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A model of governance practices for a nonprofit organization's board of directors: A systematic review and meta-ethnographic synthesis

Author: Shore B.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2015
Field of study

The board of directors of a nonprofit organization (NPO) is responsible for governance. Unfortunately, many boards are not prepared or understand what it takes to govern, and as a result, some of these well-meaning nonprofits become exposed in the press, as scandals are uncovered. Much of the research that has examined the role of the board to govern the NPO has focused on a single organization, organizations in the same taxonomy, or NPOs in the same geographic area. In addition, anecdotal stories, while interesting, have served to increase the gap between what scholars offer and what is useful to an NPO board by expressing a personal experience that cannot be used by other NPOs. This research seeks to identify organizational practices that, when implemented, improve the probability that a board will effectively govern the NPO. Employing a systematic review of research on the role and responsibilities of the NPO board of directors this study develops a working model of organizational practices to identify, attract, and retain a board of directors capable of effective governance. From the study’s findings, three themes emerged that support specific organizational practices: a well-defined mission statement for the organization, a formal recruiting process for board members, and frequent training and development initiatives for the board. Each practice is an integral piece of facilitating a board of directors who are capable of governing the nonprofit organization.A MODEL OF GOVERNANCE PRACTICES FOR A NONPROFIT ORGANIZATION’S BOARD OF DIRECTORS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW AND META-ETHNOGRAPHIC SYNTHESIS By Brenda Shore Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management 2015 Advisory Committee: Dr. Thomas J. Mierzwa Dr. Denise A. Breckon ii © Copyright by Brenda Shore 2015 iii iv Abstract The board of directors of a nonprofit organization (NPO) is responsible for governance. Unfortunately, many boards are not prepared or understand what it takes to govern, and as a result, some of these well-meaning nonprofits become exposed in the press, as scandals are uncovered. Much of the research that has examined the role of the board to govern the NPO has focused on a single organization, organizations in the same taxonomy, or NPOs in the same geographic area. In addition, anecdotal stories, while interesting, have served to increase the gap between what scholars offer and what is useful to an NPO board by expressing a personal experience that cannot be used by other NPOs. This research seeks to identify organizational practices that, when implemented, improve the probability that a board will effectively govern the NPO. Employing a systematic review of research on the role and responsibilities of the NPO board of directors this study develops a working model of organizational practices to identify, attract, and retain a board of directors capable of effective governance. From the study’s findings, three themes emerged that support specific organizational practices: a well-defined mission statement for the organization, a formal recruiting process for board members, and frequent training and development initiatives for the board. Each practice is an integral piece of facilitating a board of directors who are capable of governing the nonprofit organization. Keywords: nonprofit, board of directors, govern(ance), organizational practices, meta-ethnography v Dedication We are influenced by many things in our life but for me, the most important is love and family. First and foremost is love and specifically, the love I have for and from my best friend and husband, Dave Kaiser. It is only with Dave’s belief and support that it was possible to have the privilege of writing this paper and completing my doctorate. When I had cause for celebration he was there with a glass of champagne and when I needed a boost to keep going, he was there to provide the needed push to keep me in the game. I thank my husband for everything he has given me, but most of all, I am so glad for his love. It is to Dave that this dissertation is dedicated. To my family, both immediate and extended, I thank you. You provided encouragement and love and made me believe that all things are possible. To my parents, John and Fran Shore, you have been my greatest supporter and advocate. No matter what I have sought to accomplish, you stood by and cheered me on to achievements that have made me the person I am today. Through your own work ethic and personal creed you have inspired me to develop and attain goals and to give of myself to others. I thank you for your continual support and dedicate my accomplishments to you both as a way of saying thanks for all you have done for me. Your life is a gift Treasure it with care You will always have our love And that wonderful family strength we share. by Fran Shore, written to me on December 29, 1998 Thank you Dave, Mom, and Dad. You make my life wonderful and I am proud to be your wife and daughter. I hope I have made you proud. vi Acknowledgements I have always maintained that an education is the one thing that no one can take away from you. As I have pursued my education there have been some notable people who have made my experiences richer and I am wiser for knowing them. While it is not possible to identify all of these great people, some must be acknowledged and thanked. First, I owe the pursuit of my own doctorate to Dr. Jerry (Yoram) Wind. As one of “Jerry’s Kids,” he taught me the importance of shifting my mental model and being open to how the world works. Dr. Wind gave me the impetus to keep growing and seek opportunities to expand my knowledge. Next I want to thank Dr. Thomas Mierzwa and Dr. Denise Breckon who for three years have encouraged, provoked, and guided me to create a dissertation that was important and relevant. Through their care and commitment to the doctoral process, I have been able to join the ranks of those before me who I admire who bear the title of doctor. Along with Drs. Mierzwa and Breckon, my cohort had an important role in making all of this possible. We set out on a long journey and together, with persistence and fortitude, we helped each other reach our goals. Lastly, I want to acknowledge my mentor and friend, Dr. Virginia Gauld. Jenny has always believed that my dream was possible. She made me laugh when things were tough and she let me vent when that was what was needed. The most important thing that she gave me, however, was confidence and there is no greater gift from a friend. Along the way, there were many other friends, professors, and sometimes, even strangers, who made my journey exciting and gave me the strength and determination to succeed. To each and every one of these people, I acknowledge your support and thank you. vii Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iv Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ xi List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Introductory Statement ................................................................................................................ 1 Problem Domain ......................................................................................................................... 2 Purpose of Study ....................................................................................................................... 10 Research Question ..................................................................................................................... 10 Theoretical Base ........................................................................................................................ 11 Definition of Terms ................................................................................................................... 12 Significance of Study ................................................................................................................ 12 Scope and Limitations ............................................................................................................... 13 Organization of Dissertation ..................................................................................................... 14 Chapter 2: Literature Review and Conceptual Framework .......................................................... 16 Literature Review ...................................................................................................................... 16 viii Theoretical Framework.......................................................................................................... 16 Research Review ................................................................................................................... 28 Socratic Inquiry ..................................................................................................................... 43 Proposition Summary ............................................................................................................ 44 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................. 46 Theoretical Lens .................................................................................................................... 46 Constructs of Conceptual Model ........................................................................................... 48 Conceptual Model.................................................................................................................. 51 Thesis Statement .................................................................................................................... 51 Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 53 Evidence-Based Management ................................................................................................... 