserves Reserves program: Fall 1999
Outreach planning
- New faculty orientation
- ILS’ liaison librarians
- Library’s media
- Online workshops
Electronic Reserves Website
- Policy and guidelines
- Frequently asked questions
- Reserved Readings Requests system
- Multimedia tutorials
W&B5 Electronic Reserves Multimedia Tutorials
W&B6
Electronic Reserves Wiki
W&B7 What is Electronic Reserves Services?
“A collection of digital course materials made available over one or more computer networks” (Kristof, 1999)
W&B8
Electronic Reserves vs. Print Reserves
W&B9
Electronic Reserves Services
Locate, obtain, and post materials in online classrooms; scanning and digitizing when necessary
Determine what needs copyright clearance and obtain copyright permissions
Provide instructions or direct links to access full text materials via library databases when available
W&B10 Formats of Electronic Reserves
Direct linking to full text articles via free websites or subscribed library databases
Scanned journal articles/book chapters
Multimedia audio or video clips
PowerPoint slides
Instructors’ lectures, exercises, and problem sets
W&B11 Online Course Management System
W&B12
Electronic Reserves Requests per Year
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Undergraduate Graduate
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Undergraduate Graduate
W&B13
Library Databases
W&B14 PDF (Portable Document Format) File
Journal Articles Book Chapters
W&B 15 Audio File
W&B 16 Audio File
W&B 17 Media Visual File
W&B 18 Media Visual File
W&B 19 Online Request System
W&B 20 Online Request System
W&B 21 Request Management System
W&B 22 Copyright Request Management
W&B 23 Fair Use U.S. Section 107 of the Copyright Law
Four factors to be considered in determining fair use:
The purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes
The nature of the copyrighted work
The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole
The effect of the use upon the potential market for, or value of, the copyrighted work
Source: U.S. Copyright Office at http://www.copyright.gov/fls/fl102.html
W&B 24 CCC New
68% of permissions obtained via CCC
Connects to CCC’s webpage
Requests proceed to
-CCC Pending
-CCC Invoice Pending
End status
- Invoiced Paid
- Canceled
- Denied
W&B 25 CCC New
W&B 26 CCC New
W&B 27 CCC New
W&B 28 CCC Invoice Pending
W&B 29 Owner New
32% of permissions obtained via contacting publishers or rightsholders directly
Generates template requests
Requests proceed to
-Owner Pending
-Owner Invoice Pending
End status
- Invoiced Paid
- Canceled
- Denied
W&B 30 Owner New
W&B 31 Owner New
W&B 32 Owner Pending
W&B 33 Unresolved
42 days/6 weeks timer
Due diligence
- Re-evaluate the requests
- More follow-up with requests
- Check for additional rightsholder or resend the original request
W&B 34 Permission Status for Spring 2011
W&B 35 Challenges
Development through the years
˗Started with Access 97; migrated to Access database 2000, 2003, and then 2010 in March 2012
˗Continue to implement useful features
˗Continue to set up data for testing. Update and discuss testing results with Web Specialist
˗Temporary glitches occurred
New system in the future
W&B 36 Best Practices to Obtain Copyright Permission
Understand the Rightholder’s Perspective
̵Timeliness
̵Transparency
̵Flexibility
̵Consistency
̵Practical
W&B 37 Reference & Studies
American Library Association (2011). Fair use and electronic reserves. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/ala/issuesadvocacy/copyright/fairuse/fairuseandelectronicreserves/index.cfm
Association of Research Libraries. (2012, January). Code of best practices in fair use for academic and research libraries. Retrieved from http://www.arl.org/bm~doc/code-of-best-practices-fair-use.pdf
Hirtle, P. B. (January, 2011). Copyright term and the public domain in the United States. Retrieved from http://www.copyright.cornell.edu/resources/publicdomain.cfm.
W&B 38 Reference & Studies
Brewer, M., & ALA Office for Information Technology Policy. (2007). Digital copyright slider. Retrieved from http://www.librarycopyright.net/digitalslider/
(2009). Interactive guide to using copyrighted media in your courses. Retrieved from http://www.baruch.cuny.edu/tutorials/copyright/
Pallante, M.A. (2011, October 25). Priorities and special projects of the United States Copyright Office. Retrieved from http://www.copyright.gov/docs/priorities.pdf
University of Maryland University College. (2002). ©Primer. Retrieved from http://www-apps.umuc.edu/primer/enter.php
W&B 39 Questions?
Electronic Reserves Team
[email protected]
Thank you!
W&B 4
Measuring interest in politics through proxy measures: a study of the impact of economic development in China
No full textThis presentation analyses economic development in China and how does economic development impact interest in politics across social class in modern authoritarian states. This study ends by demonstrating the complexity of understanding the interest in politics across social classes in China.Dr. David A. Owen
Measuring Interest in Politics through Proxy Measures: A Study of the Impact of Economic Development in China Inspiration
The work of others
The limitations: class & geography
Geographic Scope
Population Density
Class(es) Investigated
Method
Study
24 Regions*
Urban and Rural
Middle and Working
Ordered Logistical Regression
Owen (2013)
Beijing
Primarily Urban
Middle Class
OLS
Chen and Zhong (1999)
Beijing
Primarily Urban
Middle Class
OLS
Shi (2000)
Beijing
Urban
Middle Class
Descriptive Statistics
Zhong, Chen and Scheb (1998)
Beijing
Urban
Middle Class
Discriminant Analysis
Zhu, Zhao and Li (1990)
Jiangsu
Rural
Working Class
Descriptive Statistics
Zhong (2004)
Jiangsu
Rural
Working Class
OLS
Zhong and Kim (2005)
* Anhui, Beijing, Chongqing, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Liaoning, Ningxia, Shandong, Shanghai, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Xinjiang, Yunnan, and Zhejiang Background Information
Modernization Theory
Economic Development Democracy Lipset (1959); Moore (1966)
Economic Development (New/Stronger) Middle Class Interest in Politics Demands Regime Concessions Democracy
Middle Class Role Rueschemeyer, Stephens and Stephens (1992)
Working Class hypothesis
Move to urban areas, better working conditions, pay and quality of life
Working Class Interest in Politics
Working Class Role Research Question
How does economic development impact interest in politics across social class in modern authoritarian states? Hypotheses
H1: People are more likely to be interested in politics if they are from the middle class.
H2: People are more likely to be interested in politics if they are from the working class.
H3: Interest in politics is not differentiated across social class. Data
2006 Asia Barometer
DV of Interest in Politics
Those who use media to find information on politics are interested in politics (Tang 2011)
Occupation a measure for social class (Andersen and Fetner 2008; Hout, Manza, and Brooks 1999) Model
In order to determine which variables influence the interest in politics of Chinese, I estimate the following ordered logit model:
Interest in politics = β0 + β1(manager*) + β2(professional) + β3(manual working class) + β4(education) + β5(income) + β6(age) + β7(female) + β8(urban) + β9(social capital) + β10(efficacy) + β11(life satisfaction) + β12(tradition) + β13(income inequality) + β14(civil society) + β15(trust in government) + β16(democratic support) + ε Interest in Politics Captured through Media
Internet
Odds Ratio
Newspaper
Odds Ratio
Radio
Odds Ratio
TV
Odds Ratio
(S.E.)
(S.E.)
(S.E.)
(S.E.)
