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Emergent leadership styles within global virtual teams

Author: Simms Michael Keith
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2016
Field of study

Examining leadership in computer mediated communication is vital today due to the lessening of hierarchical organizational structures and the corresponding interest in managing virtual groups and teams (Sudweeks & Simoff, 2005, pp. 1-3). Recent work on Global Virtual Teams (GVTs) suggests “that leadership, in this electronic context, might be better viewed as a collective effort distributed among team members and characterized by the sharing and rotating of leadership roles” (Zigurs, 2003, p.341 ; Avolio, 1999). Emerging leadership styles within this collective appear to influence team member behaviors (Lisak & Erez, 2015; Nordback & Espinosa, 2015). This phenomenon may be unique in a virtual environment, which could be a departure from traditional leadership theories. The purpose of this study is to examine the model of emergent leadership styles using a process based approach. The particular focus will be on knowledge-sharing and collaboration processes. The research question investigated is, “How can emergent leadership styles within global virtual teams foster knowledge sharing and collaboration processes?” The argument of this study is that the model of emergent leadership styles appears to have the greatest potential to gain insights into a collective environment within GVTs. Such insight could possibly influence knowledge-sharing and collaboration among team members, which may enhance the working processes of virtual entities. The dissertation used an evidence based research synthesis (EBRS) methodology. The findings of this study indicate that emergent leadership appears to hold a dominant presence within GVTs and could be more engaged in the collaboration and knowledge-sharing process compared with hierarchical and shared leadership interactions. Misiolek and Heckman (2005, p.3) posited that emergent leadership style recognizes that interactions among team members give rise to one or more individuals emerging to perform the leadership behaviors that the team requires. Ziek & Smulowitz (2009) took the position more specifically that the phenomenon of emergent leadership is present in GVTs, and that multiple leaders emerge in most cases. This research also found that emergent leadership styles have the potential to influence the shared mental model of the knowledge and collaboration processes of GVTs by conceptualizing a Working Process Model (Tuffley, 2012). This Working Process Model conceptualizes leadership of the virtual environment of teamwork in a new way for the twenty-first century and beyond. Keywords: virtual teams, global virtual teams, shared leadership, emergent leadership, distributed teams, knowledge sharing, collaboration, project management1 Running head: LEADERSHIP STYLES WITHIN GVTS EMERGENT LEADERSHIP STYLES WITHIN GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS MICHAEL KEITH SIMMS A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty University of Maryland University College In Partial Fulfillment of The Requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Management Claudine SchWeber, Ph.D Diana Watts, Ph.D Summer 2016 2 Table of Contents List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................................... 5 List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................................... 6 Abstract ............................................................................................................................................................... 7 Dedication ............................................................................................................................................................ 8 Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 10 Background Statement .......................................................................................................................................... 10 The Significance of the Problem .............................................................................................................................. 16 Importance to Management .................................................................................................................................. 17 The Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................................................................... 18 Definitions of Terms ............................................................................................................................................... 19 Chapter 2: Literature Review, Conceptual Framework .................................................................................... 21 Teamwork Development toward Virtual Environment ........................................................................................... 21 Project Management and GVTs .............................................................................................................................. 22 Leadership in Global Virtual Teams ........................................................................................................................ 24 Collective Environment within GVT ......................................................................................................................... 25 Shared leadership within GVTS. . ............................................................................................................................ 29 Emergent leadership within GVTs.. ......................................................................................................................... 31 GVT collective environment styles influence. . ........................................................................................................ 35 GVT shared and emergent leadership style influence. . .......................................................................................... 37 Emergent leadership style collaboration and knowledge management within GVTs.. .......................................... 43 Emergent Leadership Style Influence on Performance and Satisfaction ................................................................. 43 Research Question(s) Connection with Literature Review ...................................................................................... 51 Argument/Proposition ........................................................................................................................................... 53 Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................................................... 55 Conceptualizing of GVT Performance or Satisfaction IPO Framework .................................................................... 55 Processes of Knowledge-Sharing and Collaboration ............................................................................................... 59 Chapter 3: Research Method ............................................................................................................................. 64 Evidence-Based Research Synthesis ........................................................................................................................ 64 Configurative Review Approach .............................................................................................................................. 66 3 Search Strategy ...................................................................................................................................................... 66 Unit of Analysis ...................................................................................................................................................... 72 Inclusion-Exclusion Criteria .................................................................................................................................... 72 Exclusion Exceptions .............................................................................................................................................. 73 Thematic Synthesis Coding Approach ..................................................................................................................... 75 Quality Determinants ............................................................................................................................................. 77 Quality Assessment Rubric ..................................................................................................................................... 78 Data Extraction ...................................................................................................................................................... 84 Data Analysis Approach ......................................................................................................................................... 87 Subject Matter Experts........................................................................................................................................... 90 Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ...................................................................................................................... 91 Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing Working Process Model ............................................................................. 92 Shared Mental Model ............................................................................................................................................ 98 Summary Emergent Leadership Style WPM .......................................................................................................... 116 Proposition ........................................................................................................................................................... 118 Evidence Assessment Rubric Analysis ................................................................................................................... 119 Emergent Leadership Styles ................................................................................................................................. 125 Emergent Leadership Styles Awareness of Collaboration within GVTs ................................................................. 127 Dynamics of Emergent Leadership Styles.............................................................................................................. 129 Purpose Repeated ................................................................................................................................................ 130 Research Question Status .................................................................................................................................... 131 Emergent Argument............................................................................................................................................. 131 Limitation of the Study ......................................................................................................................................... 132 Chapter 5: Conclusions & Implications ........................................................................................................... 134 Emergent Leadership Style Fosters Collaboration and Knowledge-Sharing ......................................................... 136 Practical Implications for Management................................................................................................................ 139 GVT leadership development ............................................................................................................................... 141 GVT team member development .......................................................................................................................... 141 Future Research ................................................................................................................................................... 142 Appendix A: Thematic Codes .......................................................................................................................... 146 Appendix B: Diagram of Systematic Review ................................................................................................... 151 Appendix C: Expert Reviewer’s Feedback ...................................................................................................... 152 Appendix D: Research Tracking Chart ........................................................................................................... 154 4 Appendix E: Strength of Evidence ................................................................................................................... 159 References ........................................................................................................................................................ 160 5 List of Figures Figure 1: A virtual team Input- Process- and Output (IPO) model .............................................. 56 Figure 2: Input-Process-Output (IPO) framework ....................................................................... 57 Figure 3: Awareness of collaboration/knowledge-sharing. .......................................................... 62 Figure 4: Process used to identify relevant sources. .................................................................... 67 Figure 5: Keyword search terms represented as Boolean combination formulas. ....................... 69 Figure 6: Table of data extraction categories. .............................................................................. 84 Figure 7: Working Process Model (WPM) ................................................................................... 95 6 List of Tables Table 1: Levels of Evidence in Management Research ................................................................ 79 Table 2: Variation of Leadership Thematic Categories .............................................................. 118 7 Abstract Examining leadership in computer mediated communication is vital today due to the lessening of hierarchical organizational structures and the corresponding interest in managing virtual groups and teams (Sudweeks & Simoff, 2005, pp. 1-3). Recent work on Global Virtual Teams (GVTs) suggests “that leadership, in this electronic context, might be better viewed as a collective effort distributed among team members and characterized by the sharing and rotating of leadership roles” (Zigurs, 2003, p.341 ; Avolio, 1999). Emerging leadership styles within this collective appear to influence team member behaviors(Lisak & Erez, 2015; Nordback & Espinosa, 2015). This phenomenon may be unique in a virtual environment, which could be a departure from traditional leadership theories. The purpose of this study is to examine the model of emergent leadership styles using a process based approach. The particular focus will be on knowledge-sharing and collaboration processes. The research question investigated is, “How can emergent leadership styles within global virtual teams foster knowledge sharing and collaboration processes?” The argument of this study is that the model of emergent leadership styles appears to have the greatest potential to gain insights into a collective environment within GVTs. Such insight could possibly influence knowledge-sharing and collaboration among team members, which may enhance the working processes of virtual entities. The dissertation used an evidence based research synthesis (EBRS) methodology. The findings of this study indicate that emergent leadership appears to hold a dominant presence within GVTs and could be more engaged in the collaboration and knowledge-sharing process compared with hierarchical and shared leadership interactions. Misiolek and Heckman (2005, p.3) posited that emergent leadership style recognizes that interactions among team members give rise to one or more individuals emerging to perform the leadership behaviors that the team requires. Ziek & Smulowitz (2009) took the position more specifically that the phenomenon of emergent leadership is present in GVTs, and that multiple leaders emerge in most cases. This research also found that emergent leadership styles have the potential to influence the shared mental model of the knowledge and collaboration processes of GVTs by conceptualizing a Working Process Model (Tuffley, 2012). This Working Process Model conceptualizes leadership of the virtual environment of teamwork in a new way for the twenty-first century and beyond. Keywords: virtual teams, global virtual teams, shared leadership, emergent leadership, distributed teams, knowledge sharing, collaboration, project management 8 Dedication To God be the glory for seeing me through the completion of another life endeavor, which was a desire of my heart. It is in HIM that I live and move and have my being. I dedicate this dissertation to Archbishop Alfred A. Owens Jr. and Co-Pastor Susie Carroll Owens, mentors whose preaching and teaching built my faith to take on this arduous journey to obtain a second doctorate. 9 Acknowledgement I would like to acknowledge all of the individuals who helped make my Doctor of Management journey and dissertation a success. Without the help of these individuals far and near, none of this would have been accomplished. I would like to acknowledge my dissertation committee: Dr. Diana Watts and Dr. Claudine SchWeber who were my co-chairs in this endeavor. Their continued feedback and guidance throughout this intellectual journey have shaped the quality of my dissertation, helping to develop my skills in critical thinking, deductive reasoning, and research judgment. I would like to acknowledge my sister, JoAnne Denise O’Bryant, whose unconditional love and kindness was one of the motivations that kept me going when the challenges of life and family made this endeavor unbearable at times. I would further like to acknowledge the individuals who participated as expert panel members and provided valuable feedback regarding my dissertation. Lastly, I would like to acknowledge those individuals, including friends and co-workers not mentioned by name, who also provided support and guidance over the years. 10 Chapter 1: Introduction Background Statement The widespread globalization of the workforce in many industries, along with rapid advances in information and communication technologies, has led to an increasing use of global virtual teams (GVTs) in organizations (Bell & Kozlowski, 2009, p. 40; Shamir, 2009, p. 69). “In recent years, companies have increasingly turned to virtual teams as a means of connecting and engaging geographically dispersed workers, lowering the costs associated with global collaboration, and enabling greater speed and adaptability” (Bell & Kozlowski, 2009, p. 40; Shamir, 2009, p. 69). In the global workforce, virtual teams have a strong advantages over conventional face-to-face teams, as GVTs can gather the best people for a specific task, independent of their geographical location, and can therefore supply a sort of ‘just in time talent’ through more efficient human resources deployment (Lisak & Erez, 2015, p. 11; Zigurs, 2003, p. 339). GVTs are temporary in nature, dispersing when the project ends. They are normally used in the development of global software and new products, where teams involve several businesses, time zones, and cultures (Pauleen, 2004, p. 193). Zigurs (2002) argued that leadership within GVTs appears to exist in a variety of forms. GVTs may operate under an assigned leader, but they may also benefit from the varied leadership behaviors of other team members that enable the team to successfully move forward. As a result of the dispersed nature of the virtual environment, leadership styles appear to shift among members at different points in time over the life of their shared work (pp. 342-343). Research by Morgenson (2005) and Zaccaro and Bader (2002) has demonstrated that leadership can make a critical difference in GVT performance and effectiveness. Cascio and Shurygailo (2003) also argued that leadership within virtual teams play an important role in modeling effective teamwork, and in setting ground rules for team members to engage in 11 successful team processes. In short, leadership within the global virtual workforce appears to be an integral part of effective team performance. Numerous surveys indicate that fewer than 50% of companies used GVTs in 2000; by 2008, over 65% of surveyed companies stated that their reliance on GVTs would escalate in the future. Moreover, among companies with more than 10,000 employees, the use of GVTs was projected to be 80% (Hoch & Kozlowski, 2014, p. 390). Intel Corporation is a prime example of a large company using GVTs. A global manufacturer of semi-conductor chips, servers, and other high-tech products, Intel Corporation has 80,000 employees worldwide. The company’s five major U.S. sites are distributed throughout the western USA, each with multiple campuses—and each campus having a complex of four or more buildings. Non-US sites encompass manufacturing and, more and more frequently, software development. The sites span the globe: Russia, Israel, Ireland, China, Philippines, India, and Malaysia, with sales offices in far more countries (Chudoba, Wynn, Lu, & Watson-Manheim, 2005, pp. 284- 286). Intel Corporation’s motivations for being distri