53 Systematic Review Process ....................................................................................................... 54 Review Initiation ................................................................................................................... 55 Research Question and Methodology .................................................................................... 57 Search Strategy ...................................................................................................................... 62 Description of Study Characteristics ..................................................................................... 65 Quality and Relevance Assessment ....................................................................................... 67 Synthesis ............................................................................................................................... 77 Interpretation of Findings ...................................................................................................... 79 Using the Review................................................................................................................... 86 ix Validity, Bias, and Ethics .......................................................................................................... 87 Limitations ............................................................................................................................... 89 Feedback from Review Team and SMEs .................................................................................. 90 Chapter 4: Analysis of Findings ................................................................................................... 93 Organizational Practice #1: Mission Statement ........................................................................ 94 Organizational Practice #2: Recruiting Process ........................................................................ 96 Organizational Practice #3: Training and Development ........................................................... 98 Synopsis of Organizational Practices ........................................................................................ 99 Theoretical Implications of the Findings ................................................................................ 101 Revised Conceptual Model ..................................................................................................... 104 Limitations .............................................................................................................................. 108 Summary of Analysis of Findings ........................................................................................... 109 Chapter 5: Conclusion and Implications for NPO Boards .......................................................... 110 A Mission Statement to Attract Directors to Govern an NPO ................................................ 110 A Recruiting Process to Identify Directors to Govern an NPO .............................................. 112 Training and Development to Retain Directors to Govern an NPO ....................................... 113 The Three Organizational Practices in Tandem ...................................................................... 114 Implications for NPO Boards and Future Research ................................................................ 114 Engaged Governance Model for NPO Boards .................................................................... 114 Implications for Further Research ....................................................................................... 117 x Summary and Observations .................................................................................................... 118 References .................................................................................................................................. 120 Appendix A ................................................................................................................................ 140 Appendix B ................................................................................................................................ 142 Appendix C ................................................................................................................................ 144 Appendix D ................................................................................................................................ 145 Appendix E ................................................................................................................................ 146 Appendix F................................................................................................................................. 149 Appendix G ................................................................................................................................ 151 Appendix H ................................................................................................................................ 159 Appendix I ................................................................................................................................. 172 xi List of Tables Table 1. Prolific Authors of Scholarly and Practitioner Literature…………………………. 8 Table 2. Summary of Board Responsibilities by Researcher……………………………….. 37 Table 3. Summary of Propositions………………………………………………………….. 45 Table 4. PICOC for the RQ…………………………………………………………………. 57 Table 5. Mapping of Meta-ethnography Characteristics to Research Characteristics……… 60 Table 6. Integration of Systematic Review and Meta-ethnography Methodology………… 62 Table 7. Search Log Summary……………………………………………………………… 64 Table 8. Inclusion and Exclusions for Studies Selected, Including Rationale……………… 66 Table 9: Example of Weight of Evidence Framework Quality Appraisal Output………….. 69 Table 10: Results of Appraisal Process……………………………………………………... 70 Table 11: Count of Studies Used by Researcher……………………………………………. 74 Table 12: Contextual Summary of Literature………………………………………………. 76 Table 13: First, Second and Third-Order Meta-Ethnographical Concepts…………………. 78 Table 14: An Example of First-order Constructs …………………………………………... 81 Table 15: Summary of First, Second, and Third-order Constructs from Meta-ethnographic Synthesis……………………………………………………………………………………. 86 Table 16: Summary of Organization Practices Mentioned by Primary Researchers……….. 100 Table 17: Variables Mapped to Propositions and to Meta-ethnographic First-order Constructs to Validate the Efficacy of the Conceptual Model……………………………… 105 xii List of Figures Figure 1. 2014 NPO contributions by source …………………………................................ 4 Figure 2. The three modes of board governance …………………………………………… 6 Figure 3. The relationship and influence of NPO stakeholders ……………………………. 25 Figure 4. The theoretical framework examined through the levels of analysis…………….. 27 Figure 5. Theory of action and job performance……………………………………………. 39 Figure 6. The lens of agency theory, resource dependence theory and stakeholder theory… 47 Figure 7. Conceptual model for the study of NPO board governance…………………….... 51 Figure 8. Systematic review process………………………………………………………… 55 Figure 9. Continua of approach in a configurative systematic review……………………… 59 Figure 10. Fit between TAPUPAS dimensions and the Weight of Evidence framework…... 68 Figure 11. PRISMA diagram for research…………………………………………………... 72 Figure 12. Distribution of studies selected by journal………………………………............. 73 Figure 13. Dispersion of studies over selected years………………………………………... 74 Figure 14. Meta-ethnographic coding cycle and stages of synthesis……………………….. 79 Figure 15. Relationship between theory, organizational level, and practices………………. 102 Figure 16. Revised conceptual map based on findings……………………………………… 107 Figure 17. NPO board engaged governance model ………………………..………………. 116 1 Chapter 1: Introduction Effective governance by the board of directors of a nonprofit organization is a rare and unnatural act. Taylor, Chait, and Holland, 1996 Introductory Statement Reductions in federal funding to public programs, economic downturns, and an increase in public awareness through social media of humanitarian problems have put a heavy burden on nonprofit organizations (NPOs) and the board of directors who govern them. To support these changes, NPOs have increased their requests for funding. The donations made provide much of the resources for the NPO to conduct business and provide a service. Without these contributions, the NPO will fail, and the beneficiaries of the organization will suffer. Unfortunately, as much as each donor would like to believe that the money, or equitable product they are offering, goes to good use, the news is prolific with stories of fraud, abuse, and mismanagement. The oversight of the NPO and the group responsible for making sure that there is an appropriate use of donations is the board of directors (Internal Revenue Service, n.d.). Research, as well as popular books, expound on the importance of governance by an NPO board and offer a plethora of suggestions on what it takes to govern effectively. Most of the suggestions, however, target specific taxonomies or are so complex that they are not easily understood. Even with all of the information available, there is still a gap in many NPOs between what the boards should be doing and what is being done. The board may have administrative limitations imposed on the board that makes it difficult to absorb the voluminous, and sometimes confusing, information on governance, and at the same time, actually govern the board. Other boards want to trust those who work with them without exerting controls, and still others are just not familiar with what is required to reduce the susceptibility that exists for fraud and 2 embezzlement. To accommodate these very real constraints, the simplified model developed in this study will enable NPO leadership to implement organizational practices that promote engaged governance and encourage scholars to simplify their studies so that they are more useful to practitioners. This chapter provides relevant background on the problem, looks at existing research on the subject, covers the purpose of this study, includes the research question answered, and introduces the method used to conduct the research. In addition, the significance of this study and its scope are included. Problem Domain Nonprofit organizations, as a separate legal entity, are a recent phenomenon; the recognition of them as separate economic sector dates back only to the 1970s (Hall, 2010). They have emerged as one of the fastest growing sectors in the world. The nongovernmental organization (NGO) is the international equivalent to the NPO in the United States. While similarities exist, f