Social Classa
Professional
-0.242
0.785
-0.085
0.919
0.187
1.205
0.215
1.240
(0.288)
(0.282)
(0.243)
(0.404)
Working Class
-0.049
0.953
0.171
1.186
0.196
1.217
0.043
1.044
(0.242)
(0.221)
(0.195)
(0.318)
Socioeconomic
Education
0.745***
2.107
0.085
1.089
-0.105*
0.901
-0.045
0.956
(0.082)
(0.075)
(0.063)
(0.106)
Income
0.071***
1.074
-0.022
0.979
-0.079***
0.924
-0.027
0.973
(0.027)
(0.026)
(0.024)
(0.036)
Demographic
Age
-0.070***
0.932
-0.012*
0.988
0.006
1.006
0.022**
1.022
(0.009)
(0.007)
(0.006)
(0.010)
Urban
0.093*
1.098
0.174***
1.190
-0.023
0.977
-0.014
0.986
(0.057)
(0.058)
(0.046)
(0.080)
Efficacy
-0.069
0.933
-0.188***
0.828
0.151**
1.163
-0.238**
0.788
(0.078)
(0.071)
(0.061)
(0.100)
Income Inequality
0.130*
1.138
0.172**
1.187
0.112*
1.118
0.275***
1.316
(0.078)
(0.073)
(0.062)
(0.102)
Civil Society
0.014
1.015
0.127
1.135
0.091
1.095
0.448*
1.564
(0.164)
(0.146)
(0.123)
(0.231)
Trust in Government
-0.136
0.873
0.026
1.026
-0.198***
0.820
-0.128
0.880
(0.094)
(0.086)
(0.073)
(0.130)
Log Likelihood
-552.168
-653.634
-842.760
-369.588
N
1260
1260
1260
1260
Data Source: 2006 Asia Barometer.
a The reference category for the class measure is managers.
* - .10 statistical significance level; ** - .05 statistical significance level; *** - .01 statistical significance level. Findings
The differences in interest in politics across social class in China not remarkable
H3 supported
This study demonstrates the complexity of understanding the interest in politics across social classes in China Thank you!
Suggestions/Comments Welcome
Contact Information:
[email protected]
DocumentExpress model: Proposals for improving interlibrary loan and document delivery services
No full textThe DocumentExpress Team, which is the ILL and document delivery unit of the library, has dramatically improved customer service orientation and service with the implementation of four change initiatives. These four, Patrons, People, Process, and IT, designated as the acronym PPPI, have decreased borrowing turnaround time significantly and oriented ILL services toward user needs.Journal of Access Services, 9:187–199, 2012
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1536-7967 print / 1536-7975 online
DOI: 10.1080/15367967.2012.713226
The DocumentExpress Model: Proposals for
Improving Interlibrary Loan and Document
Delivery Services
MARK DE JONG and RYAN SHEPARD
University of Maryland University College, Largo, MD
The DocumentExpress Team, which is the ILL and document deliv-ery
unit of the library, has dramatically improved customer service
orientation and service with the implementation of four change
initiatives. These four, Patrons, People, Process, and IT, designated
as the acronym PPPI, have decreased borrowing turnaround time
significantly and oriented ILL services toward user needs.
KEYWORDS Interlibrary loan, document delivery, resource shar-ing,
ILLiad, management
INTRODUCTION
This article describes the best practices implemented to improve the effi-ciency
of Information and Library Service’s (ILS) DocumentExpress service,
which is the current interlibrary loan and document delivery mechanism for
the University of Maryland University College (UMUC). Over seven years,
the DocumentExpress Team (DE Team) was able to reduce its average
turnaround time for borrowing requests 69% to just 2.2 days. The most re-cently
available mean turnaround time for ARL member libraries is at 6.4 days
(Jackson, 2004, p. 95). Thus, this reduction is exceptionally noteworthy. Cen-tral
to DocumentExpress’s turnaround reduction were four categories of man-agement
and operational change initiatives. These initiatives, dubbed PPPI,
were and remain the following: (a) creating a Patrons first perspective, (b)
professionally cultivating the People working to provide DocumentExpress
service, (c) continually streamlining the workflow Process, and (d) IT maxi-mization
within the workflow. This article elaborates on the PPPI initiatives
and describes the core values that guided them.
Address correspondence to Mark de Jong, University of Maryland University College,
1616 McCormick Drive, Room 1500, Largo, MD 20774. E-mail: [email protected]
187
188 M. de Jong and R. Shepard
BACKGROUND
UMUC is a four-year public university serving over 90,000 students world-wide.
The largest institution in the University System of Maryland, UMUC has
campuses in the United States, Germany, and Japan, holds on-site classes
in 23 countries, and offers over 750 distinct online and hybrid courses to a
global community of undergraduate and graduate students up to the doctoral
level. In 2010, 77% of these students were taking at least one class online,
with 169,047 total distance education enrollments. A total of 4,648 employ-ees,
including 2,946 full- and part-time faculty, serve these students (Jackson,
2004). UMUC’s 30-member ILS department, based in Largo, MD, is respon-sible
for providing reference, electronic reserves, circulation, document de-livery,
and interlibrary loan services to the entire university community.
ILS inaugurated the DocumentExpress service in July 2005 after the Uni-versity
System of Maryland and Affiliated Institutions Consortium of Libraries
(USMAI) licensed Atlas Systems, Inc.’s ILLiad product for interlibrary loan
management. This was a watershed event. Prior to licensing, the ILL staff
used an in-house developed Access database similar to Perkins Associates’
Clio product (now ClioBasic) to manage ILL. This tool required a great deal of
manual data entry—a labor-intensive process, considering most patrons sub-mitted
requests by e-mail, phone, or in person. Lenders’ photocopies arrived
primarily via e-mail. Moreover, staffing was minimal. A library associate man-aged
ILL services part-time with the assistance of just one full-time, dedicated
technician. Two part-time student employees assisted the technician when
other demands did not draw them away from ILL duties. In the semester prior
to DocumentExpress’s formulation, the average borrowing turnaround time
(measured from time request submitted to time the patron was notified) was
7.1 days. However, ILS staff quickly recognized ILLiad’s ability to stream-line
workflow, accelerate processing, and potentially improve turnaround
time. ILS consequently hired a full-time librarian in February 2005 to make
the most of ILLiad, oversee its implementation, and restructure ILL services.
Because many of UMUC’s distance education students rely solely on docu-ment
delivery and interlibrary loan services for access to research materials
not available full-text via University database subscriptions, improving user-friendliness
and speed of delivery became immediate goals of the newly
hired librarian, entitled the Document Management Librarian (DML).
PATRONS FIRST: SHIFTING PRIORITIES
The paramount change initiative for the newly created DocumentExpress
service evolved from the first two of eight core values (see the appendix)
established by the DML. These two are:
The DocumentExpress Model 189
1. Always consider what is easy/best for the patrons over what is easy/best
for us.
2. Remove geographical and technological barriers to our resources when-ever
possible.
These values reinforced the “patrons-first” standard of practice for the
newly formed DE Team. In commercial parlance, an analogous concept
might be that the customer is always right. The patrons-first approach evolved
concurrently with major national/international and regional patron-oriented
initiatives such as Rethinking Resource Sharing and the Information Delivery
Services (IDS) Project (http://idsproject.org/index.aspx). As Beaubien and
Stevens stated, “Resource sharing practices and policies were library-centric
while the rest of the world had moved to a consumer-centric model” (2008,
p. 4). Their point was that many long-standing interlibrary loan standards of
practice had become anachronisms in the information age. To adjust to new
societal norms, the “patrons-first” approach manifested in three related and
critical ways at UMUC: (a) the creation of a proactive and positive customer
service culture, (b) a restructuring of user-input gateways from a design
perspective, and (c) a reevaluation of turnaround time measures to more
accurately gauge effectiveness.
A customer service ethos existed in ILL services prior to 2005. How-ever,
staff rarely revisited service parameters. Evolving patron expectations
and associated technologies received ad hoc attention. Conversely, the new
DE team adopted a more organic model in early 2006 to monitor changes
in the environment and act preemptively. An organic approach to any sys-tem
allows for greater staff interdependence and stresses adaptability and
perpetual evolution. The DE team and its managers believed this approach
would more ably meet rapidly developing service opportunities and cus-tomer
expectations. After an initial assessment, some long-standing and in-tegral
services like free home delivery and return of physical materials via
expedited courier continued. Borrowing request fill rates, historically in the
85–90% range, also remained essential. Patrons frequently lauded these ser-vice
benchmarks and came to count on them. These tangible services are
relatively simple to implement, change, or repair when needed. For example,
a relatively new requirement for staff to respond to voice mail and e-mail
messages within two hours improved the DE Team’s responsiveness. This re-quirement
also put DocumentExpress on par with other library services using
this model. The greater—and more complex—shift amounted to an infused
and consistently reinforced new cultural dogma; to achieve truly spectacular
customer service, the Team had to be problem solvers with excellent critical
thinking skills, e.g., perfunctory replies within the two-hour e-mail response
window were not adequate. Nor was the passing of questions to the “appro-priate”
personnel. Rather, the new service ethos dictated that Team members
190 M. de Jong and R. Shepard
thoroughly evaluate problems, craft excellent solutions (not necessarily the
first solution derived), and take the initiative in implementing the solutions.