A positive approach to business ethics education

Author: Hillard Jeffrey L.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2016
Field of study

Business students are not effectively learning to become ethical business managers. Prevailing business ethical educational pedagogies are negative, unattractive, inconsistent, confusing and counterproductive. Positive business ethics is not about not doing the wrong thing. It is about doing the right thing for a reason, and doing it better. Positive business ethical behaviors build trust, which creates competitive advantages through reputations, relationships, reduced costs and risk management. Positive business ethics fundamentally asserts that business people’s role in society has great worth. A positive approach will motivate business students to learn and retain business ethics by making it relevant to their careers. The outdated chains of compliance are retooled into implements to fulfill positive career aspirations by customizing positive ethical behaviors to each business discipline. Synthesized historical and current practice, seminal theory, case and empirical studies all converge to support that ethical behavior simultaneously creates long-term value and an important role in today’s world. Learning is enhanced through an attractive and consistent basis for rational management decision making. A positive ethical lens filters and focuses the section and delivery of curriculum, turning ethical dilemmas into opportunities pursued by career motivated students. Business students are transformed into ethical managers and leaders contributing to their successful virtuous organizations, where unethical individuals are poor team players. Integrating a positive approach to business ethics education across the business disciplines will improve educational effectiveness, enhance business schools, prepare the next generation of ethical managers and leaders, enhance careers, add value to businesses, and benefit society at large.Running Head: A POSITIVE APPROACH TO BUSINESS ETHICS EDUCATION A Positive Approach to Business Ethics Education Jeffrey L. Hillard A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College In Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Management Submitted to: Dr. Eric Dent and Dr. G. David Andersen April 10, 2013 A POSITIVE APPROACH TO BUSINESS ETHICS EDUCATION 2 © Copyright by Jeffrey L. Hillard 2013 A POSITIVE APPROACH TO BUSINESS ETHICS EDUCATION 3 Acknowledgements The first and most important expression of true appreciation goes to my family, my wife Janet, and my daughters Laura and Kaylee Hillard. Over the past three years, they have provided a great source of encouragement while tolerating a nearly constant stream of positive business ethics. I appreciate their sacrifices while enduring my physical and mental absence, and love them all the more for their forgiveness and insights. I also sincerely appreciate all that my parents, Kitty and Lew Hillard, have done in setting an example for a happy and meaningful life. In a family, personal and their business context, my parents have always provided the most wonderful role models that a son could ever hope for. I am so thankful for my loving family. The doctoral journey would not be possible without scholars willing to share their wisdom and encouragement. My mentor, Dr. Dan Singer exemplifies this role, adding true friendship and a lot of bagels. The candid and relevant subject matter expert panel recommendations from Dr. Singer, Dr. Roy Lewicki and Dr. Norman Endlich provided critical redirection and focus one year ago. My trusted friends at Baltimore City Community College, Dr. Shawn Lane and John Wiley, both generously provided thoughtful listening and insights throughout the DM program. Outstanding UMUC faculty provided critical guidance at particular points along the path. These scholarly lamp holders include: Dr. John Sherlock for initial direction, Dr. Thomas Vernon for evidence-based research, Dr. Laura Drake Witz for argumentation and how to write a paragraph, Dr. Robert Bromber for guidance toward completion, and Dr. David Anderson for this role as thesis advisor. Dr. Eric Dent’s extraordinary scholarly guidance has consistently shown the way to the successful completion of this thesis. I gratefully acknowledge and sincerely thank all of my family, friends, and mentors during this doctoral journey. A POSITIVE APPROACH TO BUSINESS ETHICS EDUCATION 4 Dedication Two of my best friends passed away during my doctoral journey. In their own unique ways, these friends were true role models of positive business ethical management and leadership, and how to live a happy and fulfilling life. This thesis is dedicated to the enduring fond memories of Dr. Leo Y. Min and R. Kevin Coleman. A POSITIVE APPROACH TO BUSINESS ETHICS EDUCATION 5 Abstract Business students are not effectively learn ing to become ethical business managers. Prevailing business ethical educational pedagogies are negative, unattractive, inconsistent, confusing and counterproductive. Positive business ethics is not about not doing the wrong thing. It is about doing the right thing for a reason, and doing it better. Positive business ethical behaviors build trust, which creates competitive advantages through reputations, relationships, reduced costs and risk management. Positive business ethics fundamentally asserts that business people’s role in society has great worth. A positive approach will motivate business students to learn and retain business ethics by making it relevant to their careers. The outdated chains of compliance are retooled into implements to fulfill positive career aspirations by customizing positive ethical behaviors to each business discipline. Synthesized historical and current practice, seminal theory, case and empirical studies all converge to support that ethical behavior simultaneously creates long-term value and an important role in today’s world. Learning is enhanced through an attractive and consistent basis for rational management decision making. A positive ethical lens filters and focuses the section and delivery of curriculum, turning ethical dilemmas into opportunities pursued by career motivated students. Business students are transformed into ethical managers and leaders contributing to their successful virtuous organizations, where unethical individuals are poor team players. Integrating a positive approach to business ethics education across the business disciplines will improve educational effectiveness, enhance business schools, prepare the next generation of ethical managers and leaders, enhance careers, add value to businesses, and benefit society at large. Keywords: Business Ethics, Positive, Education, Management, Value Creation. A POSITIVE APPROACH TO BUSINESS ETHICS EDUCATION 6 Table of Contents (1 of 3) Acknowledgements .............................................. .......................................................................... 3 Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... 4 Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 5 Figures and Tables .......................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter One - Introduction ............................................................................................................10 Problem Statement ......................................................................................................................10 Purpose Statement ......................................................................................................................10 Context/Background ...................................................................................................................11 Theoretical Bases .......................................................................................................................11 Research Question ......................................................................................................................13 Research Methods .......................................................................................................................13 Definition of Terms ....................................................................................................................13 Business ethics .........................................................................................................................13 Functional schools of business.................................................................................................16 Negative business ethics educational content ..........................................................................16 Positive business ethics education (PBEE) .............................................................................23 Insights from positive psychology for PBEE...........................................................................23 Insights from positive organizational scholarship for PBEE ..................................................25 Assumption and Argumentation Basis........................................................................................28 Delimitations and Limitations ....................................................................................................29 Thesis Significance .....................................................................................................................29 Organization of Thesis ...............................................................................................................30 Chapter Two – Literature Review ..................................................................................................31 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................31 Assessing Current Business Ethics Education ............................................................................31 Bloom’s Taxonomy applied to business ethics education ......................................................33 Empirical evidence of marginal effectiveness of business ethics education ...........................36 Evidence of inconsistency as an inhibitor of effectiveness .....................................................39 Evidence of negativity as the norm and the impact of pluralistic ignorance (PI) ....................42 Assessment conclusion: inconsistency, negativity, norms, and motivation ............................45 Foundations of a Positive Approach to Business Ethics Education ...........................................46 Positive business ethics: A learning objective for student success ..........................................47 Theories of value creation for consistent affective and cognitive learning .............................49 Stakeholder capitalism theory ..................................................................................................53 Relevant corporate codes of conduct .......................................................................................55 United Nations Principles for Responsible Management Education (PRME). ....................56 The Caux Round Table .........................................................................................................56 The Caux Principles ..............................................................................................................57 The Caux sub-principles and stakeholder management guidelines ......................................57 Cognitive ethical management competencies ..........................................................................58 Pro-Management Theory .........................................................................................................60 The mediating role of trust .......................................................................................................63 A POSITIVE APPROACH TO BUSINESS ETHICS EDUCATION 7 Table of Contents (2 of 3) Chapter Two – Literature Review continued: Examples of Positive Ethical Curricular Content .......................................................................66 Ethical executive leadership role models .................................................................................66 Value creation discussion ........................................................................................................67 Positive case studies .................................................................................................................69 Applied empirical studies ........................................................................................................70 Conclusion of Literature Review ................................................................................................72 Chapter Three – Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................73 Introduction ................................................................................................................................73 Conceptual Framework for Ethical Management as a Learning Objective ................................73 Theoretical foundation ............................................................................................................75 Guiding corporate principles ....................................................................................................76 Management competencies ......................................................................................................77 The positive ethical lens ..........................................................................................................78 Positive ethical lens: Positive psychology ............................................................................80 Positive ethical lens: Positive organizational scholarship ...................................................80 Positive ethical lens: Pro-management theory ......................................................................81 Positive ethical lens: The four reasons of ethical behavior and trust (4Rs) .............................82 Reputations ..........................................................................................................................84 Relationships .........................................................................................................................85 Reduced costs........................................................................................................................87 Risks managed .....................................................................................................................88 Summary: Positive ethical lens ...........................................................................................89 Conclusion to Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................89 Chapter Four – Methodology ........................................................................................................91 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................91 Discussion of Evidence-Based Research and Methodology ......................................................92 Discussion of Relevant Scholarly Evidence ..............................................................................95 Presentation of Expert Panel ......................................................................................................96 Evidence Based Feedback Process ...........................................................................................98 Display and Discussion of Expert Panel Recommendations ...................................................100 Modifications and New Directions Planned based upon Expert Panel Recommendations .....103 Chapter Summary and Conclusions – Redirection of Thesis Scope and Content ...................105 A POSITIVE APPROACH TO BUSINESS ETHICS EDUCATION 8 Table of Con tents (3 of 3) Chapter Five: Analysis and Discussion ......................................................................................107 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................107 Restatement of Purpose ............................................................................................................107 Restatement of Research Question ..........................................................................................108 Business Ethics Education is Ineffective in Developing Ethical Decision Making ................108 Positive Approaches to the Contributory Causes of Business Ethics Educational Ineffectiveness .....................................................................................................................................................109 Negative tone is inconsistent with business language, hampering attraction to learning .....110 Positive approach: Ethical behavior is a management competency and a leadership quality .....................................................................................................................................................112 Negative expectations of ethical business norms increases pluralistic ignorance (PI) .........113 Positive Approach: Ethical behavior is the norm in a business context ...............................114 Inconsistent goals and level of analysis hamper cognitive affective domain interaction .....119 Positive approach: Ethical behavior is good business ..........................................................122 Complexity of multiple normative philosophical and social ideologies causes confusion ..123 Positive approach: There are four reasons for ethical behavior and trust .............................125 Example of functional area - Accounting ..............................................................................127 Alternative Perspectives ...........................................................................................................129 Summary ..................................................................................................................................130 Chapter 6: Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations for Future Study .....................133 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................133 Overall Conclusions ..................................................................................................................134 Implications for Management ..................................................................................................135 Implications for management of schools of business ...........................................................135 Implications for management of educational publishing companies ....................................137 Implications for management at large ...................................................................................138 Implications for managerial consulting and corporate training firms ...................................139 Implications of Trends .............................................................................................................139 Sustainability, climate change and environmental awareness ..............................................139 Globalization .........................................................................................................................140 Increasing values of intangible assets ...................................................................................141 Limitations and Areas for Future Research .............................................................................142 Future research: The role of incentive compensation ...........................................................142 Future research: Applying a positive ethical framework to finance .....................................143 Future research: Applying a positive ethical framework to ethical leadership .....................145 Future research: The foundations of a new discipline ..........................................................147 Summary ..................................................................................................................................147 References ...................................................................................................................................156 Appendix A – Subject Matter Expert Panel Supporting Documents ........................................171 Appendix B – Dissertation Presentation at SOARs Event .......................................................181 A POSITIVE APPROACH TO BUSINESS ETHICS EDUCATION 9 Figures and Tables Figure 1: Principles of Management Textbook: Negative Business Ethics Education .................22 Figure 2: Bloom’s Taxonomy Applied to Business Ethics Education ..........................................35 Figure 3: Trust and Distrust: Alternative Social Realities .............................................................64 Figure 4: Conceptual Framework for Ethical Management as a Learning Objective ...................74 Figure 5: The Positive Ethical Lens: Filtering and Focusing for Ethical Management.................79 Figure 6: The Four Reasons of Trust and Ethical Behavior (4Rs) ................................................82 Table 1: Subject Matter Expert Evaluation