Millennial leadership development: Building competencies with best practices

Author: Harrison A. E.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2015
Field of study

The next generation will soon replace the retiring Baby Boomer workforce population. This study examines whether current best practice program approaches can assist managers in developing Millennial leaders. Using a systematic review process, an examination of thirty published articles and the reported results of prevailing leadership development explore developing needed competencies in the rising Millennial generation. The research effort reports the results of a thematic analysis of primary and systematic review studies that integrate the findings of the selected studies. Using a screening process, the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) tool, and a rigorous evaluation process, the selected primary studies review identified the program approaches that performed best to develop shortfalls in leadership competencies. A configurative iterative process further revealed five overarching themes: leading change, leading people, driving results, developing business acumen, and building coalition competencies supported developing Millennial leaders using best practice program approaches. This study advances the understanding of how managers can use best practices for Millennial leadership development. More studies that are empirical are needed to provide managers with evidence for determining programs that best develop specific competencies to facilitate Millennial leadership development.Running head: MILLENNIAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 1 Millennial Leadership Development: Building Competencies with Best Practices By Alissa E. Harrison Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Management Advisory Committee Dr. Leslie Dinauer Dr. Kriesta Watson December 2015 MILLENNIAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 2 Abstract The next generation will soon replace the retiring Baby Boomer workforce population. This study examines whether current best practice program approaches can assist managers in developing Millennial leaders. Using a systematic review process, an examination of thirty published articles and the reported results of prevailing leadership development explore developing needed competencies in the rising Millennial generation. The research effort reports the results of a thematic analysis of primary and systematic review studies that integrate the findings of the selected studies. Using a screening process, the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) tool, and a rigorous evaluation process, the selected primary studies review identified the program approaches that performed best to develop shortfalls in leadership competencies. A configurative iterative process further revealed five overarching themes: leading change, leading people, driving results, developing business acumen, and building coalition competencies supported developing Millennial leaders using best practice program approaches. This study advances the understanding of how managers can use best practices for Millennial leadership development. More studies that are empirical are needed to provide managers with evidence for determining programs that best develop specific competencies to facilitate Millennial leadership development. Keywords: Leadership development, Millennial, cohort, generational theory, coaching, mentoring, networking, action learning, authentic learning, 360-degree feedback, job assignment, competencies MILLENNIAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 3 Acknowledgements Often, a student makes the decision to pursue doctoral studies with the eventual goal of earning the title “Doctor” in the spur of the moment or over the course of years because of a passionate and developed curiosity on a particular subject. The latter was the case for me. Although this dissertation bears my name, I cannot begin to comprehend where I would be today with this research effort were it not for a small legion of some very special advisors, professors, colleagues, and family. I owe a debt of gratitude and my warmest thanks to Dr. Leslie Dinauer and Dr. Kriesta Watson, my research advisors, critics, coaches, and now friends. To Dr. Dinauer, thank you for the continual words of encouragement and challenges to expand my way of thinking. Your constant reminders of the process and that “you can do this” were a source of inspiration that kept me focused. For Dr. Watson, I will never be able to thank you enough for your encouragement and critical assessment of my technical approach in conducting this research and translating its results to a language understandable by non-researchers. Your consistent message to me on the criticality of active voice writing and presentation of the results of statistical analysis opened my eyes to unlimited possibilities in research. I will always remember your reminders “to not get this twisted!” Doctoral research and dissertation writing is a team sport. I want to provide my sincerest gratitude to my DM cohort for their years of friendship, critical analysis of my preliminary writing products culminating with this dissertation. We all spent many hours struggling with the thoughts of why were we putting ourselves through this process. For the faculty, and the extended DM Program family, thank you for showing me the many methods of proper documentation and how to properly and effectively search for relevant literature. Special thanks MILLENNIAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 4 to my expert advisor panel for assisting and keeping me on the right path to writing a focused dissertation product. Your inputs and critical analysis helped tremendously and made an immeasurable difference. Finally, and most importantly, I want to thank my husband, Michael Sr., who has shared in this journey. He epitomizes John Maxwell’s words, “a leader is one how knows the way, goes the way, and shows the way” (Baptiste, 2009, p. 13). Together, we have raised three precious Millennials: Michael, Jesse, and Mitchell are twenty-somethings poised and ready to replace the retiring Baby Boomers as tomorrow’s leaders. These three young men have provided the inspiration to pursue this research. In their eyes, activities, and dreams, and I see the future of leadership. I will be forever grateful for their insightful contributions and showing me the way! MILLENNIAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 5 Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 3 Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................. 11 Background and Overview ............................................................................................... 12 Problem Statement and Significance ................................................................................ 22 Study Purpose and Rationale ............................................................................................ 22 Importance to Management .............................................................................................. 23 Study Scope and Assumptions .......................................................................................... 24 Research Question ............................................................................................................ 26 Organization of the Dissertation ....................................................................................... 27 Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 29 Purpose of the Literature Review ..................................................................................... 29 Overview and Structure .................................................................................................... 30 Identification of Relevant Literature Studies .................................................................... 31 Theoretical Framework Literature Discussion .................................................................. 34 Leadership Development Approaches .............................................................................. 55 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 67 Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework .............................................................................................. 69 Propositions...................................................................................................................... 70 Competencies Linked to Program Approaches ................................................................. 71 Equation for Leadership Development ............................................................................. 72 Conceptual Framework Narrative ..................................................................................... 77 MILLENNIAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 6 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 79 Chapter 4: Research Methodology................................................................................................ 