That is to say, create outstanding solutions within two hours, not just re-sponses.
This “go-out of-your-way” approach to patron needs coincides with
core value number 1 above.
Differentiation between USMAI consortia circulation via the common
OPAC and UMUC ILL through the ILLiad gateway was lost on patrons and
a recurrent issue that required staff attention. Delineation between the two
online portals and their respective service parameters confused faculty and
students alike. The newly empowered DE Team set about to resolve this
problem with enthusiasm. They resolved to rectify a patron and unit prob-lem.
After some trial and error, they determined that delineation was in-consequential
to the user experience. Instead, they determined seamless
integration and a lack of differentiation was paramount to patrons. To be
precise, how patrons received needed materials or where they came from
was inconsequential to them. Users simply wanted necessary documents as
soon as possible and cared little for the service’s moniker or how the Team
obtained them. Subsequently, a variety of explanatory literature, technol-ogy,
and workflow changes made by the Team mitigated users’ confusion,
according to anecdotal feedback from patrons.
Concurrent to the ILL and circulation recodification and implementation
noted above, the Team began to examine ILL turnaround time. The ILL
unit had calculated borrowing and document delivery turnaround time a
variety of ways prior to the summer of 2005. The formula for determining an
average turnaround time generally changed from one semester to the next.
Most importantly, the measures were not derived with the viewpoint of the
patron in mind. For example, the formulas often excluded consideration of
nonwork periods such as evenings and weekends. Moreover, the turnaround
clock frequently began at the point of first touch, i.e., the time at which an
ILL operator began working on the request. In some instances, measurement
even began as late as with the lender’s initiation of processing. The point
of clock stoppage had similar inconsistencies. The DocumentExpress Team
decided to standardize the turnaround formula with a focus on the patron’s
perspective, so the timer consequently began at time of a patron’s submission
and halted at the time of item availability to the requestor. In other words,
the clock ran continuously from the moment a document was requested until
it was received. Nonwork periods remained a part of the calculation since
patrons do not exclude these periods. Use of the ILLiad management system
simplified this implementation as it contains a reporting feature with preset
queries for determining turnaround that matched the Team’s new standard.
ILS had always considered turnaround time an important performance
measure for ILL prior to 2005. However, the refined calculation of turnaround
time revealed that ILL delivery times had not been as quick as previously
thought. The DocumentExpress Team quickly began to scrutinize all ILL
The DocumentExpress Model 191
TABLE 1 ILS’s Average Borrowing Turnaround Time in Days by Semester and Year
Measure 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Spring 7.1 6.1 4.5 5.4 4.9 4.0 2.3
Summer 5.9 5.0 5.6 4.6 3.9 3.4 2.6
Fall 5.6 6.8 6.4 4.1 3.2 2.6 2.2
operations for improvement opportunities. Turnaround time improved
steadily over the next seven years (Table 1). The remainder of this article
outlines the means for achieving these impressive outcomes.
PROFESSIONALLY CULTIVATING EMPLOYEES
The DocumentExpress Team has grown from one full-time paraprofessional
and a few part-time staff in 2005 to its current configuration of a librarian
manager, a library associate (nonlibrarian professional), three paraprofes-sionals,
and five part-time assistants. Although adding staff can obviously
contribute to improving efficiency, management’s commitment to employee
empowerment and professional development has been equally critical. The
third and fourth core values address this obligation:
3. It is the manager’s job to take care of the employee. The employee will
take care of the patron.
4. Employee ideas and innovation are paramount to keeping us ahead of the
curve.
These two values manifest in four ways within the DocumentExpress
Team. The first two influence hiring practices and new employee training.
The last two center on continual professional development of employees
and an eventual full measure of empowerment to act.
First, the DML seeks the most motivated, intelligent, and creative can-didates
from an applicant pool. A long career in ILL services does not nec-essarily
guarantee an applicant a position. The needs to excel, grow, and
serve their constituency figures prominently in the hiring calculus. With no
delusions, the DML understands that applicants with the most potential will
likely seek positions with more responsibility within two to four years. How-ever,
he considers a high degree of turnover acceptable if it brings in top
performers. Moreover, many scholars consider intelligence and achievement
motivation two of the foundational components of employee effectiveness
(McClelland, 1987; Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, & Fleishman, 2000;
Zaccaro, 2007).
Second, the DML does not silo staff into narrowly defined sets of respon-sibilities.
All staff members are cross-trained on every aspect of interlibrary
loan operations, including many administrative functions. Cross-training
192 M. de Jong and R. Shepard
prevents workflow bottlenecks during busy periods and staff absences, and
it also serves to give the DocumentExpress Team a “big picture” view of
operations, which allows them to assist in streamlining and identifying areas
where collaboration is possible. Furthermore, it prevents an intellectually
curious and highly motivated staff from becoming bored due to task repeti-tion.
DocumentExpress’s cross-training initially occurred intrateam. Later this
expanded to include the Circulation and Electronic Reserves Teams, with all
members assisting one another during respective peak periods.
Third, the DML established a professional development program to cap-italize
on staff members’ intellect and drive and to develop further their
creative problem-solving skills. Cross-training was coupled with online skill-development
tutorials for a potent curriculum. The Skillport Company creates
the online tutorials, and UMUC licenses access. The self-paced courses cover
basic to advanced business, communication, and IT skills, but the primary
impetus for utilizing these tutorials centers on information technology. With
in-house technical expertise, DocumentExpress implements its own solutions
rather than waiting on formal IT support. Thus, the DML incorporates these
tutorials into each employee’s annual evaluation tool. Opportunities are also
provided for staff to pursue professional development opportunities outside
of campus-offered trainings (e.g., through conference attendance and pre-sentations).
Staff development serves to both enhance service quality and
keep employees intellectually stimulated and invested in their work.
Fourth, allowing a smart, highly motivated, and well-trained staff to
make many decisions on their own is central to maintaining that staff. The
dividends from the independence and awareness with which they are en-trusted
are more critical to service quality than the occasional mistake that
only micromanagement could prevent. In the current team orientation, man-agement
acts in a servant–leader role. This model dictates that a leader
demonstrate empathy, mature social power, employee empowerment, pro-vide
a vision, and similar qualities (Yukl, 2010). To this end, the DML main-tains
an awareness of the Team’s current work, coaches staff as needed, and
ensures that they have the necessary tools and resources to excel. In short,
it is the employees’ job to provide excellent service, and it is the manager’s
role to nurture and support them toward that goal. As the former Supreme
Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR) and NATO Commander Wesley Clark
frequently noted, generals can lose battles, but only his/her soldiers can
win them (Felix, 2004). That is to say, the ability of staff to function “in the
trenches” effectively with minimal direct oversight allows better, real-time
solutions at the point of need. Managerial interference with this process may
create a “loss.”
WORKFLOW PROCESSES AND SOLUTION CREATION
Workflow should not be a static entity in any organization. Rather, it should
be an organic, “living” process of frequent revision. Employees and managers
The DocumentExpress Model 193
alike should use the ideas, knowledge, and skills acquired through experi-ence
and professional development to improve services and efficiency. More-over,
the industrial era factory model of individuals performing piecework
along a workflow is anachronistic. Silos of responsibility create bottlenecks,
dampen lateral thinking, and inhibit solution creation. To address these con-cerns,
with the core values above in mind, DocumentExpress took three
steps: (a) implementing a knowledge management platform; (b) creating
a three-tiered system of staff priorities oriented toward providing the best
customer service possible and not job definitions; and (c) establishing the
concept that workflow revision is open to all DE Team members and is
possible at any given time, i.e., all staff need to participate and they should
feel comfortable providing input at any time.