The impacts of workplace bullying on organizational climate

Author: Adera Rosette Burakari
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2016
Field of study

This dissertation was conducted via a systematic review of evidence based research on the impacts of workplace bullying on organizational climate. Using a systematic review of scholarly literature (2003–2016), this dissertation synthesized and combined evidence on the impacts of workplace bullying on organizational climate with the aim of discovering implications for management. Evidence pointed to impacts to individuals within organizations and direct impacts to organizational climate. Findings indicated that workplace bullying was positively related to trickle-down/systemic workplace bullying, negative reciprocity, threats to health and wellness, stress and mental strain, errors and low productivity, workgroup deviance, low perception of psychological safety, psychotropic drug use, and intention to leave. Workplace bullying also was found to be negatively linked to organizational commitment, team cohesion and creativity, job satisfaction, organizational performance and citizenship behavior. The dissertation suggested that perceived organizational support (POS) and the inherent psychological contract were interventions in climates where workplace bullying existed, contributing significantly to workplace safety, employee commitment and employee engagement. These findings have significant implications for management practice.IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE 0 THE IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE By Rosette Burakari Adera A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College in Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management 2016 Dissertation Committee: Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D. James P. Gelatt, Ph.D. IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE 1 RESERVED FOR PROQUEST COVER SHEET IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE 2 Acknowledgement To God be all the Glory and Praise This far I have come only by Your grace, mercy and favor. BARUCH HASHEM ADONAI Much gratitude to my dedicated advisor Dr. Kay Edwards, thank you for your perseverance, guidance and support; Dr. James Gelatt, thank you for that critical third pair of eyes. Heartfelt thanks to my husband Tony and my children Ishimwe and Baraka for steadying my hand. Thanks for helping me to keep my eyes on the ball. And to the prayer warriors, you know who you are – thanks for staying on your knees while I stayed up to study and write. And when all is said and done, now and always BARUCH HASHEM ADONAI IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE 3 Abstract This dissertation was conducted via a systematic review of evidence based research on the impacts of workplace bullying on organizational climate. Using a systematic review of scholarly literature (2003-2016), this dissertation synthesized and combined evidence on the impacts of workplace bullying on organizational climate with the aim of discovering implications for management. Evidence pointed to impacts to individuals within organizations and direct impacts to organizational climate. Findings indicated that workplace bullying was positively related to trickle-down/systemic workplace bullying, negative reciprocity, threats to health and wellness, stress and mental strain, errors and low productivity, workgroup deviance, low perception of psychological safety, psychotropic drug use, and intention to leave. Workplace bullying also was found to be negatively linked to organizational commitment, team cohesion and creativity, job satisfaction, organizational performance and citizenship behavior. The dissertation suggested that perceived organizational support (POS) and the inherent psychological contract were interventions in climates where workplace bullying existed, contributing significantly to workplace safety, employee commitment and employee engagement. These findings have significant implications for management practice. Key words: Workplace bullying, perceived organizational support, psychological contract and Social Exchange Theory. IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE 4 Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1. Statement of purpose …………………………………………………………….......6 1.2. Prevalence and significance of the problem………………………………………....6 1.3. Importance to management…………………………………………………….........10 1.4. Key term definitions ..………………………………………………………….........11 1.5. Types of workplace bullying …………………………………………………..........15 1.6. Distinguishing workplace bullying from other forms of unwanted workplace actions……………….................................................................................15 1.7. Measuring workplace bullying ……………………………………………………....16 1.8. Focusing on organizational climate ………………………………………………….17 1.9. Research question; proposition ………………………………………………............18 1.10. Organization of the dissertation ………………………………………………...........18 1.11. Summary.…………………………………………………………………………......19 Chapter 2: Systematic Review of the Literature 2.1. Overview ………………………………………………………………………………20 2.2. Research question ……………………………………………………………...............20 2.3. Emerging themes ……………………………………………………………................20 2.4. Negative impacts by leadership (abusive supervision) on organizational climate…......21 2.5. Impacts of workplace bullying on perceptions of psychological safety and organizational justice ………………………………………………………………….71 2.6. Impacts of workplace bullying on employee wellness and productivity……………...108 2.7. Impacts of workplace bullying on organizational commitment ………………………131 2.8. Theoretical framework…………………………………………………………………152 2.9. Summary of theoretical framework…………………………………………................154 2.10. Themes as they emerged from the literature……………………………………….......155 2.11. Summary of Chapter 2……………………………………………………....................156 Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework 3.1. Introduction to Chapter 3………………………………………………………………157 3.2. Organization of Chapter 3 ………………………………………………......................157 3.3. Research question, preposition and the themes that emerged from the SR…................158 3.4. Impacts of workplace on org. climate as viewed through SET, POS, and PC…………158 3.5. Conceptual framework for this dissertation……………………………………………162 3.6. Summary of Chapter 3 ………………………………………………….......................165 Chapter 4: Methodology 4.1. Evidence Based Research and Evidence Based Management……................................167 4.2. Discussion of evidence …….. ……………………………………………....................175 4.3. The use of an expert panel…….………………………………………………..............179 4.4. Summary of Chapter 4 ………..……………………………………………..................179 IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE 5 Chapter 5: Analysis and Discussion 5.1. Presentation and summary of findings resulting from the literature review………...181 5.2. Research Question; Proposition in light of findings ……………………………...185 5.3. Research conclusions ……………………………………………………….............187 5.4. Consideration of other points of view not included in the systematic review………188 5.5. Summary of Chapter 5………………………………………………..……………..151 Chapter 6: Conclusions, Implications and Trends 6.1. Overall conclusions………………………………………………………….............192 6.2 Implications for effective management ……………………………………………..193 6.3. Implications of emerging trends…………………………………………………......196 6.4. Limitations of the dissertation ……………………………………………................197 6.5. Suggestions for future research………………………………………………..……..198 6.6. Summary of Chapter 6 …………………………………............................................200 6.7. Summary of dissertation ……………………………………………….....................200 Figures Figure 1: Theoretical Framework…….……………………………………………………...152 Figure 2: Conceptual Framework …………………………………………………...............162 Figure 3: Stages of Thematic Synthesis……………………………………………………...171 Figure 4: PRISMA …………………………………………………………………………..174 Figure 5: Search Results ……………………………………………………………..............175 Figure 6: Workplace Bullying Outcomes…………………………………………………….185 Tables Table 1: PRISMA Statement ...……………………………………………………………….178 Table 2: Summary of Outcomes of 32 Studies Included in the Systematic Review………….183 References ………….………………………………………………………………..............203 Appendices …………………………………………………………………………..............208 Appendix A…LIPT …………………………………………………………………………..230 Appendix B…NAQ …………………………………………………………………………..232 Appendix C…NAQ-R ………………………………………………………………………..233 Appendix D…Bruce & Scott’s Measure of Creative Behavior ……………………………...234 Appendix E…POS (creative behavior)……………………………………………………….235 Appendix F…Stakeholder Panel Biographies ………………………………………………..236 Appendix G…Summary of Quantitative Data from Systematic Review Arranged by theme ………………………………………………………………………….239 IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE 6 Chapter 1 1.1. Statement of purpose The purpose of this dissertation was to examine the impacts of workplace bullying on workplace climate. The multidisciplinary attention in the scholarly literature to workplace bullying and its related impacts in the workplace spoke both to its pervasiveness and potential for harm to individuals’ psychological safety, to their overall health and wellness, and to their perceptions of fairness and justice in the workplace, all having implications for organizational commitment, employee productivity and organizational performance. Supported by concepts from the Social Exchange Theory, Perceived Organizational Theory and the Psychological Contract Theory, a systematic review of the literature, through evidence based research from 2003 through 2016, was conducted for this dissertation. 1.2. Prevalence and significance of the problem Workplace bullying can be defined as “repeated and persistent negative acts toward one or more individual(s), which involve a perceived power imbalance and create a hostile work environment” (Lavan & Martin, 2008, p. 148). As of June, 2016, the Healthy Workplace Bill (HWB) website stated that 37% of American workers (an estimated 53.5 million individuals) reported having been bullied at work and that an additional 12% had witnessed bullying of co-workers. This bill defined a healthy workplace in contrast to an abusive work environment and held the employer accountable for addressing employee concerns related to abusive work environments. The website also stated that twenty-nine states had given serious consideration to the bill and that a growing number of countries, including Sweden, France, the United Kingdom IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE 7 (UK) and Canada, already had legislation that addressed workplace bullying. A growing number of websites such as www.workplacebullying.org, www.stopworkplacebullies,wordpace.com and ReachOut.com (accessed June 28, 2016) listed harmful impacts of workplace bullying and called the public to action against the behavior. As will be seen in this dissertation’s systematic review of the literature, covering 2003-2016, workplace bullying had implications for psychological safety, health, productivity and organizational commitment by employees. It impacted organizational climate and overall performance. Research on mitigating the effects of workplace bullying pointed to legal and policy intervention (Namie, 2003; Carbo, 2009; Yamada, 2009). Many of the arguments for legal and policy interventions were based on lessons learned from existing laws that addressed similar and other forms of unethical workplace conduct, such as sexual harassment (Title IX of the Civil Rights Act), discrimination based on a protected class (such as race, sex and ethnicity) (Title VII of the Civil Rights Act), and various state policies against the intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED) (Carbo, 2009; Yamada, 2009). According to Keashly and Neuman (2010), as well as to Carbo and Hughes, (2010), European studies showed that an average of 16% percent of the people in the workforce in the UK, as well as Scandinavian countries, reported that they had experienced workplace bullying at least weekly. Many of these studies were of employees from diverse industries, with no data analysis by industry. Surveys from the Workplace Bullying Institute (WBI) had estimated that as many as 53.5 million workers or 27% of the U.S. workforce reported that they had been bullied at work (based on a 2014 survey). The WBI website also reported that according to a national survey, in the U.S., workplace bullying was four times more prevalent than unlawful forms of IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE 8 workplace harassment, such as sexual harassment or discrimination based on a protected class such as race, disability, or age. Other national, and some international, studies reviewed for this dissertation reflected similar statistics (Bandow & Hunter, 2007; Harvey, Treadway, Heames & Duke, 2009). Bandow and Hunter (2007), for example, cited studies that reported 20% of employees having had first-hand experience with workplace bullying, in the form of verbal abuse from managers, as well as employees’ perceptions of violations of justice/fairness workplace policies. A growing body of literature was found to link workplace bullying with serious and negative impacts on employee perceptions of workplace climate. Examples of such negative impacts to workplace climate were characterized as ‘antagonistic behaviors in the workplace (Yildirim, 2009), ‘vicarious bullying’ (Hollis, 2012), and the presence of ‘corporate psychopaths’ (Boddy, 2011; 2014). These cited studies are included in the systematic review of the literature presented in the second chapter of this dissertation. While this dissertation focused on the consequences of workplace bullying on organizational climate, studies also had shown that these impacts were observable in other areas of employees’ organizational experiences, such as individual employees’ creativity, innovation, and performance, as well as on employees’ perceptions of those experiences. Examples of studies in business research (Liu, Liao & Loi, 2012; Priesemuth, Schminke, Ambrose, & Folger, 2014), managerial research (Nielsen, 2013), business ethics (Lavan & Martin, 2008) and managerial psychology (Morten, Glasö, Stig, Eid, & Einarsen, 2013) either followed or were contemporaneous with similar research in the fields of public health and occupational health on the subjects of workplace bullying, and its influence on employee wellness and productivity. IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE 9 A recent American study (Indvik & Johnson, 2012) suggested that workplace interpersonal conflicts, which included workplace bullying, were estimated to cost up to forty-three billion dollars (