81 Evidence-Based Research and Methodology Discussion ................................................. 82 Selection of the Systemic Review Process ....................................................................... 84 Conducting the Systemic Review ..................................................................................... 87 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 137 Chapter 5: Analysis and Discussion of the Findings ................................................................. 138 Linking Competencies, Millennial Characteristics, and Best Practices ......................... 138 Millennial Leadership Competency Characteristics ....................................................... 143 Combining Best Practice Approaches for Optimum Millennial Leadership Development........................................................................................................................................ 151 Review of Research Propositions ................................................................................... 159 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 161 Chapter 6: Implications and Recommendations for Future Research ........................................ 162 Research Purpose ............................................................................................................ 162 Theoretical Implications ................................................................................................. 164 Management Implications ............................................................................................... 165 Limitations and Areas of Future Research ...................................................................... 171 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 173 References .................................................................................................................................. 175 Appendix A Systematic Review Data Collection Template Results .......................................... 197 Appendix B Expert Panel............................................................................................................ 198 Table B1 Expert Panel Members .................................................................................... 198 MILLENNIAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 7 Table B2 Expert Panel Survey Form .............................................................................. 200 Appendix C Electronic Database Search Results ....................................................................... 202 Table C1 Online Electronic Databases ........................................................................... 203 Table C2 Summarized Search Results ............................................................................ 204 Table C3 Included Studies: Summarized Search Results ............................................... 205 Appendix D Quality Assessment ................................................................................................ 212 Table D1 Quality Appraisal Checklist ............................................................................ 212 Table D2 Component Rating Summary .......................................................................... 214 Table D3 Global Rating Evaluation Summary ............................................................... 215 Appendix E Codes Used in Study ............................................................................................... 216 MILLENNIAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 8 List of Tables Table 1 Millennial Cohort General Characteristics and Work Preferences ................................. 39 Table 2 Current Leadership Development Program Approaches and Description ...................... 60 Table 3 Data Search Database Results ......................................................................................... 95 Table 4 Keyword and Concept Search Terms ............................................................................. 98 Table 5 Included Studies Summary: Research Characteristics ................................................. 109 Table 6 Included Studies Narrative Coding of Competency Themes ........................................ 114 Table 7 Included Studies Summary: Quality Assessment ........................................................ 130 Table 8 Included Studies Summary: Leadership Development Programs Contribution to Competency Themes ................................................................................................................... 136 Table 9 Leadership Programs and Competencies ...................................................................... 139 Table 10 Aligning Millennial Leadership Competency Characteristics with Best Practice Approaches ................................................................................................................................ 141 MILLENNIAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 9 List of Figures Figure 1 Generational Workplace Characteristics Summary: Traditionals, Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Millennials ...................................................................................................... 37 Figure 2 Aligning Competencies with Millennial Leadership Development Practices ............... 52 Figure 3 Equation For Successful Leadership Development - Showing How Missing Any One Element Can Result in Mitigated Success .................................................................................... 74 Figure 4 Developing Millennial Leadership Competencies as a Planned Evolution of Competencies. ............................................................................................................................... 76 Figure 5 Competency Patterns as they Link OPM Competencies and the Broad Competencies Identified in the Literature on Millennial Leadership. .................................................................. 77 Figure 6 Competencies and best practice programs for Millennial leadership development ...... 79 Figure 7 The Evidence-Based Management Framework Used in Decision-Making. ................. 83 Figure 8 Systematic Review Process ........................................................................................... 88 Figure 9 Flow Diagram of the Systematic Review Process to Determine Inclusion and Exclusion of Studies ................................................................................................................................... 101 Figure 10 Included Studies Summary by Type of Publication. ................................................. 134 Figure 11 Summary of Studies by Leadership Development Program Approach ..................... 140 Figure 12 Leading Change Competency Findings and Millennial Leadership Development Competency Characteristics. ....................................................................................................... 144 Figure 13 Leading People Competency Findings and Millennial Leadership Development Competency Characteristics. ....................................................................................................... 145 Figure 15 Results Driven Competency Findings and Millennial Leadership Development Competency Characteristics. ....................................................................................................... 147 MILLENNIAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 10 Figure 15 Business Acumen Competency Findings and Millennial Leadership Development Competency Characteristics. ....................................................................................................... 148 Figure 16 Building Coalitions Competency Findings and Millennial Leadership Development Competency Characteristics. ....................................................................................................... 150 MILLENNIAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 11 Chapter 1: Introduction The use of best practice programs has become an important management strategy to promote and sustain organizational leadership development (Day & Halpin, 2001). The practice of using leadership development programs is not a new phenomenon. Most managers are keenly aware of the advantages of using existing leadership development programs to meet competency gaps in their workforce (Day & Halpin, 2001). When addressing talent management, leadership shortfalls, succession planning, and other similar areas, most managers use best practice leadership programs to develop their workforce (Heinen & O’Neill, 2004, p. 68). An impending demographic change in the landscape of today’s multigenerational workforce portends a new dynamic. Baby Boomers are retiring in increasing numbers, and an analysis of employment statistics by the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (DOL, 2013) foreshadows significant gaps in future workforce leadership. Generation X currently comprises less than one-sixth of the American workforce while the Pew Research Center (2010) reports that Millennials comprise more than one-third of the American workforce today (Fry, 2015). Adult Millennials, approximately age eighteen through thirty-four, have surpassed Generation X in the workforce (Fry, 2015, para. 1) and will be needed to fill the leadership gaps (Zenger, 2012). Unquestionably, as Baby Boomers age out of the current multigenerational workforce, many organizations will lose their best and brightest leaders by the year 2020. The logical shift in leadership for organizations includes Millennial leaders replete with the unique generational predilections incumbent of their cohort. While managers recognize that it is increasingly important to develop Millennials as the next generation of leaders (Groves, 2007), they are not clear on which best practice program approaches offer more effective outcomes. It is possible that organizations will need to find MILLENNIAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 