Knowledge management (KM) is a method to collect, document, store,
disseminate, and act on innovations or experiences. Developing practices
and policies to meet KM goals is critical. However, finding a platform
from which to operate can be equally significant. After some initial ef-forts
utilizing first an intranet and then a wiki, the DocumentExpress Team
adopted Microsoft’s SharePoint product (http://sharepoint.microsoft.com/en-us/
Pages/default.aspx). However, this occurred only after a careful investi-gation
and the creation of an implementation strategy (for details see Diffin,
Chirombo, Nangle, & de Jong, 2010). Instituting the platform and knowl-edge
management associated practices allowed the DE Team to consolidate
its knowledge base, easily reference needed information, effortlessly commu-nicate
with Team members and other associates regardless of geographical
impediments, and efficiently collaborate as a truly integrated unit.
One of the first priorities within the established knowledge management
framework was to organize the Team’s core duties. The DML developed a
tiered system of task prioritization that focused on the patrons-first model
(see Figure 1). Several DE Team members have revised this pyramid of du-ties
since its inception. Tasks directly related to serving patron needs rank
foremost. These jobs represent the underpinning of the model—and the
unit—and they include duties such as packing/unpacking boxes, processing
borrowing requests, and scanning documents. Notwithstanding an individ-ual’s
rank or duty assignment, core tasks take precedence and must be
completed. For example, while the DML spends the majority of time on low-and
medium-priority duties, he will immediately set these aside to perform
core duties in emergency situations (e.g., staff member is out sick) or during
peak periods. These measures help the DocumentExpress Team focus on the
service model and create a sense of united purpose and high morale.
Creating a participatory framework of ownership regarding the work-flow
further enables the high morale and solution creation noted above. To
what end would the cross-training, professional development and empow-erment
of staff be if not to improve the unit’s workflow? Thus, regarding this
issue, all Team members have an equal voice. The DML can be, and often
has been, overruled. Returning to General Clark’s axiom, the troops in the
194 M. de Jong and R. Shepard
FIGURE 1 The DocumentExpress Team’s tiered structure of duties. Pyramid design by Ms.
Binwi Ngwa-Suh, Library Technician III at UMUC.
field win battles. If a general has prepared his or her troops well, they will
perform well.
IT MAXIMIZATION
Leveraging information technology solutions whenever possible is key to
speeding up borrowing turnaround time and streamlining workflow. A
streamlined workflow often results in the automation of many routine pro-cesses.
ILLiad addresses this with many inherent features such as automatic
e-mail notifications and automated mounting of lender’s documents to the IL-Liad
server (if fully enabled in the ILLiad Customization Manager). However,
much more can be done and has been done. For example, several organi-zations
(e.g., Atlas Systems, Inc. and individual libraries) have contributed
The DocumentExpress Model 195
application programming interfaces (API) to be used with ILLiad. Such ap-plications
allow operators to search commercial databases, booksellers’ in-ventories,
Google Scholar, etc., from within the ILLiad client interface. This
saves an incredible amount of time. The DocumentExpress Team capitalized
on this flexibility within ILLiad and made unique customizations and corollary
applications to further advance IT’s utility in their ILL processing workflow.
The DocumentExpress Team sought to streamline and homogenize the
requesting process in its inaugural IT maximization effort. With the assis-tance
of
Stakeholder interest in corporate social responsibility: Employing a limited resources model to determine CSR fit and performance.
No full textThe purpose of this study is to develop a common methodological approach to assess the value of CSR initiatives by researching the endogenous drivers that can be used to identify the optimal level and types of CSR programs relative to stakeholder interest and costs to the firm.Stakeholder interest in Corporate Social Responsibility: Employing a limited resources model to determine CSR fit and performance
06 July 2012
Daniel E. Ebb
Doctor of Management
University of Maryland University College
Contact: [email protected]
Keywords: CSR, Strategic Planning, Competitive Advantage, Stakeholder Management Purpose, Scope, RQ
Purpose
To develop a common methodological approach to assess the value of CSR initiatives by researching the endogenous drivers that can be used to identify the optimal level and types of CSR programs relative to stakeholder interest and costs to the firm.
Scope
Evidence-based research of secondary data relative to the firms’ strategic process of implementing three types of CSR initiatives: social, economic, and environmental.
Research Question
What are the drivers in determining the optimal level and types of CSR programs relative to stakeholder interest and cost to the firm?
Problem Context
•
Integration of CSR funding and efficient use of resources
•
Define CSR relative to inter-department functionality
•
Ability to measure CSR performance Literature Review
Stakeholder Theory
Shareholder model vs Stakeholder mode
Resource Based View (RBV) Theory of Competitive Advantage
Sustained competitive advantages
Strategic resources vs Performance
Strategic resources vs Sustained competitive advantages Key Literature Sources
A scan of the literature environment resulted in the frequent use of the following books, texts & industry journals
Donaldson, T., & Preston, L. (1995). The stakeholder theory of the corporation: Concepts, evidence, and implications. Academy of Management Review, 20(1), 65-91.
Freeman, R.E. (1984). Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston: Pittman.
Mitchell, R., Agle, B., & Wood, D. (1997). Toward a theory of stakeholder identification and salience: Defining the principle of who and what really counts. Academy of Management Review, 22(4), 853-886.
Barney, J. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 17(1), 99-120.
Eisenhardt, K., & Martin, J. (2000). Dynamic capabilities: What are they? Strategic Management Journal, 21(10/11), 1105-1121.
Wernerfelt, B. (1984). A resource-based view of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 9(2), 171-180. Key Propositions
P1: Due to the additional levels of complexity added to the manager-stakeholder contractual relationship relative to the stakeholder theory, the manager’s ability to clearly identify the CSR needs and agendas of the different types of stakeholders will affect the overall cost of CSR programs to the organization.
P2: Maximization of stakeholder satisfaction depends on the existence of metrics that effectively assess CSR performance to the extent that managers can identify the amount and type of benefit that is derived by each type of stakeholder.
P6: CSR initiatives are selected based on the ability of that initiative to become a sustained competitive advantage to the organization.
Conceptual Model Thesis Statements
T1: Stakeholder commitment is positively related to the level of social CSR initiated by a firm.
T2: There is a positive relationship between the perceived quality of CSR metrics and the type/amount of all three CSR types (social, economic, environmental).
T3: While there is an obvious negative relationship between cost and CSR activities overall, firms are more willing to participate in social CSR activities than environmental and economic CSR activities when cost is an issue. Data Collection Process
EBRS
Data Source
Inclusion
Evaluation
•
High quality synthesis of evidence from multiple studies
•
Utilization of transparent and rigorous processes to identify, analyze, and synthesize the literature
•
Keyword searches in academic journals and dissertations using Web of Science and Proquest Dissertations and Theses databases.
•
37,545 sources
•
Publication date of 1995 or later
•
Reference to CSR plus at least one of the independent variables
•
Reference to KLD Socrates Database, Fortune Reputational Survey, or Global Reporting Initiative as a means of acquiring data
•
63 sources
•
Quality Assessment
•
Data Extraction
•
Synthesis of findings using ecological triangulation
•
52 sources Findings
CSR programs must be assessed in terms of their potential to produce goodwill, which should translate into a material return on investment. Drivers in determining the optimal level and types of CSR programs relative to stakeholder interest and cost to the firm include:
1.Firms’ CSR motivation
2.Industry
3.Executive demographics
4.Maturity within its market
5.Ability for CSR initiative to become a competitive advantage
6.Existence of sustainability organization
7.Participation in reputation enhancement tools
8.Geographical factors
Implications for Management Practice
Society has the expectation that companies will consider CSR implications in all business decisions.
Determining the optimal level and types of CSR programs requires the firm to make the right choices based on certain discriminators that revolve around the desire to simultaneously satisfy multiple stakeholders while using the limited resources of the firm.
Continuous monitoring of CSR performance relative to the changing environment of its stakeholders will enable the firm to make strategic adjustments to improve the effectiveness of its CSR initiatives.
Similar to the way firms distribute quarterly financial reports, firms should also present quarterly CSR performance reports.
Future Research Opportunities
Empirical quantitative testing of the relationships amongst each of the drivers that are identified.
Researching the CSR – firm performance relationship from the perspective of each of the identified drivers individually would result in higher quality findings for the CSR – firm performance relationship.