43B) a year in paid sick leave, hiring and on-boarding processes due to high turnover rates and, in some cases, compensation due to reported psychological injury. More recent data in one industry, higher education, provided by Hollis (2015) showed the estimated cost of workplace bullying. In her studies with university staff and faculty at small, medium and large institutions (public and private), Hollis (2015) calculated an hourly rate of

35.22 and on average a reported mean of 3.9 hours/week in negative interactions with a bully. Hollis’ studies also indicated a 62% exposure to workplace bullying in higher education (targets, bullies and witnesses). When Hollis multiplied the number of persons bullied by the number of hours missed per week and used an estimated hourly rate for 50 weeks of a university work year, she estimated an approximate loss per year due to workplace bullying of US4,684,999 for a medium sized college (1100 staff). Related studies also had linked workplace bullying and its impact on organizational climate, with reduced job performance and employee productivity (Lutgen-Sandvik, Tracy & Alberts, 2007; Linnan et al., 2008; Yildirim, 2009; Tsuno, Kawakami, Inoe, & Abe, 2010). Berry, Gillespie, Gates and Schafer (2012) found a significant link between workplace bullying and a reduced ability to carry one’s workload, while Simons and Mawn (2010) reported that bullying of newly licensed nurses resulted in errors that put patient care in jeopardy. Owoyemi (2011) found reduced performance and lowered commitment to the organization among para-military personnel who reported having experienced workplace bullying; and Yildirim, Yildirim & Timucin (2007) found that 38.4% of the respondents in one Turkish study reported difficulty concentrating on the job as a result of behaviors seen as harassment from IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE 10 managers and other colleagues. These behaviors were characterized by the study respondents as workplace bullying. Other studies had estimated that the costs to organizations in employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover attributed to workplace bullying ranged from 17,000-$24,000 per case (Ghosh, Jacobs, & Reio, 2011; Hollis, 2012). In Europe, mental illness related to workplace bullying was said to cost 1.3 billion Euros every year (Yeung & Griffin, 2008, cited by Ghosh et al. 2011, p.5) and one United Kingdom study of 5000 employees uncovered one million workdays lost in one year attributed to workplace bullying and bully avoidance (Keelan, 2000, as cited by Hollis, 2012). As is discussed in more detail in the second chapter of this dissertation, an employee’s colleagues, managers and subordinates could engage in harmful behavior that could be characterized as workplace bullying (Hollis, 2012). 1.3. Importance to management Workplace bullying had implications for organizational performance and productivity (Estes & Wang, 2008). In an environment of tight budgets, managers were expected to optimize their resources for maximum productivity. Workplace bullying could negatively affect existing positive individual and organizational behaviors and, as such, could challenge effective managers to prevent and appropriately respond to workplace bullying. A principle of management suggested that “responsive and accommodative” managers were expected to utilize the resources in their custody while also caring for the welfare of all stakeholders, including employees in their charge (Jones & George, 2011). The literature on workplace bullying, by contrast, suggested that some abusive managers elected to behave unethically by not nurturing the wellbeing of their employees, not heeding the ethical code of the organization and concealing employees’ concerns when they were raised to IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE 11 their attention. The literature also revealed that abusive supervision was contrasted with the behavior of ethical managers, who were seen as effective in leading by example and by investing in and inspiring the ethical behavior of employees. These role-modeling and inspirational characteristics of ethical management were further linked to higher employee commitment to the organization, higher productivity and lower turnover (Al-Hussami, 2009; Obiwuru, Okwu, Akpa & Nwankere, 2011). Given that it was found to be of concern to management, both scholars and practitioners, that workplace bullying affected employee commitment, performance or productivity and levels of turnover, a link between workplace bullying and effective management was posited. Managers’ functions were determined by their ability to plan (choose appropriate goals), organize (match work teams to tasks), control (monitor and measure performance) and lead (determine direction by example, persuasion, vision and communication) (Jones & George, 2011). As identified in the systematic review of the literature conducted for this dissertation, a supportive work environment was sensitive to threats to task performance, team cohesion, employee commitment and work climate. Behavior that influenced managers’ capacity to be effective, by positively influencing job satisfaction, job involvement (positive affect between an employee and his/her job), employee engagement (positive affect between employees and the organization) and overall organizational commitment, were identified as integral components of effective management (Fox & Stallworth, 2006; Lavan & Martin, 2008). Workplace bullying was suggested to negatively impact positive individual and organizational behaviors, challenging effective managers to prevent or respond to workplace bullying. 1.4. Key term definitions IMPACTS OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE 12 A hostile work environment: is evidenced, as per the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, by: “…name calling, threats, intimidation, ridicule, or mockery, insults or putdowns and interference with work performance.” The same source further stated that a hostile work environment was characterized by “unwelcome comments or conduct that is severe and pervasive enough that a reasonable person would consider it intimidating, hostile or abusive” (www.eeoc.gov). Manager: is a person tasked with the role of supporting “the work efforts of others” (Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn & Uhl-Bien. 2010). In some of the literature examined for this dissertation, the terms ‘manager’ and ‘leader’ were used and differentiated, depending on the evidence provided through the systematic review of the literature. Effective manager: is “one whose team or work unit…consistently achieves its performance goals while members remain capable, enthusiastic, and satisfied with their jobs” (Schermerhorn et al., 2010, p.14). Organizational (work) climate: is, as defined by Schneider and Reichers (1983), a group of collective perceptions of the behaviors, policies and procedures that speak to the sense of justice, ethics and safety of a workplace. This definition was further supported by Litwin (2001), cited in Ali

Addressing our nation's adult education skill gap through alternatives to high school equivalency in community colleges

Author: Browning Derrick S.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2016
Field of study