12 ways to maximize and successfully adapt programs to meet the unique characteristics of Millennials. This study explores whether best practice program approaches will be effective in Millennial leadership development and what would be the most effective approach managers might use to identify Millennial leadership competencies. Background and Overview Historically, Baby Boomers have had a profound impact on American society and had an equally profound effect on leadership. The era of civil rights coupled with increasing numbers of women entering the workforce changed the face of leadership in ways we take for granted today. Millennials are expected to make their own generational impact as they become 21st Century leaders. The Baby Boomer generation typically equates success with work and personal sacrifice, a perspective often attributed to the times in which they matured (Glass, 2007, pp. 99-100). Likewise, Millennials will bring to the workplace and to leadership the history that affected their maturation (e.g., ongoing terrorism stemming from 911) and fluctuating economic conditions. As Baby Boomers age out of today’s multigenerational workforce, most organizations will lose their best and brightest leaders by the year 2020 (Bradley, 2010). According to the U.S. Department of Commerce Census Bureau (DOC, 2013), the current size of the Baby Boomer generation in the American workforce is nearly 66 million in comparison to Generation X’s approximated 33.3 million employees. Managers will need to fill the Baby Boomer leadership voids with the 54.7 million Millennials poised to enter the workforce (DOC, 2013). Among federal employees, the Bureau of Labor Statistics (DOL, 2013) report that nearly 50% of the federal workforce is approaching retirement age. PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC, 2013) found MILLENNIAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 13 that 63.3 % of American senior leaders would be approaching retirement by 2020, a condition identified in an earlier Census Bureau study. Research suggests that most individuals enter formal leadership programs at age 42 and that many companies might have waited too long to implement programs that prepare Generation X (Zenger, 2012, para. 4). Indeed, the Burea

Examining the factors that influence physicians' perceptions toward electronic medical record (EMR) acceptance

Author: Hammad J.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2015
Field of study

Research suggests that health information technology (HIT), such as the electronic medical record (EMR) has the potential to help improve safety, quality, and the cost efficiency of healthcare services. However, many healthcare organizations have yet to realize these benefits as EMR adoption throughout the healthcare industry has been very slow. The success of EMR implementation is largely dependent upon the cooperation and acceptance of its users. Therefore, understanding the factors that help form the perceptions and attitudes that lead to users' behavioral intention toward and their subsequent utilization of EMR is vital. For the purpose of this dissertation, the user group of focus was physicians since they are regarded as the key or principal users of EMR and are unlike the common user groups of IT typically found in other industries. Physicians are different not only due to their specialized training, autonomous practices, and professional work arrangements, but also due to the large impact physicians have on patient outcomes. Using evidence-based research, the factors that influenced physicians' perceptions toward electronic medical record (EMR) acceptance and sustained utilization in the U.S. healthcare industry were examined in this dissertation. Through the theoretical lenses of the self-determination theory (SDT) and the theory of planned behavior (TPB) this dissertation provided further insight into the development of physicians' perceptions beyond extrinsic motivation factors and provided implications for management that can assist healthcare leadership in the appropriate integration and achievement of the benefits associated with EMR utilization.Running head: FACTORS INFLUENCING PHYSICIANS’ PERCEPTIONS Examining the factors that influence physicians’ perceptions toward electronic medical record (EMR) acceptance Jasmin Hammad A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Management James P. Gelatt, Ph.D. Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D. 2015 ii Abstract Research suggests that health information technology (HIT), such as the electronic medical record (EMR) has the potential to help improve safety, quality, and the cost efficiency of healthcare services. However, many healthcare organizations have yet to realize these benefits as EMR adoption throughout the healthcare industry has been very slow. The success of EMR implementation is largely dependent upon the cooperation and acceptance of its users. Therefore, understanding the factors that help form the perceptions and attitudes that lead to users’ behavioral intention toward and their subsequent utilization of EMR is vital. For the purpose of this dissertation, the user group of focus was physicians since they are regarded as the key or principal users of EMR and are unlike the common user groups of IT typically found in other industries. Physicians are different not only due to their specialized training, autonomous practices, and professional work arrangements, but also due to the large impact physicians have on patient outcomes. Using evidence-based research, the factors that influenced physicians’ perceptions toward electronic medical record (EMR) acceptance and sustained utilization in the U.S. healthcare industry were examined in this dissertation. Through the theoretical lenses of the self-determination theory (SDT) and the theory of planned behavior (TPB) this dissertation provided further insight into the development of physicians’ perceptions beyond extrinsic motivation factors and provided implications for management that can assist healthcare leadership in the appropriate integration and achievement of the benefits associated with EMR utilization. iii Dedication I dedicate this dissertation to my wonderful family. To my husband, Jamin, thank you for support, patience, and understanding throughout this entire journey. Your love has truly been limitless. To my siblings, aunts, uncles, cousins and niece, you’ve carried me through at times when I could not see the finish line. Your belief in me sustained me throughout this program and I am forever grateful – not to mention you always ensured wherever I was I had internet access. To my parents, Gregory and Dr. Linda Whitfield-Spinner, thank you for providing a foundation from which I could go out into this world with the knowledge that I can be successful and accomplish all of my goals through hard work and dedication. Mommy, the example you set for me and the barriers you torn down to clear the path for my successes is just a snippet of all that you have given me. You’ve truly been my inspiration, my angel, and my hero. I hope I have made you proud. To my extended family, the Rosborough family, your encouragement and acceptance have filled me with the greatest joy and I appreciate it more than words can truly express. To my mother-in-law, Sharon Rosborough, thank you for being my biggest cheerleader. Finally, to my sixth grade teacher, Mrs. Gilda Gildenberg, thank you for seeing something in me and nourishing it even though I was too young to fully understand. You were truly my advocate and your genuine belief in me helped me to believe in myself and gave me the courage to pursue opportunities I thought were not in reach before you came into my life. Mrs.Gildenberg..…. THANK YOU! iv Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge several individuals that helped me across the finish line to earn my terminal degree. During my DM journey I have lived on three different continents, experienced significant loss, underwent surgery, and endured major career changes. The constants throughout it all were the love of my family and friends and the support of the DM faculty. I honestly believe that completion of my dissertation would not have been possible without the guidance and support of Dr. Kathleen Edwards and Dr. James Gelatt. The feedback you have provided, whether it was delivered through your comments of my writing, honest conversations over the phone, or face to face discussions was all greatly appreciated and I believe helped my work improve tremendously. Having the two of you as advisors and observing your work dynamic has helped me to view things more deeply and critically. Thank you both for helping me to grow as an individual. I would also like to thank the individuals that were part of my expert panel: Dr. Ruth Axelrod, Mr. Andrew Apter, and Dr. Teresa Skojac. I appreciate your time and assistance by reviewing earlier versions of my dissertation and providing your valuable feedback. The next individual I would like to acknowledge is Dr. Laura Witz. The knowledge I acquired in your class was truly invaluable and I believe has changed my way of thinking for the better. Outside the classroom, when I was at my lowest point in this program, you imparted words to me that in that moment I felt put everything back into perspective and gave me the strength to carry on. For this…thank you, Dr. Witz! v Lastly, I would like to acknowledge my family, friends, fellow DM students, and the rest of the DM faculty. You have all supported me and helped me to accomplish this goal. I look forward to deepening our relationships as I will no longer have to work on my dissertation. Once again...thank you, thank you, and thank you! 1 Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... ii Dedication .................................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter One ................................................................................................................................. 