Future research that focuses on the assessment of these drivers individually, versus assessing the collection of these drivers as a whole, against competing uses for firm resources (i.e., CSR, R&D, marketing) would be useful for better identification of valuation factors for CSR initiatives
Glass ceiling: Progress and persistent challenges
No full textThe purpose of the research is to continue to explore the literature that supports or refutes the notion of progress as it pertains to variables that may influence the existence of the glass ceiling.THE GLASS CEILING: PROGRESS AND PERSISTENT CHALLENGES
Wendy Marie McLlwain
DMGT 892
University of Maryland University College
Purpose and Scope of the Research
The purpose of the research is to continue to explore the literature that supports or refutes the notion of progress as it pertains to variables that may influence the existence of the glass ceiling. Research Questions
To what extent does organizational culture, gender discrimination, balance of work and family, and promotional opportunities influence the glass ceiling remaining intact? Significance of this Research for Management
The glass ceiling prevents inclusion and contributions by women to the organization. This research will help management identify why the glass ceiling still exists. Main Literature Themes and Authors
Promotional Opportunities: Powell and Butterfield (1994)
Gender Discrimination: Blau and Devaro (2007), Eagly and Carli (2007), Bendl and Schmidt (2010), Dey and Hill (2007)
Organizational Culture: Elacqua, Beehr, Hansen & Webster (2009), Schein (2004), Van Vianen and Fischer (2002),
Balance of Home and Work: Cutler and Jackson (2002), Key Propositions Distilled from the Literature
The literature reviewed in Chapter 2 showed a relationship exists between organizational culture, home and work balance, and promotability. These three variables are all forms of gender discrimination which is the basis of the glass ceiling based on the evidence from the literature. These relationships are displayed graphically in the conceptual framework. Conceptual Framework Thesis statement
The glass ceiling prevents organizations from reaping the benefits of an inclusive environment. Research Approach & Formation of Argument
The evidenced-based approach follows a four step process proposed by Rosseau and McCarthy (2007). The four steps utilized were: present a question (the research question), search for the best possible evidence (review of literature), critically review and analyze the information, and relate the information to the research question and possible solutions (Rosseau & McCarthy, 2007, p. 88). Findings
Over the years, the glass ceiling has been given many names to include sticky floors, firewalls, and even a labyrinth, for researchers this indicates the topic is still relevant.
Gender discrimination is one of the primary causes of the glass ceiling remaining a persistent challenge for women in organizations.
Implications for Management Practice
Recognize the progress that has been made with regard to the glass ceiling, specifically in the technology industry.
Also recognize the persistent challenges the existence of the glass ceiling presents as the underrepresentation of women in top, CEO level positions is still an area of concern at the individual and organizational level.
Future Research Agendas
Examine gaps in the literature as it relates to pay inequities
Research glass ceiling issues in government agencies
Use Meta-analysis Methodology
Research the glass ceiling issues from a global perspective
Examine the relationship between leadership styles and the glass ceilin
Developing a conceptual framework for integrating industry/client-sponsored projects into capstone courses: A report of research
No full textCapstone courses provide practical experience in a variety of ways, including internships, cooperative education opportunities, simulations, or projects. In some cases, academic programs utilize real-world industry/client-sponsored projects as the foci of students’ final work products. Regardless of the specific design of the practical capstone courses, a common denominator is to provide a culminating experience that allows students to demonstrate mastery of knowledge and skills gained through prior class work during the degree program.
The Graduate School at UMUC has five departments and the types of capstone courses vary. Faculty in one of the departments has published research on the value of industry-sponsored capstone projects, their capstone model and factors that lead to a successful capstone project (Bojanova and Khan, 2010; Conroy, 2010; Conroy and Khan, 2009). Specific objectives of this research include: 1) Survey the programs in UMUC’s graduate school on the nature of capstone courses they offer; 2) Conduct a literature review of the design of and best practices for integrating capstone projects into final courses, and; 3) Develop a conceptual framework for integrating industry/client-sponsored projects.RUNNING HEAD: REPORT ON DEVELOPING A FRAMEWORK
1
Developing a conceptual framework for integrating industry/client-sponsored projects into capstone courses:
A report of research
Rana Khan, Acting Chair, Department of Information and Technology Systems and Director, Biotechnology Program [email protected], 240-684-2430
Julie Hill, Director, Public Relations Program, Management, Accounting and Finance [email protected], 240-684-2493 REPORT ON DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Capstone courses provide practical experience in a variety of ways, including internships, cooperative education opportunities, simulations, or projects. In some cases, academic programs utilize real-world industry/client-sponsored projects as the foci of students’ final work products. Regardless of the specific design of the practical capstone courses, a common denominator is to provide a culminating experience that allows students to demonstrate mastery of knowledge and skills gained through prior class work during the degree program.
The Graduate School at UMUC has five departments and the types of capstone courses vary. Faculty in one of the departments has published research on the value of industry-sponsored capstone projects, their capstone model and factors that lead to a successful capstone project (Bojanova and Khan, 2010; Conroy, 2010; Conroy and Khan, 2009). Specific objectives of this research include: 1) Survey the programs in UMUC’s graduate school on the nature of capstone courses they offer; 2) Conduct a literature review of the design of and best practices for integrating capstone projects into final courses, and; 3) Develop a conceptual framework for integrating industry/client-sponsored projects.
Accomplishments to Date
Brown Bag “Lunch and Learn” presentation November 15, 2012
Drs. Khan and Hill conducted a workshop based on this research that also detailed how the Biotechnology and Public Relations capstone courses include industry/client sponsored projects.
Survey of UMUC Programs
A survey of UMUC’s Graduate School programs was conducted to elicit information about whether capstone courses are included in the curricula and if so, how the courses are designed. The results indicate that 95% (20) programs/specializations have a capstone course, and half of those feature some type of project as part of the course. Only 6 of the courses involve projects with industry (BTMN670, PRPA 650, EDTC 670, HAIN 670, ENVM 670, TLMN 670).
Literature Review
A review of the literature involving capstone courses reveals general agreement across disciplines on the value of integrating hands-on experience and/or experiential learning into the curricula of degree programs. Academicians and employers alike see value in providing students with practical opportunities to demonstrate their proficiency in the field of study and mastery of the skills necessary for the workplace (Estell & Hurtig, 2012). Much of the literature, however, focuses on the design and implementation of capstone courses at the senior undergraduate level and in the hard sciences (i.e., engineering, information technology, and medical fields) (Farr, Lee, Metro, & Sutton 2001; Aller, Kline, & Tsang, 2004). Berheide (2007) explored the potential of capstone courses for assessing student learning, and found considerable support for the position that if properly designed and executed, these courses can be ideal summative assessment tools (Integration, reflection, closure & transition, 2008).
There is limited research at the graduate level on the design of capstone courses which, similar to undergraduate capstones, exist in a variety of forms. Although few graduate programs incorporate industry/client-sponsored projects, there is growing recognition and evidence that such projects have significant benefits for students, the academic programs and institutions, and the industry partners/clients (Bruhn & Camp, 2004; Gorka, Miller, & Howe, 2007; Bojanova & Khan, 2010; REPORT ON DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Goldberg, Cariapa, Corliss, & Kaiser, 2012). Institutions form partnerships with employers, the sponsors receive low or no-cost project work on areas important to them, and students leave with a portfolio of work that demonstrates mastery of skills and professional connections that could lead to employment opportunities.
Research to date has found only a few professional associations and accrediting boards that recommend/require the inclusion of a capstone course as part of a higher education curriculum. Of those, a handful specify the inclusion of some type of integrative, experiential capstone: the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), the Commission on Accreditation for Health Informatics and Information Management Education (CAHIIM), the Commission on Accreditation Healthcare Management Education (CAHME), Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM), and Commission on Public Relations Education (COMMPRED).
Conceptual Framework
Integrating industry/client-sponsored projects into capstone courses is not without challenges, especially for large programs and those operating in asynchronous environments. Issues of scalability, varying degrees of deliverable quality, students’ abilities to work with teams in different time zones, and the time/effort required to identify potential partners/clients and appropriate projects are all valid concerns. A model or framework that incorporates best practices and is flexible enough to adapt to the needs of a program can be useful to institutions considering developing a capstone course or modifying an existing one.