This dissertation presents the current environment with respect to adults lacking a high school credential and the existing structures, GED and adult basic education, that serve them. Recent work has been conducted suggesting more alignment is needed in the adult education system and specifically in developmental education in community colleges. This dissertation expanded on this work by proposing the introduction of an alternative to the GED and other high school equivalencies in the community college because these institutions already serve large numbers of the adult education population. The model introduced in this dissertation was developed by reviewing the literature on adult and developmental education as well as national policy expert opinions. This model is unique in that it seeks to ready participants for postsecondary or career success; the current alternative (predominantly the GED) is merely an exam and cannot assess readiness by itself. This dissertation also posits that having one avenue to certify high school equivalency is not effective in raising the educational attainment of adults in this country. Change management theories were also discussed to help community colleges or other stakeholders who are interested in implementing an alternative high school program in their institutions.ADDRESSING OUR NATION’S AE SKILL GAP THROUGH ALTERNATIVES TO HSE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES ADDRESSING OUR NATION’S ADULT EDUCATION SKILL GAP THROUGH ALTERNATIVES TO HIGH SCHOOL EQUIVALENCY IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES Derrick S. Browning A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Management Charlene Nunley, Ph.D. Ronald Head, Ph.D. ADDRESSING OUR NATION’S AE SKILL GAP THROUGH ALTERNATIVES TO HSE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES ii © Copyright Derrick Browning All Rights Reserved ADDRESSING OUR NATION’S AE SKILL GAP THROUGH ALTERNATIVES TO HSE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES iii ADDRESSING OUR NATION’S AE SKILL GAP THROUGH ALTERNATIVES TO HSE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES iv Abstract This dissertation presents the current environment with respect to adults lacking a high school credential and the existing structures, GED and adult basic education, that serve them. Recent work has been conducted suggesting more alignment is needed in the adult education system and specifically in developmental education in community colleges. This dissertation expanded on this work by proposing the introduction of an alternative to the GED and other high school equivalencies in the community college because these institutions already serve large numbers of the adult education population. The model introduced in this dissertation was developed by reviewing the literature on adult and developmental education as well as national policy expert opinions. This model is unique in that it seeks to ready participants for postsecondary or career success; the current alternative (predominantly the GED) is merely an exam and cannot assess readiness by itself. This dissertation also posits that having one avenue to certify high school equivalency is not effective in raising the educational attainment of adults in this country. Change management theories were also discussed to help community colleges or other stakeholders who are interested in implementing an alternative high school program in their institutions. Keywords: GED, General Educational Development, developmental education, adult education, adult basic education, community colleges, educational attainment, college readiness, Kotter, alternatives, high school equivalency ADDRESSING OUR NATION’S AE SKILL GAP THROUGH ALTERNATIVES TO HSE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES v Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge my mother, Anna Lou Browning, for inspiring me to investigate this topic. When I was a young child, my mother desired to go to vocational school. One thing stood in her way: she lacked a high school diploma. We were poor (to put it lightly), and with two young children, my mother sought to obtain a GED in order to get into vocational school. While my dad worked and my older sister was in school, I saw how hard she studied for the GED. When it came time to take the test, she was nervous, but she passed the exam! She was not as excited as I thought she should be, so I asked why. She indicated that some of her classmates had passed when they clearly had cheated. This always bothered both her and me. Fast forward 20 years, and I found myself working for the organization that owned the GED—the American Council on Education. I had not planned this; it simply was a job I came into. After working there and seeing the major financial impact the exam made on that organization, but the seemingly miniscule impact the exam made on the population without a high school diploma, I knew I wanted to investigate the issue further. To that extent, I would like to thank Charlene Nunley, who started the Doctor of Management in Community College Policy and Administration at University of Maryland University College, for allowing me to study this topic. After several courses with Charlene as my lead faculty and then as my dissertation chair, I grew very appreciative of her patience with me. I am sure she was equally as frustrated when I stopped and started writing this dissertation. For this patience, I will forever be grateful. I would also like to thank my amazing cohort of doctoral learners who embarked on this journey alongside me. Their support really helped me through difficult times of my life during this ADDRESSING OUR NATION’S AE SKILL GAP THROUGH ALTERNATIVES TO HSE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES vi program and after. Even though this is an acknowledgments section, I would like to say firsthand that cohort models of educational delivery help students persist! Lastly, I would like to thank my cat, Cher. Cher has been my pen pal and furry stress reliever throughout this doctoral program. She helped me to rest when I needed it on so many nights when I would stay up later than I should. With one look, a swish of the tail, a purr, and a pervasive cat maneuver of lying across my laptop, I knew when it was time to turn in each night. ADDRESSING OUR NATION’S AE SKILL GAP THROUGH ALTERNATIVES TO HSE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES vii Table of Contents Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1 Problem Statement .......................................................................................................... 1 Purpose Statement ........................................................................................................... 4 Contextual Background Related to the Problem ............................................................. 4 Theoretical Basis ............................................................................................................. 10 Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 12 Definition of Terms ......................................................................................................... 13 Significance of Study ...................................................................................................... 16 Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 20 The Current Environment ................................................................................................ 20 Education Policy ............................................................................................................. 23 Existing Alternatives to the GED .................................................................................... 27 Community Colleges as Viable Providers of Adult Education ....................................... 31 The GED and College Readiness .................................................................................... 35 Best Practices in Developmental Education .................................................................... 38 Bridge Programs .................................................................................................. 42 Accelerated Models ............................................................................................. 43 Learning Communities ........................................................................................ 44 Programmatic Components of DE ...................................................................... 46 Summary of Best Practices in DE ....................................................................... 47 Learning Theory .............................................................................................................. 49 Management Theory ....................................................................................................... 52 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 56 Chapter 3: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .............................................................................. 58 Collaboration Component ............................................................................................... 65 Academic Component ..................................................................................................... 69 Socialization Component ................................................................................................ 73 Self-Awareness Component ............................................................................................ 74 Conceptual Model Summary ........................................................................................... 76 Chapter 4: METHOD .................................................................................................................. 78 Evaluation Research ........................................................................................................ 78 Systematic Review .......................................................................................................... 81 Survey Research .............................................................................................................. 82 Research Methods Summary ........................................................................................... 85 Search Process and Literature Selection ............................................................. 86 Key Literature Selected for Purpose of Study and Conceptual Model ........................... 89 Critique Criterion: Bibliographic Information .................................................... 90 Critique Criteria: Justification for the Study and Statement of the Research Question .......................................................................................... 91 Critique Criterion: Sample Population ................................................................ 93 ADDRESSING OUR NATION’S AE SKILL GAP THROUGH ALTERNATIVES TO HSE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES viii Chapter 4 (continued) Critique Criterion: Research Procedure .............................................................. 95 Critique Criteria: Overall Results, Implications for Change, and What’s Missing .............................................................................................. 97 Key Literature Used in Addressing Research Questions .................................... 103 Expert Review ..................................................................................................... 103 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 107 Chapter 5: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................. 108 Analysis of Expert Review .............................................................................................. 108 Contribution to Understanding of a Significant Issue in Community Colleges .......................................................................................................... 109 Contribution to the Practice of Management in the Community College ........... 111 Originality of Topic or Approach ........................................................................ 112 Quality of References .......................................................................................... 113 Validity of Assumptions ...................................................................................... 115 Rigor of the Study or Argument .......................................................................... 117 Thoroughness of Presentation ............................................................................. 117 Validity of Conclusions or Proposition ............................................................... 119 Quality of Writing ............................................................................................... 121 Research Questions and Analysis ................................................................................... 121 Research Question 1 ............................................................................................ 122 Research Question 2 ............................................................................................ 126 Research Question 3 ............................................................................................ 134 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 137 Chapter 6: IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE, AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH, AND ACTION STEPS .................................................................................................... 140 Implications for Management Practice in Community Colleges .................................... 140 Action Steps for Implementation ........................................................................ 140 Areas for Future Research and Limitations of Study ...................................................... 148 Final Remarks ................................................................................................................. 150 References .................................................................................................................................. 152 Appendix A: Evaluation Form Sent to Expert Reviewers .......................................................... 166 Appendix B: Summary of Responses Provided by Experts ........................................................ 167 ADDRESSING OUR NATION’S AE SKILL GAP THROUGH ALTERNATIVES TO HSE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES ix List of Tables Table 4.1 Reports on the GED Population ...................................................................................... 79 4.2 Keywords Used in the Literature Search ......................................................................... 87 4.3a Analysis of Select Peer-Reviewed Primary Sources Used in This Study ....................... 100 4.3b Analysis of Select Non-Peer-Reviewed Sources Used in This Study ............................. 102 4.4 Analysis of Primary Sources Used in Addressing Research Questions .......................... 104 5.1 Findings From the Expert Review Panel Responses to Question 1 ................................ 109 5.2 Findings From the Expert Review Panel Responses to Question 2 ................................ 111 5.3 Findings From the Expert Review Panel Responses to Question 3 ................................ 113 5.4 Findings From the Expert Review Panel Responses to Question 4 ................................ 114 5.5 Findings From the Expert Review Panel Responses to Question 5 ................................ 115 5.6 Findings From the Expert Review Panel Responses to Question 6 ................................ 117 5.7 Findings From the Expert Review Panel Responses to Question 7 ................................ 118 5.8 Findings From the Expert Review Panel Responses to Question 8 ................................ 120 5.9 Findings From the Expert Review Panel Responses to Question 9 ................................ 121 5.10 Primary Sources Attributed to Analysis of Research Question 1 ................................... 122 5.11 Primary Sources Attributed to Analysis of Research Question 2 ................................... 127 5.12 Models Found in Rutschow and Crary-Ross (2014) Pertinent to Research Question 2 ........................................................................................................ 132 5.13 Primary Sources Attributed to Analysis of Research Question 3 ................................... 135 5.14 Overview of Sources Used in Analyzing Research Questions........................................ 139 ADDRESSING OUR NATION’S AE SKILL GAP THROUGH ALTERNATIVES TO HSE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES x List of Figures Figure 2.1 Number of GED test takers, completers, and passers from 2009-2013 .......................... 21 2.2 Kotter’s eight accelerators of change .............................................................................. 53 3.1 Inputs and outputs of current high school equivalency system ....................................... 59 3.2 Conceptual model of an alternative high school equivalency in the community college ............................................................................................................................. 63 4.1 Contextual mapping of high school equivalency in the community college .................. 86 ADDRESSING OUR NATION’S AE SKILL GAP THROUGH ALTERNATIVES TO HSE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 1 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION Problem Statement Higher education attainment in the United States has deteriorated compared with other developed nations in recent years (College Board, 2008). In fact, since this report was released, the United States now ranks 4th among developed countries for adult citizens aged 25-64 with a college education (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2015a) but 11th when looking at young adults (25-34) possessing higher education degrees (OECD, 2015b), while high school graduation rates come in 13th for the United States (OECD, 2014). These figures suggest that younger generations of workers in the United States are less educated, and thus less prepared, than their predecessors. Shifting demographic, economic, and social factors certainly contribute to these changes, and many studies are underway to help researchers better understand the variety of factors that have contributed to the decline. One alarming educational statistic stands out: almost 40 million adults in this country do not possess a basic high school diploma (GED Testing Service, 2013). An additional 1.3 million students drop out of high school each year (Editorial Projects in Education Research Center, 2010). Only 1.8 million participants were enrolled during 2011-2012 (the latest year for which data are available) in the adult education system (U.S. Department of Education, 2015a). A population of this magnitude will certainly contain diverse traits and needs that will inherently necessitate different approaches to educational delivery if the country is to be effective in raising its educational levels. Other research sponsored by the Department of Labor has estimated that around 37 million adults are interested in postsecondary education, but are unable to participate for a variety of reasons including the lack of a high school diploma (Kazis et al., 2007). These are not numbers; these are people. These people have fewer opportunities and less earnings potential because they do ADDRESSING OUR NATION’S AE SKILL GAP THROUGH ALTERNATIVES TO HSE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 2 not possess the minimum educational credentials or skills to prepare them for higher education or higher-paying jobs. The infrastructure currently addressing the needs of these populations is a problem. State-operated adult basic education (ABE) and developmental education (DE) in community colleges are two primary providers of adult education (AE); however, both systems have limitations. ABE is a fragmented system that often leaves disenfranchised participants to navigate the myriad AE services themselves (Reder, 2007; Rutschow & Crary-Ross, 2014; Sparks & Peterson, 2000), while DE struggles to help students become college-ready (Bailey, Jeong, & Cho, 2010). In addition, ABE programs primarily assist participants in earning the General Educational Development (GED) credential (Strawn, 2007). However, labor outcomes research has clearly shown the added value of having an educational credential above that of the high school diploma or GED to make one more competitive in the labor market (Foster, Strawn, & Duke-Benfield, 2011; Phillippe & Gonzalez-Sullivan, 2005; Strawn, 2007). Even in states where ABE is offered through community colleges, organizational structure is also often problematic at the institutional level because silos exist to serve the ABE, GED, and DE needs of participants separate and distinct from one another. There is also inconsistency in the number of test takers the GED program solicits each year. This is evident in seemingly contradictory statements in key findings of the 2012 and 2013 GED Annual Statistical Reports. According to the GED Testing Service (2013), “In recent years there has been a small decline in testing, and subsequently in the number of completers” (p. 2). Yet, one year later, the GED Testing Service (2014) offered the following statement: “2013 saw a spike in testing volume over 2012,” but attributed this spike to the closeout of the latest version of the exam (p