3 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 3 Background .............................................................................................................................................. 4 Definitions................................................................................................................................................ 4 Benefits of Utilization ............................................................................................................................... 6 Purpose of the Dissertation ....................................................................................................................... 8 Statement and Significance of the Problem .............................................................................................. 9 Why Physicians Are Important to EMR Acceptance .............................................................................. 10 Importance to Management .................................................................................................................... 11 Government Involvement and HIT ......................................................................................................... 14 Research Question and Assumptions ...................................................................................................... 16 Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................................. 19 Chapter Two ............................................................................................................................... 20 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 20 Discussion of Theoretical Lenses ........................................................................................................... 66 Summary of Chapter Two and Research Proposition ............................................................................. 71 Chapter Three ............................................................................................................................. 73 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 73 Graphical Analysis, Synthesis, and Integration of Scholarship into the Framework .............................. 73 Summary of Chapter Three ..................................................................................................................... 77 Chapter Four ............................................................................................................................... 78 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 78 Evidence-Based Research ....................................................................................................................... 78 2 Expert Panel ........................................................................................................................................... 82 Summary of Chapter Four ...................................................................................................................... 83 Chapter Five ............................................................................................................................... 83 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 83 Findings ................................................................................................................................................. 84 Discussion of the Proposition ................................................................................................................. 89 Answering the Dissertation Research Question ...................................................................................... 91 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................ 92 Alternative Perspectives .......................................................................................................................... 92 Summary of Chapter Five ....................................................................................................................... 94 Chapter Six ................................................................................................................................. 95 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 95 Overall Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 95 Implications for Management ................................................................................................................. 96 Trends .................................................................................................................................................... 99 Limitations ........................................................................................................................................... 103 Future Research ................................................................................................................................... 104 Dissertation Summary ........................................................................................................................... 105 References ................................................................................................................................. 107 APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................ 119 APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................ 128 Figures and Tables .................................................................................................................... 131 3 Chapter One Introduction This dissertation examined the factors that influenced physicians’ perceptions toward electronic medical record (EMR) acceptance and sustained utilization in the U.S. healthcare industry. Based on existent literature, health information technology (HIT) such as the electronic medical record (EMR) has the potential to help improve safety, quality and cost efficiency of healthcare services (Frimpong, Jackson, Stewart, Singh, Rivers, & Bae, 2013; Restuccia, Cohen, Horwitt, & Shwartz, 2012). However, many healthcare organizations have yet to realize the associated benefits of EMR since its adoption throughout the healthcare industry has been generally slow (Love et al., 2012; Wright et al., 2013). The success of HIT system implementation is largely dependent upon the cooperation and acceptance by its users. Individual cognitive capacities, attitudes, perceptions, and behavior patterns can either inhibit or encourage HIT adoption (Williams & Dickinson, 2010). Therefore, understanding the factors that help form the perceptions and attitudes that lead to users’ behavioral intention toward and their subsequent utilization of EMR is vital. For the purpose of this dissertation the end users of focus were physicians, as their perceptions can weigh heavily on the overall adoption and utilization of HIT systems within a healthcare organization, as well as have a significant impact on other user groups such as nurses, technicians, and administrative staff (Boonstra & Broekhuis, 2010). Using the theoretical lenses of the self-determination theory (SDT) and the theory of planned behavior (TPB), this dissertation sought to offer further insight into the development of physicians’ perceptions beyond extrinsic motivation factors and provide implications for management that can assist healthcare leadership in the appropriate integration and achievement of the benefits associated with EMR utilization. 4 Background Many industries have vigorously pursued the use of information technology (IT) to improve the quality of products, optimize operational efficiencies and customer service delivery, as well as reduce costs (Healthcare RAND, 2013; DePhillips, 2007). Considering the challenges facing organizations today and the rapidly changing environment, the way in which people and organizations respond to the organizational environment can have a dramatic impact on an organization’s success or demise. Currently, the world of healthcare management is being dominated by the need to improve performance and modernize services during a time of fiscal restraint in which healthcare leaders are expected to do more with less and think creatively about how this can be achieved. These organizations -- while facing changes, uncertainty, and competitive pressures -- also have to retain their ability to react appropriately to external pressures and differentiate themselves from and outperform their competitors (Ilinca, Hamer, Botje, Espin, Mendes, Mueller, van Wjingaarden, Vinot, and Plochg, 2012). Through innovation, organizations can renew themselves in order to survive in the long run, especially in complex industries such as healthcare. Hence, the trend of ubiquitous innovation exhibited within the healthcare industry today. Definitions Health Information Technology (HIT). As defined by Thompson and Brailer (2004), health information technology (HIT) is “the application of information processing involving both computer hardware and software that deals with the storage, retrieval, sharing, and use of healthcare information, data, and knowledge for communication and decision making” (p. 38). The American Medical Association (AMA) (2012) stated that HIT refers to the use of a variety of electronic means for managing information about the healthcare of individuals (p.3). Health 5 information technologies (HIT) range in type and capability. HIT can include medical (or health) records (EMR or EHR), computerized physician order entry (CPOE), clinical decision-support systems (CDSS or CDS), health information exchange (HIE), automated dispensing machines (ADM), e-prescribing and telemedicine (remote diagnosis and treatment of patients). Electronic Medical Record (EMR). Electronic medical records are composed of technology applications such as a clinical data repository, clinical decision support, medical vocabulary, order entry, computerized provider order entry (CPOE), pharmacy, and clinical documentation (Garets & Davis, 2006). The EMR is used