Based on the UMUC capstone course survey results and literature review, we developed a framework as illustrated in Fig 1. This framework has six components that we found to be essential in the successful design and implementation of an industry-sponsored capstone project. Each component encompasses elements that provide options and issues to consider. Taken together, these elements and issues determine the ultimate nature of the project and the student experience.
This research project will continue to refine and support the conceptual framework, culminating in a paper that will be submitted for publication and conference presentation. REPORT ON DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
References
(2008, November 15). Integration, reflection, closure & transition: Advancing capstone learning at LaGuardia. Report of the Faculty Research Team on Capstone Education.
Aller, B.M., Kline, A.A., & Tsang, E. (2004). Work in progress: Improving the senior capstone design experience through shared perspectives and best practices. 34th ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference, Savannah, GA, October 20-23.
Beginhi, V.,Cheng, I-H., & Cameron, G.T. (2004, Autumn). The role of clients in the public
relations campaigns course. Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, 259-277.
Berheide, C.W. (2007, Spring). Doing less work, collecting better data: Using capstone courses to assess learning. AAC&U, 27-30.
Bojanova, I., & Khan, R. (2010). Designing online capstone courses in partnership with industry. Presented at the 26th Annual Conference on Distance Teaching & Learning, August 4-6.
Bruhn, R. E., & Camp, J. (2004, June). Capstone course creates useful business products and corporate-ready students. inroads – The SIGCSE Bulletin, 8, 36, Number 2, 89-92.
Conroy, R. (2010). Factors that impact success in an online capstone course with biotechnology business partners. University of Maryland University College.
Conroy, R. & Khan, R. (2009). Integrating virtual internships into online classrooms. Journal of Commercial Biotechnology, 15, 97–11. doi:10.1057/jcb.2008.3
Estell, J. K. & Hurtig, J.K. (2012). Adopting best corporate practices for capstone courses. Paper presented at Capstone Design Conference 2012, Aurora, CO.
Farr, J., Lee, M., Metro, R., & Sutton, J. (2001,April). Using a systematic engineering design process to conduct undergraduate engineering management capstone projects. Journal of Engineering Education, 193-197.
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Gorka, S., Miller, J.R., & Howe, B. J. (2007, October). Developing realistic capstone projects in conjunction with industry. SIGITE, 27-31.
Howe, S. (2012, spring). Where are we now? Statistics on capstone courses nationwide, Advances in Engineering Education, American Society for Engineering Education, 2010.
Kelly, R. (2006, Feb.). Capstone courses prepare students for transition to working world. Academic Leader, Vol. 22 (2), 8
Creating a contemplative pedagogy module for UMUC social science online teaching and learning toolkit for instructors and students
No full textContemplative pedagogy is a relatively new, student-centered approach to teaching and learning that helps students focus their attention, explore and identify personal meanings from external circumstances, and creatively reflect on these meanings as they relate to the broader social context. In line with the UMUC Learning Model Principle #3 -- students' active learning -- this study supported the creation of a teaching/learning module in the Online Social Science Toolkit that both instructors and students at UMUC can use to enhance learning. This presentation will (1) provide background on the contemplative pedagogy approach, (2) explain how the Module for social-science students was created and how it can be used, and (3) provide some specific examples of exercises that can be used in online classrooms across a variety of disciplines.Faculty Research Grant, Fall 2012
Report Submitted by Donna Maurer, Ph.D. on January 18, 2013
Project Title: Creating a Contemplative Pedagogy Module for the UMUC Social Science Online Teaching and Learning Toolkit for Instructors and Students
Background and Process
During Fall Semester 2012, I was very pleased to have the opportunity to complete a research project to benefit UMUC students and faculty, as well as, potentially, social-science faculty and students at other educational institutions. For this project, I developed a Learning Module titled "Exploring Mindfulness and Concentration Exercises to Enhance Learning" which will be part of a Social-Science Toolkit currently under development in the UMUC Departments of Social and Behavioral Sciences.
As part of my grant project, before developing the module, I reviewed a variety of print, audio, and online materials to develop a better sense of contemplative pedagogy. While I had been a member of the Association for Contemplative Mind in Higher Education for a couple of years, and I was familiar with basic ideas associated with the approach, until commencing this project, I had had little time to delve into the materials. In addition to the materials I reviewed online, the UMUC Library was an excellent resource for finding research studies that have been conducted on mindfulness/contemplative exercises in educational environments.
As I became immersed in these materials, a workable structure for the module began to become clearer. Also, I realized that the more general and popularly used terms of "mindfulness" and "concentration" would be more appropriate for the module than "contemplative." Kathy Humber, Director of Behavioral Science and Gerontology, had become the Lead on the Social Science Toolkit project, and she sent me a draft of the Toolkit in progress so that I could get a sense of the appropriate "voice" for the Module. When I applied for the grant, my initial understanding had been that the Social Science Toolkit would be for both students and faculty, but I later learned that social-science students are its target audience.
I thus wrote the Module specifically with students in mind, using a participatory, active voice, and clearly expressing how each of five exercises would help them with tasks associated with various aspects of their learning. It occurred to me (and I believe this to be an original idea and contribution) that the exercises could start from the most individual perspective and move to the most global, in five stages (calming the mind, absorbing information, making choices, communicating with others, and feeling connected to the world). The module thus takes this structure.
Status of Deliverables
As of this writing, the Module is completed. Ms. Humber is currently on Medical Leave and will be reviewing the Module after she returns; at present, Dr. Darlene Smucny is reviewing it at my request.
I will be giving a Faculty Research Seminar at UMUC via WebEx on February 28, 2013; the title of my presentation is "Contemplative Pedagogy: Teaching and Learning Techniques to Enhance Student Awareness and Attention."
I am also currently making arrangements to give a presentation (either via WebEx or asynchronously) to the UMUC Social Sciences Club for students.
I submitted a paper, "Creating a Mindfulness Learning Module for Online Social Science Students," for possible inclusion in a refereed roundtable presentation sponsored by the Teaching section of the American Sociological Association (ASA), whose meetings will be held in August 2013 in New York City. Notification regarding whether the paper has been accepted will be given in early March.
Finally, I am preparing my ASA paper for submission to Journal of Educators Online (http://thejeo.com/) by its deadline to have the article considered for the next bi-annual issue. This deadline is April 15, 2013.
Conclusion
I am very grateful to have had this opportunity to engage in professional development and create a learning module for the benefit of our UMUC students.
I hope to have additional opportunities in the future to continue developing these exercises and practices to enhance students' active learning. Such future projects might include formal assessments of students' usage of the module, as well as the development of video segments to demonstrate and discuss the exercises as a complement to the written text
Using clusters and strategic alliances along with organizational culture to sustain competitive advantage
No full textThe life cycle of organizations is getting shorter. If an organization is to maintain its
competitive advantage it should not adhere to a concept of organizational life cycle in which
an organization falls into the inevitable cycle of germination, growth, maturity, and death.
Previous research on organizational change mostly emphasizes managing change, strategic
change, specific interventions, or approaches to change that lead to organizational failure due
to lack of innovation. Innovation can be in the form of a new product, a new service, or new
technology. Any change should be based on a corporation’s strategy, vision, values, and a
corporation should promote an environment which supports and encourages such change.
By examining the impact that clusters and strategic alliances have upon a corporation’s
competitive advantage, this study aims to modify the existing organizational change model
and provide guidance that corporations can use to maintain their competitive advantage. This
study highlights that the optimum time for organizational change is during the growth period.
The current research applies the concepts of organizational culture, cluster theory, and
strategic alliance to the organizational change model. The output goals, a new product, a new
way of operations, a new strategy, and a new culture, come from the organizational change
process innovations.
The research obtained from this study has seven implications for management that have
greatly contributed to a corporations’ transition towards furthering their competitive
advantage. When corporations come across difficult situations, the organizational change
model can help corporations mitigate risk through the loop system. This study emphasizes an
organization’s entrepreneurial spirit due to easily influencing corporation’s decision to
initiate change that needs to adopt strategic alliances and clusters to connect with external
environments in order to obtain new information and technology to maintain their
competitiveness. However, Internet or the automobile can also has an impact on culture.