2016 - 2017 UMUC Stateside Graduate - Catalog

Author
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 2016
Field of study

Preparing boards for a successful presidential search

Author: Snyder Brittany P.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 23/10/2015
Field of study

A significant number of community college trustees are ill-prepared to develop and execute an effective presidential search process.Spurling, 2001; City College of San Francisco; N = 464,958 Preparing Boards for a Successful Presidential Search Brittany P. Snyder Conceptual Model Systematic Review Findings The model comprises four components: 1) the continuous cycle of presidential turnover; 2) theoretical perspectives and models which may influence the decision-making processes; 3) governing board practices affecting the implementation of the search process; and 4) the potential outcomes of the presidential search process. significant issue facing governing boards and trustees as community college presidents retire at staggering rates board and trustee effectiveness are influenced by what a trustee knows about his/her duties and responsibilities board and trustee training and development impact trustee knowledge and trustee preparedness five areas are critical for board and trustee training and development: 1. board orientation 2. board training opportunities 3. trustee external education opportunities 4. information and data provided by staff 5. development opportunities based on the board’s self evaluation Implications for Researchers Future research: • Identify factors which promote a diverse candidate pool • Return on investment of the cost of a presidential search process • Relationship between a sufficient qualified pool of candidates and the length of the search process The Graduate School University of Maryland University College Adelphi, Maryland The Problem A significant number of community college trustees are ill-prepared to develop and execute an effective presidential search process. Research Questions • What knowledge and skills do community college boards and individual board members need to conduct effective presidential searches? • What strategies can be employed to prepare boards and individual board members to conduct effective presidential searches? Mixed Methodology Approach Systematic Review • A critical appraisal of the available literature • Identified errors that can have an effect on the study results; such as bias • Analyzed and synthesized data The systematic review of the literature found a variety of high quality studies that document extensive presidential turnover, board and trustee development, and board and trustee effectiveness. However, there was not a strong research base related to the causes of ineffective presidential searches, trustee knowledge and skills, or best practices for an effective presidential search process. Phenomenological Study • Understand several individuals’ common experience of a phenomenon • Structured in-depth interviews with five elite individuals • Audio-recorded interviews consisted of open-ended questions to ascertain the participant’s experience, knowledge, and thoughts about the study topic • Data was segmented, coded, and analyzed using thematic analysis • To mitigate researcher bias, an independent third party listened to the interviews and concurred with the researcher’s conclusions. Hypotheses Hypothesis 1: Incorporating best practices into a presidential search process can mitigate the factors which contribute to an ineffective search process. Hypothesis 2: Providing board and trustee training and development opportunities relevant to their duties and responsibilities in a presidential search process will contribute to an effective search process. •Search firm/consultant •Search committee •Internal search •External stakeholders •Right fit candidate •Best option candidate •Interim president •Extended search •Trustee selection process •Trustee qualifications •Trustee orientation •Trustee training •Retirements •Resignations •Terminations •Illness •Death Presidential Turnover Level of Trustee Preparedness to Conduct Presidential Search Presidential Search Presidential Search Outcome Stakeholder Theory, Johari Window & Upper Echelons Theory Stakeholder Theory, Johari Window & Upper Echelons Theory Study Limitations • Purposive , non-random sample vs. a random sampling technique • Elite interview sample focused on presidents and search consultants and did not include trustees • Small sample size included five participant

Recruiting nurses to teach: A systematic review of recruitment strategies to reduce nursing faculty shortages in community colleges

Author: Hill E.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2015
Field of study