to document, monitor, and manage healthcare delivery within one healthcare delivery organization. It is important to note that there is a distinction between electronic medical records and electronic health records. The electronic health record (EHR) has similar capabilities to the EMR which include data that can include patient demographics, medical history, medication, allergies, and test results. However, the EHR is also a collection of health information about individual patients and populations that can be shared across different healthcare settings outside of the organization that originally created the record (Garets & Davis, 2006). Since the terms electronic medical record and electronic health record are frequently used synonymously in health informatics literature they also were used interchangeably in this dissertation. The official definition that has been adopted for the purpose of this dissertation was generated by Hayrinen, Saranto, and Nykanen (2008) who identified the need for a more explicit or stable definition of electronic medical records since they believed that several different definitions presented confusion. To address this issue the researchers conducted a systematic review of 89 papers obtained from four different electronic databases: Pubmed/Medline, 6 CINAHL, Eval and Cochrane, that were published in 52 different journals from 1982 to 2004 (Hayrinen, Saranto, & Nykanen, 2008). Based on the literature the researchers produced the following definition for an electronic medical record: An electronic medical record is “a repository of patient data in digital form, stored and exchanged securely, and accessible by multiple authorized users. It contains retrospective, concurrent, and prospective information and its primary purpose is to support continuing, efficient and quality integrated health care” (p. 294). Multiple functions of EMR, which included data from physical examination, laboratory, past medical history, tests, medication administration, radiology, treatment, daily charting, referral, diagnoses, etc., were found in the literature reviewed to play a role in the decision making process not only for patient care but for management and health policy as well (Hayrinen, Saranto, & Nykanen , 2008). Miller and Sim (2004) expressed that EMR has the highest potential for improving quality among HIT as it has the widest range of capabilities (more details of their study will be discussed later in Chapter Two). Benefits of Utilization Benefits associated with HIT. Much of the literature centered on HIT shared similar views of the positive benefits that the integration of HIT renders. HIT is being promoted within the healthcare industry as a vital tool used to not on

Managers as effective communicators: Reducing employee uncertainty before and during organizational change

Author: Washington W. M.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2015
Field of study

Communicating organizational change is a complex undertaking. Change initiatives have become an inherent and integral part of organizations' existence. A high proportion of change initiatives have been unsuccessful, due primarily to poor communication and lack of acceptance of change by employees. Since change is inevitable, organizations need to determine how to effectively involve employees in change initiatives. This dissertation examined the role of managers as effective communicators in reducing employees’ uncertainty before and during organizational change and how managers could adjust their communication in order to most effectively manage employees' uncertainty. Using a systematic review of the literature and applying thematic synthesis, this dissertation identified and analyzed a final set of 33 scholarly studies, examining organizational change. Based on the evidence from the systematic review of the literature, effective communication via two-way communications between management and all employees was shown to be a key component in the success of organizational change. The literature also suggested that valuing employee contributions by means of employee participation in the decision-making process might lead to improved employee attitudes, loyalty, commitment, and cooperative relationships. This dissertation contributed to the literature on change management and the practice of management by exploring the role of managers as effective communicators in reducing employees’ uncertainty before and during organizational change.Running head: MANAGERS AS COMMUNICATORS Managers as effective communicators: Reducing employee uncertainty before and during organizational change By Wendy Margaret Washington A Dissertation Submitted To the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Management Dissertation Committee: Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D. James P. Gelatt, Ph.D. December 3, 2015 MANAGERS AS COMMUNICATORS MANAGERS AS COMMUNICATORS ii Abstract Communicating organizational change is a complex undertaking. Change initiatives have become an inherent and integral part of organizations' existence. A high proportion of change initiatives have been unsuccessful, due primarily to poor communication and lack of acceptance of change by employees. Since change is inevitable, organizations need to determine how to effectively involve employees in change initiatives. This dissertation examined the role of managers as effective communicators in reducing employees’ uncertainty before and during organizational change and how managers could adjust their communication in order to most effectively manage employees' uncertainty. Using a systematic review of the literature and applying thematic synthesis, this dissertation identified and analyzed a final set of 33 scholarly studies, examining organizational change. Based on the evidence from the systematic review of the literature, effective communication via two-way communications between management and all employees was shown to be a key component in the success of organizational change. The literature also suggested that valuing employee contributions by means of employee participation in the decision-making process might lead to improved employee attitudes, loyalty, commitment, and cooperative relationships. This dissertation contributed to the literature on change management and the practice of management by exploring the role of managers as effective communicators in reducing employees’ uncertainty before and during organizational change. Keywords: Organizational change, communication, employee uncertainty, management, trustworthiness, fair/unfairness, reorganization. MANAGERS AS COMMUNICATORS iii Dedication This dissertation is lovingly dedicated in memory of my parents Dr. G. Toe Washington and Cora V. Washington -Paris. I will always appreciate all you've done...... To my beloved father, who taught me that the best kind of knowledge to have is that which is learned for its own sake. To my dearest mother, who taught me that even the largest task can be accomplished if it is done one step at a time….. To my beautiful and sweet daughter Chloe whose words of encouragement and push for tenacity ring in my ears. You have been my greatest cheerleader! Thanks for always being there. This is a tribute to the three of you......... Wen- MANAGERS AS COMMUNICATORS iv Acknowledgements I am extremely thankful to God, my Creator for giving me the health and strength to continue this dissertation journey. It certainly wasn't easy, but was worth the long hard fight. There are people in everyone’s lives who make success both possible and rewarding. I would like to extend my deepest thanks to my daughter Chloe Longchamp for being my ROCK! To my parents, your memories live on forever in my heart. All is well.... To my brothers and sisters whom I love dearly, but rarely get to see, always remember 'we are family.' I would like to acknowledge and thank my faculty advisors Dr. Kathleen Edwards and Dr. James Gelatt who were more than generous with their expertise and precious time. To Dr. Edwards, thanks for the countless hours of reflecting, reading, encouraging, and patience throughout the entire process. Special thanks to Dr. Pearl Steinbach and Dr. Tom Mierzwa for their support and guidance, and to Dr. Dennis Winters whose knowledge and wisdom have enlightened me from day one of doctoral classes until now. Thanks to Dr. John Sherlock for his expert guidance on methodology. To everyone's favorite University of Maryland University College librarian, Cynthia Thomes, thank you for the never-ending assistance. Acknowledgement and thanks to the members of my dissertation's Expert Panel, Dr. David R. Seibold, Dr. Andrew H. Van de Ven, Dr. Alan L. Frohman, and Mr. Phil Merrell for their prompt and valuable feedback. Thank you for agreeing to serve on my panel. Many thanks to my dearest friends, Sean Butler, Melissa Tobe, and Amal Adnan, for the emotional support. Thanks to Sherif Hydara, who as a good friend, was always there cheering me on. To Dr. Mohamed Ezz, I am truly blessed to have you as a friend. Thanks for the encouragement during the home stretch. Last, but not the least, I would like to make a special reference to my best friend, Joseph Evans, who has consistently helped me keep perspective on what is important in life and shown me how to deal with reality. You are truly a GEM..... MANAGERS AS COMMUNICATORS v Table of Content Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... ii Dedication ............................................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................................ iv Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................. v List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................... viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................1 Dissertation Topic and Method ............................................................................................................ 