Corporations must adjust their organizational culture to adapt to external change as well. In
addition, this study’s model can also assist corporations to create value-chain through
improving activities, discover a new market space for a breakthrough in competitions,
maintain long-term growth by continuously creating the second curve, and provide ISO 9000
and ISO 14000 standard functions.
Keywords: organizational change, organizational culture, cluster theory, strategic alliance- 0 -
Using Clusters and Strategic Alliances along with Organizational
Culture to Sustain Competitive Advantage
Spencer, Kuan-Hsien Hsieh
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of Doctor of Management
Bryan A. Booth, Ph. D.
Jim Chen, Ph. D.
March 23, 2011
- 1 -
Table of Contents
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………. 04
Chapter 1: Introduction …………………………………………………………… 06
1.1 Research questions and purposes………………………………….. 06
1.2 Relevance to the field of management…………………………….. 12
Chapter 2: Literature Review & Research Proposition ……………........................ 14
2.1 Organizational Transition …………………………………………. 14
2.1.1 Cultural change ……………………………………………... 17
2.1.2 Implementing change while in the successful stage……….... 20
2.1.3 Change Process ………………………................................... 25
2.2 Strategic Alliance and Cluster Theory …………………………... 28
2.2.1 Strategic Alliance …………………………………………… 28
2.2.2 Cluster Theory……………………………………………….. 30
2.3 Successful Clusters and Problems………………………………... 32
2.3.1 Successful Clusters………………………………………….. 32
2.3.2 Problems and crises…………………………………………. 34
Chapter 3: Research Framework……………...…………………………………… 35
3.1Conceptual Model thinking route…………………………………. 35
3.2 The development of organizational culture …………………......... 40
3.3 The development of strategic alliances……………………………. 42
3.4 The development of a cluster……………………………………… 43
3.5 The development of organizational characteristics……………….. 46
3.6 Output goals……………………………………………………….. 48
Chapter 4: Critical Evaluation…………………………………………………….. 50
4.1 Method of Critical Evaluation ……………………………………. 50
4.2 Results of Critical Evaluation……………………………………... 53
Chapter 5: Implications…………………………………………………………… 57
5.1 Implications for management……………………………………… 57
- 2 -
5.1.1 Loop system………………………………………………… 60
5.1.2 Essential elements for successful transitions: culture,
strategic alliances and clusters…………..…………………. 61
5.1.3 Organization of entrepreneurial spirit……………………… 61
5.1.4 Creating value-chain………………………………………… 62
5.1.5 Long-term growth…………………………………………… 63
5.1.6 Finding a new market space.……………………………….. 63
5.1.7 Providing the paths for translating strategies into realities….. 64
5.2 Limitations and Future implications for research…………………. 65
5.2.1 Limitations………………………………………………….. 65
5.2.1.1 Leaders mindset………………………………………… 65
5.2.1.2 Needing a just in time crisis-control system…………… 65
5.2.1.3 Corporation culture’s static…………………………….. 65
5.2.1.4 Assessment system lacks scientific research…………… 66
5.2.2 Future research……………………………………………… 67
5.2.2.1 Risk management……………………………………….. 67
5.2.2.2 Overcome governance problems………………………... 65
5.2.2.3 Put in the proper practice……………………………….. 68
5.2.2.4 Establish LCA system…………………………………... 69
Appendix: A The expert reviewers……………………………………………….. 70
B Evaluation Form……………………………………………………. 71
C Integrated Evaluation Form………………………………………… 72
Endnote …………………………………………………………………………. 80
Reference ………………………………………………………………………..... 81
- 3 -
List of Figures
Figure 2.1: The four organizational hurdles to strategy execution………………… 15
Figure 2.2: The Transition Curve………………………………………………….. 16
Figure 2.3: Positive and Negative organization,s entrepreneurial culture…………. 19
Figure 2.4: The Second Curve ……………............................................................. 21
Figure 2.5: The improvisational change model…………………………………… 24
Figure 3.1: System Thinking : From Issues to Actions …………………………… 37
Figure 3.2: Conceptual framework of organizational change………....................... 40
Figure 3.3: The organizational change model………………………....................... 44
List of Tables
Table 1.1: Table 1.1: Outlining all the approaches on change……………………. 11
Table 2.1: Comparing the Curves…………………................................................ 23
Table 2.2: Organizational design strategies………………………………………. 27
Table 2.3: Four types of clusters………………………………………………….. 31
Table 3.1: The type of organizational integrating mechanism……………………. 46
Table 3.2: Organizational change strategies………………………………………. 47
Table 3.3: Output indicator’s definition…………………………………………... 48
Table 4.1: Comments and Responses Form………………………………………. 55
Table 5.1: Relevance to the contribution of management………………………… 58
- 4 -
Using Clusters and Strategic Alliances along with Organizational Culture to Sustain
Competitive Advantage
Abstract
The life cycle of organizations is getting shorter. If an organization is to maintain its
competitive advantage it should not adhere to a concept of organizational life cycle in which
an organization falls into the inevitable cycle of germination, growth, maturity, and death.
Previous research on organizational change mostly emphasizes managing change, strategic
change, specific interventions, or approaches to change that lead to organizational failure due
to lack of innovation. Innovation can be in the form of a new product, a new service, or new
technology. Any change should be based on a corporation’s strategy, vision, values, and a
corporation should promote an environment which supports and encourages such change.
By examining the impact that clusters and strategic alliances have upon a corporation’s
competitive advantage, this study aims to modify the existing organizational change model
and provide guidance that corporations can use to maintain their competitive advantage. This
study highlights that the optimum time for organizational change is during the growth period.
The current research applies the concepts of organizational culture, cluster theory, and
strategic alliance to the organizational change model. The output goals, a new product, a new
way of operations, a new strategy, and a new culture, come from the organizational change
process innovations.
The research obtained from this study has seven implications for management that have
greatly contributed to a corporations’ transition towards furthering their competitive
- 5 -
advantage. When corporations come across difficult situations, the organizational change
model can help corporations mitigate risk through the loop system. This study emphasizes an
organization’s entrepreneurial spirit due to easily influencing corporation’s decision to
initiate change that needs to adopt strategic alliances and clusters to connect with external
environments in order to obtain new information and technology to maintain their
competitiveness. However, Internet or the automobile can also has an impact on culture.
Corporations must adjust their organizational culture to adapt to external change as well. In
addition, this study’s model can also assist corporations to create value-chain through
improving activities, discover a new market space for a breakthrough in competitions,
maintain long-term growth by continuously creating the second curve, and provide ISO 9000
and ISO 14000 standard functions.
Keywords: organizational change, organizational culture, cluster theory, strategic alliance
- 6 -
Chapter1: Introduction
1.1 Research questions and purpose
An organization that does not adapt change cannot survive for long. Change is an
essential feature of organizations life cycle. Previous research on organizational change
mostly focuses on the structural contingency theory (Jokipii, 2010), political theory (Wines,
2008), organizational ecology theory (Zhou & Li, 2008), and institutional theory (Bruton,
Ahlstrom, Li, 2010). These theories all emphasize the environmental changes that lead to
organizational failure that is due to a lack of innovation (Ettlie, 1992; Hage, 1999).
Innovation can take the form of a new product, a new service, new technology, a new
process, or new administrative practices (Collins, Hage, & Hull, 1988; Ettlieetal, 1984; Ettlie,
1992). While theories of organizational change tend to focus on managing change, strategic
change, specific interventions, or approaches to change (Whelan-Berry & Gordon, 2000),
new competition in the market place or new demands by customers also stimulate or affect
such changes. Such changes come about in response to the internal call for reform or in
response to market failure, and are expected to bring forth improved efficiency, better service,
or innovative products. However, an organizational change always encounters various
obstacles and varying degrees of resistance. Changing an organization’s values is better than
changing strategies, structure, technologies, and products (Porter & Parker, 1992), so
managers should strive to make flexibility an integral part of the values and norms of the
organization in order to create a work environment that is open to change (Pasmore, 1994;
Porter & Parker, 1992; Neal, 2009). Furthermore, corporate executives need to organize
workshops and establish an employee committee by making full use of the integration of
- 7 -
leadership, cross-cooperation, and technology (Neal, 2009; West, 2004; Yeo, 2009).