Community colleges across the U.S are experiencing a nursing faculty shortage in their nursing programs. The inability to attract and recruit nurses to teach presents community colleges with the burden of lengthy student waitlists and/or the rejection of qualified student applicants at a time where the interest in nursing programs is high. A review of current literature and practice documented various contributing factors of nursing faculty shortages, which include faculty age and retirements, lower pay in comparison to salaries in hospitals and clinics, and a shortage of MSN prepared faculty. The purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic review of the available literature on best practices for ameliorating nursing faculty shortages with a particular emphasis on finding and analyzing strategies for recruiting in a tight labor market and to make the best recommendations for managing this problem. This study answered the following research question: Given the difficulty that community colleges face in recruiting and hiring nursing faculty, what recruitment strategies, singly and in combination, do research and practice show would be effective in reducing this hiring gap? Based on the research findings, a blueprint recruitment model was developed to guide community college leaders through the process of updating their recruitment strategies to improve recruitment not only of nursing faculty but also the recruitment of employees college wide in tight labor conditions. In addition, several key areas, which call for additional research, emerged: assessing nursing student’s perceptions of teaching roles and the actual impact of current or trial recruitment and marketing strategies aimed at community college nursing faculty.RECRUITING NURSES TO TEACH IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 1 RECRUITING NURSES TO TEACH: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF RECRUITMENT STRATEGIES TO REDUCE NURSING FACULTY SHORTAGES IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES Eboni L. Hill Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland University College In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management August 2015 Advisory Committee: Dr. Patricia A. Keir Dr. Trudy Bers RECRUITING NURSES TO TEACH IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 2 Abstract Community colleges across the U.S are experiencing a nursing faculty shortage in their nursing programs. Their inability to attract and recruit nurses to teach presents community colleges with the burden of lengthy student waitlists and/or the rejection of qualified student applicants at a time where the interest in nursing programs is high. A review of current literature and practice documented various contributing factors to nursing faculty shortages, such as faculty age and retirements, lower pay in comparison to hospitals and clinics, and a shortage of MSN prepared faculty. The purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic review of the available literature on best practices for ameliorating nursing faculty shortages with a particular emphasis on finding and analyzing strategies for recruiting in a tight labor market and to make recommendations for managing this problem. Based on research findings, a blueprint recruitment model was developed to guide community college leaders through the process of updating their recruitment strategies to improve recruitment of nursing faculty in tight labor conditions. Several key areas were identified as subjects for additional research, including assessing nursing student’s perceptions of teaching roles and the actual impact of current or trial recruitment and marketing strategies aimed at community college nursing faculty. RECRUITING NURSES TO TEACH IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 3 Dedication Very special thanks to my son Dorian, my mom Ineda, and my dad Bill for always believing in me and tolerating me through this entire process. To my family, friends, and colleagues, I thank you for your love, support, and prayers! RECRUITING NURSES TO TEACH IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 4 Acknowledgements First, I would like to give thanks to my Lord and Savior for listening to my prayers and granting this desire of my heart. I would like to thank the faculty and staff of University of Maryland University College for being so attentive to students’ needs in this program. I would like to thank Dr. Charlene Nunley for assigning an integrative case study paper in her leadership class, which led to my settling on this fascinating dissertation topic. A very special thank you goes to my primary advisor, Dr. Patricia Keir! Throughout this challenging journey, you have believed in me, pushed me, and taught me the importance of striving for excellent work. Your patience and guidance has prepared me for a very promising future in the community college sector. I am forever grateful for all that you do to help your students be great! Also, I would like to acknowledge Dr. Trudy Bers for her encouragement and support. You provided an eagle eye for detail, helping me learn the value of producing a quality product I can be proud of! Another special thanks goes to Dr. Susan McMaster for her willingness to review my work and provide valuable feedback on how to improve; and, to my editor, Michelle LeFurge, for her expert guidance toward a perfect dissertation. I am forever in debt to my expert panel reviewers, Dr. Nancy Kothenbeutel, Cynthia Bailey, MSN/RN, and Vivian Reeves, MSN/RN, for their time and insight helping me understand my dissertation topic from a practitioner’s vantage point. I will never forget the time spent at residency or working on projects with my peers in the DMCCPA program. Our time together will remain with me for a lifetime. RECRUITING NURSES TO TEACH IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 5 Table of Contents Dedication 3 Acknowledgements 4 List of Tables 7 List of Figures 8 Chapter One: Introduction 9 Growing Need for Qualified Nurses 10 Nursing Program Significance to Community Colleges 10 History of Community College Nursing Programs 12 Background of the Problem 13 Problem Statement 18 Significance of the Problem 29 Theoretical Framework 33 Definition of Key Terms 36 Statement of Purpose and Organization of Dissertation 38 Research Question 39 Summary 40 Chapter Two: Methodology 41 Systematic Literature Review Process 41 Research Method 43 Research Process 43 Systematic Review 44 Historical Research Analysis 45 Thematic Development 46 Preliminary Synthesis 46 Robustness Synthesis 47 Research Questions 48 Key Words and Search Criteria 49 Literature Evaluation 54 Expert Review 61 Conclusion 66 RECRUITING NURSES TO TEACH IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 6 Chapter Three: Literature Review and Conceptual Model 67 Background and Contributing Factors to the Nursing Faculty Shortage 67 Challenges and Opportunities in Recruiting Nursing Faculty 74 Analysis of Current Practices and Strategies to Attract Nurses into Faculty Positions 77 Labor Shortages 104 Marketing and Recruitment Theories and Strategies 108 Conceptual Model 119 Conclusion 122 Chapter Four: Analysis and Findings 124 Critical Analysis of Expert Panel Feedback 125 Synthesis of Findings from Reviewed Literature 132 Other Findings 149 Unanticipated Findings 150 Limitations 151 Conclusion 152 Chapter Five: Implications for Practice and Suggestions for Future Research 153 Purpose of the Study 153 Implications of Findings for Community College Practice 153 Opportunities for Future Research 157 Conclusion 158 References 159 RECRUITING NURSES TO TEACH IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 7 List of Tables Table 1 .....................................................................................................................................................................16 Table 2 .....................................................................................................................................................................36 Table 3 .....................................................................................................................................................................50 Table 4 .....................................................................................................................................................................53 Table 5 .....................................................................................................................................................................56 Table 6 .....................................................................................................................................................................58 Table 7 .....................................................................................................................................................................60 Table 8 .....................................................................................................................................................................61 Table 9 .....................................................................................................................................................................68 Table 10................................................................................................................................................................ 125 Table 11................................................................................................................................................................ 154 Table 12................................................................................................................................................................ 156 RECRUITING NURSES TO TEACH IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 8 List of Figures Figure 1. Presents an opportunity for reducing nursing shortages ..............................................83 Figure 2. Survey of strategies/factors, which attracted nurse educators. Provides rationale in this dissertation for understanding why nurse educators decide to teach...................................91 Figure 3. Survey of strategies to help increase number of nurse educators. Provides rationale in this dissertation for understanding nurse perceptions of increasing nurse educators. .........92 Figure 4. FIT Framework Quadrant. Consistent with the theory of FIT framework for recruitment efforts in this dissertation ...............................................................................111 Figure 5. Hypothesized model of career choice. Represents candidate behaviour that leads to withdrawal from a recruitment pool ..................................................................................114 Figure 6. Explains the sourcing method for projecting how many applicants, interviews and acceptance of job offers must occur to prevent a hiring shortage. ....................................119 Figure 7. Conceptual framework presenting the contributing factors, motivating factors, research question, problem, desired outcome, effective strategies, investigation, and theories consistent with this dissertation. ..........................................................................121 Figure 8. An example of an active campaign to recruit nurse educators. .................................143 Figure 9. An example of an active campaign to recruit nurse educators .................................144 Figure 10. Common community college tenure track nurse educator job advertisement. ........145 RECRUITING NURSES TO TEACH IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 9 Chapter One: Introduction Higher education institutions across the country are currently experiencing an influx of applications from qualified students hoping to seek admissions into nursing programs. However, most community colleges do not have the capacity to support the increased demand for admissions into nursing programs due in part to nursing faculty shortages. In 2011, Associate Degree in Nursing (ADN) programs turned away 85% of qualified nursing applicants (National League of Nursing, 2011). It would be difficult for a community college to increase nursing admissions without first managing the recruitment of qualified nursing faculty. Kowalski and Kelley (2013) contend that, “for regulatory and educational reasons, it is not possible to increase the supply of nurses significantly without increasing the supply of faculty; assuming faculty retires at age 65 and a very conservative 3% annual turnover rate exists” (p. 3). The nursing faculty shortage is causing lengthy delays in admissions as well as rejected applications of qualified students. While there are several factors that have caused community colleges to limit their nursing admission enrollments annually, the focus of this dissertation is nursing faculty shortage. Nursing faculty shortages are a priority for the American Association of College Nurses (AACN). In a 2013 they said: “AACN is leveraging its resources to secure federal funding for faculty development programs, collect data on faculty vacancy rates, identify strategies to address the shortage, and focus media attention on this important issue” (p. 1). RECRUITING NURSES TO TEACH IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 10 Growing Need for Qualified Nurses Not only do nursing faculty shortages affect community colleges and their ability to educate nursing program students, it also affects society. Patient care can suffer when hospitals and clinics are unable to staff their facilities with highly trained nurses. If institutions are unable to produce skilled nurses in a timely fashion, it will be difficult to meet these growing challenges in healthcare settings. According to Heller, Oros, and Durney-‐Crowley (2011), Population shifts in the United States have affected health care priorities as well as the practice of nursing. Due to advances in public health and clinical care, the average life span is increasing rapidly. By 2020, more than 20 percent of the population will be 65 and older, with those over 85 constituting the fastest growing age group. (para. 1) Nursing Program Significance to Community Colleges Nursing education is a very valuable program in any higher education institution but is particularly essential to community colleges. It is the mission of community colleges to provide accessible and affordable education and training for its students. AACC (2010) wrote, “diversity is a community college hallmark, and ensuring a diverse workforce amid rapidly changing demographics is essential. In thousands of rural communities, ADN programs are the only educational option, and communities rely on ADN graduates for care” (para. 3). The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2005) wrote, “associate degree programs account for 59 percent of all RN programs, and about the same RECRUITING NURSES TO TEACH IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 11 proportion—60 percent of all RN students—are admitted annually into such programs” (p. 10). AACC (2011) reported similar data on associate degree in nursing programs along with these quick facts about nursing programs in community colleges: ▪ Associate degree in nursing (ADN) programs educate nearly 57% of registered nurses (RN). ▪ Both two-‐year and four-‐year schools of nursing teach the competencies necessary for successful RN practice, as measured by RN licensure exam pass rates and shared workplace roles. ▪ Only graduate-‐level nursing programs provide RNs with the competencies required for specialty nursing, advanced practice, and faculty roles. ▪ ADN-‐prepared RNs represent a solid economic and social investment, since they are more likely to work and reside in the states where they earn their degrees. ▪ Three quarters (74.8%) of RNs in rural settings received their initial nursing degrees through either an ADN or diploma program, at 57.2% and 17.6% respectively (pg. 5). ACCT President and CEO J. Noah Brown said, “community college nursing programs are a vital component of the healthcare industry and the well-‐being of all Americans” (American Association of College Nurses, 2012, para 5). Brown added, “governing boards need to ensure that we continue to provide high-‐quality pathways into the nursing profession and support the professional advancement of our nation’s nurses” (para 5). According to the Fulcher and Mullin (2011): RECRUITING NURSES TO TEACH IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 12 The nation relies on both 2-‐ and 4-‐year institutions of higher education for the majority of its registered nurses (RNs), who are authorized to practice as RNs after achieving either an associate or bachelor’s level nursing degree and passing a national licensure exam. Due to job growth and retirements, the nation is projected to need more than 1 million additional RNs by 2018. Yet, recently, schools of nursing received thousands of qualified applications that could not be processed for enrollment due primarily to a shortage of RNs educated at the graduate level who are prepared to serve as faculty. (p. 4) The nursing faculty shortage in community colleges could be significantly reduced if more nurses were qualified to teach. Additional faculty would mean more nurses could be educated in response to the nursing shortage in hospitals or clinics. If nursing faculty shortages continue to challenge community colleges and their ability to educate potential nurses, then the communities they serve will feel the impact in reduced healthcare. Whether they are operating in big cities or in rural areas, this is an urgent issue requiring focus on management practices that will reduce nursing faculty shortages. History of Community College Nursing Programs Understanding the history of nursing education programs in community colleges and how they evolved puts the challenges faced today in perspective. Before community colleges implemented nursing programs, experienced nurses trained aspiring nurses in hospitals. In what were called diploma schools of nursing, hospitals filled the need for nurses, ensuring that students acquired the necessary skills to become clinicians. RECRUITING NURSES TO TEACH IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 13 However, during the Great Depression, the nursing profession faced unemployment challenges that were met during World War II when the need for nurses grew injured soldiers returned home (Jackson, 2002). In 1965, diploma schools of nursing began to close and community colleges adapted the diploma schools program model into two-‐year degree program offerings. Jackson (2002) wrote: In 1951, Dr. Mildred Montag suggested that one way to increase the number of nurses was to shorten their education period. She also recommended that they be trained in colleges and universities instead of diploma schools. In her dissertation “The Education of Nursing Technicians,” she proposed a two-‐tiered system in which “technical” nurses, who would be trained for two years, largely in community colleges, would assist “professional” nurses, who would receive four-‐ year degrees. (para. 7) Today, community colleges provide access to underrepresented students and those who are unable to afford four-‐year degree programs in nursing. Community colleges have become highly sought after institutions of choice for aspiring practitioners looking for an affordable nursing education. However, the reality is that there are not enough nursing faculty members at community colleges to support the demand for admissions into nursing programs. Background of the Problem Community colleges are instrumental to the nursing profession due to their low cost and accessibility to the health professions they provide for students. Community college faculty across many programs, including nursing, has a high “baby boomer” RECRUITING NURSES TO TEACH IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 14 population. Since baby boomers are currently retiring and will continue to retire, it places a strain on community colleges to quickly fill those positions. According to Hurst (2010), “baby boomers have had a significant impact on nursing faculty shortages. Aging baby boomers have been reaching retirement age in large numbers, with differing expectations about what retirement means” (p.25). Aiken (2011) wrote, Within the next 10 years, half of nursing-‐school faculty members will reach retirement age; the anticipated attrition represents a crisis in the making, with potentially far-‐reaching consequences for the replenishment of the nurse workforce, which is itself on the verge of losing some 500,000 nurses to retirement. (para 2) A master’s in nursing (MSN) is the minimum credential required to teach in community college nursing programs. It is important to understand that doctoral and MSN programs at universities are essential in helping community colleges find needed faculty. Due to accreditation standards, community colleges across the country require a faculty member in nursing to possess at least an MSN degree to teach at their institutions, and a faculty with at least a doctor of nursing practice (DNP) degree is needed to prepare that MSN student. If doctoral and MSN programs are suffering nursing faculty shortages, then they are unable to prepare potential nursing faculty for community colleges, who teach ADN students, who will ultimately serve as a pool for the MSN and DNP programs. With a high demand for nursing programs at community colleges and a low supply of available nurse educators, a continued shortage of nurses is expected by year 2020 when 20% of the population will reach age 65 or older and will potentially require the RECRUITING NURSES TO TEACH IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES 15 healthcare of trained nurses (Heller, Oros, & Durney-‐Crowley, 2011). A systematic review of practice in the literature is needed to shed light on this growing problem so that the supply of nurses will be available and ready to work in nursing positions as well as teach in nursing programs (Heller, Oros, & Durney-‐Crowley, 2011). Lack of nursin

Fiscal Year Fact Sheet 2015

Author: University of Maryland University College
Publication venue: University of Maryland Global Campus
Publication date: 01/01/2015
Field of study

The UMUC fact sheet for fiscal year 2015

Enhancing Survivor Attitudes and Behaviors Associated with Workforce Reduction Implementation Factors: A Systematic Review Using Realist Synthesis

Author: Madden Terri J.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 23/10/2015
Field of study

Organizations in the U.S. utilize workforce reductions as a means of achieving their corporate objectives. These organizations rely on the effectiveness of their remaining employees to contribute to the organization’s overall productivity. Thus, the attitudes and behaviors of surviving employees become important drivers of success. Perceptions of how workforce reductions are implemented (i.e., interactional, procedural, & distributive implementation justice) affect these attitudes and behaviors both positively and negatively. Organizations need evidence-based insights as to how they might positively influence survivor attitudes and behaviors.Identification Screening Included Articles identified via OneSearch on UMUC library (n = 99) Combined and de-duped (n = 187) Read titles & abstracts to confirm appropriateness to study (n=309) Read full text (n=153) Removed duplicates (n=23) Removed non-relevant reports (n=156) Assess quality (n=35) Removed non-relevant reports and reports describing same study (n=118) Eligible reports (n=32) Remove low quality/relevancy scores (n=3) Included reports (n=32) Reports identified via snowballing (79) , GoogleScholar (12), hand searching & grey literature (31) (n = 122) Eligibility Articles identified in ABI/Inform database (n = 111 ) Enhancing Survivor Attitudes and Behaviors Associated with Workforce Reduction Implementation Factors: A Systematic Review Using Realist Synthesis The Problem for Managers • By altering the downsizing implementation process, management can positively affect survivor attitudes and behaviors and encourage more productive reactions, such as increases in organizational commitment and trust. • Good communications throughout the process and opportunities for participation appear to be the most influential implementation tactics: o Communications should strive to be helpful, open, accurate, timely, comprehensive, reliable, informative, current, and consistent o Opportunities for employee involvement include designing the new organization structure, realigning workload roles and responsibilities, and providing input into the selection criteria Results Organizations in the U.S. utilize workforce reductions as a means of achieving their corporate objectives. These organizations rely on the effectiveness of their remaining employees to contribute to the organization’s overall productivity. Thus, the attitudes and behaviors of surviving employees become important drivers of success. Perceptions of how workforce reductions are implemented (i.e., interactional, procedural, & distributive implementation justice) affect these attitudes and behaviors both positively and negatively. Organizations need evidence-based insights as to how they might positively influence survivor attitudes and behaviors. The purpose of this study is to inform organizations as to how implementation factors influence downsizing survivor attitudes and behaviors. Implications for Practitioners Terri J. Madden Candidate for Doctor of Management University of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD The Evidence • Systematic Review using Realist Synthesis • Expert Panel Review Team: Academic Advisors: Dr. Mierzwa & Dr. Breckon SMEs: Dr. Denise Rousseau & Dr. Gretchen Spreitzer Management Practitioners: 2 VPs of Global HR • 35 articles from 31 journals were evaluated for quality and relevancy on generalizability, value of findings, methodology, and relevance to this study’s RQ. • 32 studies met the Q&R threshold and yielded 122 CMO relationships. Research Question How do workforce reduction implementation factors affect the attitudes and behaviors of the remaining employees? Method: The Process of Discovery • Implementation practices matter to survivors and can affect attitudes and behaviors. • Across all three implementation justices, organizational commitment was the survivor attitude most affected by changes in implementation practices. The second was trust. • Poorly perceived practices around distributive implementation justice affected survivor attitudes and behaviors more than ones perceived highly; whereas the opposite relationship was witnessed with interactional implementation justice. • Both high and low perceptions of procedural implementation justice affected survivor attitudes and behaviors with high perceptions displaying more associations. Implications for Scholars/Researchers Collective knowledge regarding the attitudes and behaviors of workforce reduction survivors would benefit from: • Examining differences across survivor demographics • Studying other potential contributing factors, including organizational culture, personal attributes, managerial reactions, and economic conditions • Using longitudinal studies with pre and post designs to establish causality • Incorporating less subjective data such as inputs from colleagues and HR • Search String: (Downsiz* OR Workforce n5 Reduc* OR Rightsiz* OR Layoff* OR Cutback*) AND (Remain* n5 Employee* OR Retained n5 Employee* OR Surviv* n5 Employee*) AND (“Implement* justice” OR “Organization* justice” OR “Distribut* justice” OR “Proce* justice” OR “Interact* justice” OR “Implement* Proc*”) • Sources: UMUC OneSearch, ABI/Inform Complete, GoogleScholar, snowballing • Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria: Limited to articles in English, peer-reviewed, published after1992 (based on SSCI), and Anglo cultures 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 United States Canada UK Australia Geographic Distribution 61% 24% 15% Study Type Quant Qual Mixed 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 Calendar Year of Publication Survivor Attitudes & Behaviors Procedural Interactional Distributive Downsizing Implementation Justice MECHANISMS OUTCOMES CONTEXT Cognitive Sensemaking & Appraising Strategic Control Coping or Escape Coping Active Constructive Responses or Destructive Responses Top 10 CMO Findings Based on Outcomes Implementation Justice Type QR Score Mechanism Relationship Outcome 1 High Procedural 190.0 Sensemaking/Appraising ↑ Org Commitment 2 High Procedural 78.5 Sensemaking/Appraising ↑ Trust 3 High Interactional 52.5 Sensemaking/Appraising ↑ Org Commitment 4 High Procedural 48.5 Sensemaking/Appraising ↑ Job Satisfaction 5 Low Procedural 44.0 Sensemaking/Appraising ↓ Org Commitment 6 High Procedural 41.0 Control Coping ↓ Intent to Quit 7 High Procedural 31.5 Sensemaking/Appraising ↓ Worry/Uncertainty 8 Low Procedural 23.0 Destructive/Passive Response ↑ Stress/Anxiety 9 High Distributive 21.5 Sensemaking/Appraising ↑ Org Commitment 10 Low Distributive 18.0 Sensemaking/Appraising ↓ Trust Conceptual Framework Key Finding

Millennial Leadership Development: Building Competencies with Best Practices

Author: Harrison Alissa
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 26/06/2015
Field of study

The purpose of this poster is to develop an understanding of Millennial leadership development, gain insights on how managers can use prevailing program approaches to address future leadership gaps in organizations, and provide decision-makers with recommendations when using best practice. programs to affect Millennial leadership developmentMillennial Leadership Development: Building Competencies with Best Practices Problem • Approximately 50% of the current Federal workforce is nearing retirement age (U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2013) • Nearly 1/3 of the Federal employees are Millennials (U.S. OPM, 2015) • Competency gaps exist in leading employees, change management, and building and mending relationships (Gentry et al., 2011) • There is no “one-size-fits-all” program that fills identified gaps to assist managers with building leadership competencies (Keller, 2009; Zingheim, 1996) • Millennial’s desire for hands-on learning and training activities make them a special group for human resource managers to develop (Kultalahti & Viitala, 2015) • Succession planning poses an incredible leadership challenge as the Baby Boomer generation retires with far fewer college-educated workers that are prepared to replace them (Groves, 2007) A leader’s organizational legacy is best preserved through actions that demonstrate care for developing a professional and competent work force (Kouzes & Posner, 2008) Purpose • Develop an understanding of Millennial leadership development • Gain insights on how managers can use prevailing program approaches to address future leadership gaps in organizations • Provide decision-makers with recommendations when using best practice programs to affect Millennial leadership development How can managers use current best practice program approaches to positively affect Millennial leader development (MLD)? Research Question What shortfalls or competency gaps (e.g., leading change, leading people, results driven, business acumen, building coalitions) can managers fill by using the best practice program approaches (e.g., 360-degree, coaching, mentoring, networking, job assignments, action learning, authentic learning) to affect Millennial leadership development? Methodology Studies identified for each program approach area: 360 (3) Coaching (4) Mentoring (5) Job Assignment (2) Networking (3) Action Learning (10) Authentic Learning (3) Implications for Practitioners Educate managers to use best practice program approaches for MLD succession and growth planning to fill leadership gaps Select program approaches that support planned MLD by specific department, sector, or organizational area Implications for Future Research Research comparing effectiveness of program approaches for MLD Conduct primary research to more clearly discern the role of the program approaches for MLD Examine how MLD influences current competency gap shortfalls Investigate how MLD changes the organizational needs for developing future generations of leaders (e.g., Generation Z) Gentry et al. (2011) U.S. OPM (2012) Conceptual Framework “How do you build organizations that merit the gifts of creativity, passion, and initiative?” (Gary Hamel, 2008) 1. What are the leadership competencies that organizations need to develop in their rising Millennial workforce? 2. What types of leadership programs perform best in producing Millennial leaders to develop the required competencies? 3. How can managers use best practice programs to develop Millennials? n=30 Studies 5 Case Studies 5 Systematic Reviews 17 Qualitative 2 Meta-analysis 1Theoretical Review i Systematic Review Thematic Analysis Engaged Stakeholders Gough et al. (2012) Briner et 2009) EBR Rigorous/Iterative Evidence Based Research (EBR) supported by engaged stakeholders throughout the systematic review process PRISMA RESULT Evidence identified specific program areas that were best for Millennial leadership development 1. Plan U.S. OPM’s(2012) core competencies aligned with Gentry et al.’s (2011) Millennial leadership practice competencies Included Studies Supporting Evidence Authors support MLD as an outcome of using the program approach Leading Change (9) Leading People (15) Results Driven (18) Business Acumen (4) Building Coalitions (4) If the program approach is: Then managers can expect: Supporting Literature by Author(s) 360-Degree Feedback Leading Change Externbrink & Inceoglu (2014); Johnson et al. (2012); Leading People Nowack & Mashihi (2012) Results Driven Coaching Leading Change Jantti & Greenhalgh (2012); Kombarakaran et al. (2008); Leading People Peet (2012); Perkins (2009) Results Driven Business Acumen Building Coalitions Mentoring Leading Change Chaudhuri & Ghosh (2012); Chen (2013); Chen (2014); Leading People Eby et al. (2013); Marcinkus Murphy (2012) Results Driven Networking Leading People Griffiths & Arenas (2014); Groves (2007); Markuns et al. Results Driven (2010) Job Assessment Results Driven McCauley et al. (1995); Zaccaro & Banks (2004) Action Learning Leading Change Brown and Czerniewicz (2010); Hirst et al. (2004); Kennedy et al. (2010); Kubiatko (2013); Leonard & Lang (2010); Narasuman et al. (2011); Shear et al. (2014); Valtonen et al. (2010); van den Beem et al. (2011); Venkatesh et al. (2014) Leading People Results Driven Business Acumen Building Coalitions Authentic Learning Leading People Jones & McCann (2005); Tennant et al. (2012); Venne & Results Driven Coleman (2010) •Drive for results •Deciding/Initiating Action •Goal setting/Prioritization •Analyzing •Technology •IT Competency Engag al. (Evidence and Synthesis Moher et al. (2009) Day (2000); Day et al. (2014) Findings and Conclusions Technical knowledge is a significant antecedent of the results driven competency for Millennials (Jones & McCann, 2005) Developing the results driven competency underpins leadership development of the Millennial cohort (Jantti & Greenhalgh, 2012) Coaching and action learning approaches act to enhance developing all five core competencies (U.S. OPM, 2012) Reverse mentoring capitalizes on Millennial interpersonal capabilities and preferences to develop leading people competencies through direct exposure to Baby Boomers (Marcinkus Murphy, 2012) Action learning can be tailored, and used with other approaches to build specific competencies while developing organizational leadership skills (Leonard & Lang, 2010) Leadership programs should be informed by the best available scientific evidence (Externbrink & Inceoglu, 2014

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