The life cycle of organizations is decreasing. If an organization is to stay competitive, it
should not adhere to a concept of the organizational life cycle in which an organization is
born, grows old, and finally dies (Miller & Friesen, 1984; Churchill & Lewis, 1983;
Mintzberg & Westley, 1992; Pietersen, 2002). In order to achieve competitive advantage,
how can an organization create a new growth curve to enhance its competitive advantage? A
corporation should undertake organizational change in its prime, rather than when the
business is beginning to show signs of failure. Therefore, corporations must launch strategies
to sustain development before they begin to lose momentum (Pietersen, 2002). This strategy
is so-called a second curve. In order to achieve the second curve, the culture of the
corporation and its characteristics must change alongside strategy. Once a corporation
changes its strategy, it must realign its organizational culture with the new strategy. This is
necessary because organizational culture and strategy are strongly interrelated. In addition,
why do organizational design characteristics follow strategy change? Organizational strategy
change signifies that organizational design characteristics are along with organizational goal
change for maintenance competitiveness; otherwise, a corporation’s strategy is likely to fail
(Treacy & Wiersema, 1995; Higgins & Mcallaster, 2002; Daft, 2007). Any change should be
based on a corporation’s strategy, vision, and values. Additionally a corporation should
create an environment that supports and promotes such change (Neal, 2009). Even in the
process of reform, all actions taken in the name of change should be well managed in order
to keep the organization moving towards its new vision and its stated objectives.
This study focuses on how cluster theory and strategic alliances can be used to bring
- 8 -
about organizational change. What is the relationship between corporations, clusters, and
their strategic alliance? Clusters are geographically close groups of interconnected
corporations and associated institutions in a particular field, which are linked by common
technologies and skills (Porter, 1998, 2001). Clusters include “ governmental and other types
of institutions such as universities, agencies of standardization, think tanks, and suppliers of
specialized instruction, education, information, research and technical support” (Enache,
Vechiu, & Morozan, 2009, p.38). A strategic alliance combines the information and insights
of an alliance network with those of interfirm networks, thereby producing an important
cross-level viewpoint of interorganizational relationships (Gulati, 1998). How can
intercluster corporations or strategic alliances maintain competitive advantage? Corporation
can share information, create new ways, and jointly solve problems through intercluster and
strategic alliances with the aim of maintaining competitive advantage. However, both
strategies are not panacea for staying competitive. What are the problems and risks? When a
market changes too quickly and a product’s life cycle is too short, it becomes more
complicated for corporations to predict situations. Although clusters and strategic alliances
also have drawbacks, the purpose of this study is to explore how cluster theory and strategic
alliances can be used to promote organizational change through information sharing,
technology spillover, and innovation.
How can an organization quickly identify and handle changes in the external
environment? There are many approaches to facilitating organizational change, including the
improvisational change model (Orlikowski & Hofman, 1997), TQM (Chong, Ooi, Lin and
Teh, 2010), benchmarking learning (Grace & Hadyn, 2004), ISO quality management
(Bonham, 2003), organizational restructuring (Barkema, 2008), business process
- 9 -
reengineering (Chamberlin, 2010), as well as the linkage approach (Goodman and Rousseau,
2004). Among these organizational change approaches, the improvisational change model
(Orlikowski & Hofman, 1997) is relatively reliable in terms of coping with cultural change,
turbulent conditions within an organization, and new demands from an ever-changing market.
The improvisational change model is typically a continuous process that requires explicit and
persistent examination and adjustment along with the authority, credibility, influence, and
resources needed to complete the organizational change. The improvisational change model
includes three different types of sequential change: anticipated change, emergent change, and
opportunity-based change. Leaders need to initiate organizational changes that allow
employees to anticipate the changes that will be made to the organization and its culture.
Subsequently, by developing a common view, a corporation increases communication among
its employees, which in turn increases the likelihood of the employees accepting the
corporation’s policy. This is known as emergent change. Finally, owing to identification of
the policy, leaders can identify the optimal opportunities needed to accomplish
organizational change. These opportunities make up the competitive strategies of strategic
alliance and cluster theory. This is the ‘so-called opportunity-based change’. This research
adds both aspects of the cluster theory and strategic alliances of the improvisational change
model to the organizational change model, since this will help organizations to implement
successful transitions and achieve their organizational goals. In addition, in order to compare
above organizational change approaches with the improvisational change model, this study
outlines all the approaches on change at the table 1.1.
- 10 -
Table 1.1: Outlining all the approaches on change
The approaches on change The main of argument
TQM TQM is a set of management practices
throughout the organization, geared to ensure the
organization consistently meets or exceeds
customer requirements. TQM places strong
focus on process measurement and controls as
means of continuous improvement.
Benchmarking learning The benchmarking learning provides a set of
conceptually-derived criteria by which to
compare the learning and development strategic
focus of different organizations.
ISO quality management The ISO concept is applicable to most every
technical field (for example, ISO 9000 family
for quality management and the ISO 14000 for
environmental management systems) and
provides a standards roadmap for virtually any
type of corporation or product--from information
technology to photography.
Organizational restructuring Organizational performance ultimately rests on
- 11 -
human behavior and improving performance
requires changing behavior. Therefore,
organizational restructuring should have as a
fundamental goal the facilitation of clear, open
communication that can enable organizational
learning and clarify accountability for results.
Business process reengineering Business process reengineering is the analysis
and redesign of workflows and processes within
an organization. Sometimes radical redesign and
reorganization of an enterprise (wiping the slate
clean) was necessary to lower costs and increase
quality of service and that information
technology was the key enabler for that radical
change.
The linkage approach Changes that successfully improve performance
in one part of the corporation often fail to
translate into gains in firm-level performance.
- 12 -
1.2 Relevance to the field of management
This study is relevant to the field of management since it covers organizational change,
the improvisational change model, strategic alliances, and cluster theory. This will be
illustrated in the next segment.
(1) Organizational change: Environmental change such as deregulation, privatization,
technological change, or change in customer preferences stimulates organizational
change. Organizational change always encounters many obstacles and various degrees
of resistance. It is essential that organizational leaders create workshops and establish
employee committees to impart the corporation’s vision, which will only be realized
through an integration of leadership, cross-cooperation, and technology (Suarez &
Oliva, 2005; Neal, 2009; West, 2004; Yeo, 2009).
(2) The improvisational change model: The improvisational change model consists of three
different types of change: anticipated change, emergent change, and opportunity-based
change. The changes associated with technology constitute an ongoing process rather
than an event with an end point after which the organization can expect to return to a
reasonably steady state. In addition, all the technological and organizational changes are
made during the ongoing process (Orlikowski & Hofman, 1997).
(3). Strategic alliance: This strategic alliance is a network, put emphasis on vertical
relationships, lateral, and horizontal relationships among independent entities, as
opposed to the so-called dyadic level. Strategic alliances can combine information and
insights within the alliance network with intercorporation networks, and produce an
important cross-level viewpoint of interorganizational relationships (Gulati, 1998;
- 13 -
Farina Zylbersztain, 2003).
(4) Cluster theory: Clusters are geographically close groups of interconnected companies
and associated institutions within a particular field that are linked by common
technologies and skills or use all forms of differentiating knowledge considered both
key resources and key products (Porter, 1998, 2001; Enach, Vechiu & Morozan, 2009).
- 14 -
Chapter 2: Literature Review & Research Proposition
2.1 Organizational Transition
Suarez & Oliva (2005) state that environmental changes such as deregulation,
privatization, technological change, or changes in customer preferences (Kraats and Zajac,
2001) all stimulate organizational change. Moreover, environmental changes affect an
organization’s performance, lifespan, and development. These changes can be technological,
economical, physical, social, or political. Clearly, environmental variation is a key factor
when dealing with a range of issues and processes; including corporation survival,
competitiveness, innovation, and executive turnover (Andrews, 1971; Christensen, 1992;
Utt