1 Statement and Significance ................................................................................................................... 2 Communication Plan and Organizational Change ............................................................................ 2 Communication: Employee Reactions to Change ............................................................................. 4 Before Change ...................................................................................................................................... 5 During Change ...................................................................................................................................... 6 Employee Uncertainty .......................................................................................................................... 7 Theories ................................................................................................................................................. 9 Importance to Management ................................................................................................................ 10 Purpose of Dissertation ....................................................................................................................... 12 Research Question(s) ........................................................................................................................... 12 Propositions ......................................................................................................................................... 12 Organization of Dissertation .............................................................................................................. 13 CHAPTER 2: SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...............................................16 Organization of Chapter 2 ................................................................................................................... 16 Critical Review and Analysis of the Literature (Introduction) ....................................................... 16 Theoretical Lens (es) ............................................................................................................................ 17 Theory of Uncertainty Management ........................................................................................ 18 Change Theory ............................................................................................................................ 23 Communication Plan and Organizational Change .......................................................................... 29 Organizational Communication and Managing Change ................................................................ 37 Change Managers and Communication ............................................................................................ 41 Examples of Organizational Changes and Communication Techniques ..................................... 41 MANAGERS AS COMMUNICATORS vi Ineffective Communication ....................................................................................................... 42 Effective communication .......................................................................................................... 45 Uncertainty Management ................................................................................................................... 51 Employee Uncertainty and Uncertainty in the External Environment ................................ 51 Organizational Communication: Before Change ............................................................................ 59 Strategic Communication Planning and Trust ........................................................................ 59 Source of Communication ......................................................................................................... 72 Communication Methods and Techniques .............................................................................. 89 Organizational Communication: During Change ............................................................................ 98 Change Attitudes and Communication Strategies ................................................................. 98 Employees’ Uncertainty and Communication ...................................................................... 112 Inadequate Communication and Change Failure ................................................................. 122 Employees and their Responses to Change .................................................................................... 129 Summary of Research Propositions and Research Questions ..................................................... 138 Summary of Chapter 2 ....................................................................................................................... 141 CHAPTER 3: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ..................................................................143 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 143 Graphical Analysis and Synthesis ................................................................................................... 145 Integration of Scholarship into the Framework ............................................................................. 150 Summary of Chapter 3 ...................................................................................................................... 156 CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY .........................................................................................157 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 157 Theory and Practice of Evidence-Based Research/Evidence-Based Management .................. 158 Relevance of EBR and EBM ........................................................................................................... 160 Scholarly Research and Weight of Evidence ................................................................................. 163 Thematic Synthesis .................................................................................................................. 165 Search Strategy ......................................................................................................................... 167 Criteria for Inclusion/Exclusion ............................................................................................. 168 Quality Assessment Appraisal ................................................................................................. 171 Data Extraction ......................................................................................................................... 173 MANAGERS AS COMMUNICATORS vii Data Analysis and Synthesis ................................................................................................... 174 Use of the Expert Panel as Evidence or Support ........................................................................... 174 Summary of Chapter 4 ...................................................................................................................... 175 CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ...................................................................177 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 177 Method: Thematic Synthesis of the Evidence ............................................................................... 177 Synthesis of the Findings and Presentation of Other Points of View: Before and During Organizational Change ..................................................................................................................... 177 The 'Before Change' Phase (3 Themes) ........................................................................................... 178 The 'During Change' Phase (3 Themes) .......................................................................................... 183 Support for Research Questions and Propositions in Light of Findings .................................... 188 Summary of Chapter 5 ...................................................................................................................... 195 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND TRENDS ...................................196 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 196 Overall Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 196 Implications for Management .......................................................................................................... 199 Emerging Trends in Organizational Change .................................................................................. 201 Limitations of the Dissertation ........................................................................................................ 205 Opportunities for Future Research .................................................................................................. 206 Summary of Chapter 6 ...................................................................................................................... 208 Overall Dissertation Summary ........................................................................................................ 209 REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................................211 APPENDICES ...........................................................................................................................225 Appendix A: Subject Matter Experts’ Biographies ............................................................. 225 MANAGERS AS COMMUNICATORS viii List of Tables Table 1: Competences during organizational change……………………………………...…..27 Table 2: Descriptives, reliabilities and inter-correlations of all study variables………….........70 Table 3: Regression Equation for Leader Effectiveness …………………………….…….....105 Table 4: Regression Equation for Team Dynamics ……………………………………….…106 Table 5: Regression Equation for Team Members' Involvement ……………………….....106 Table 6: Demographic Characteristics (in Percentages)………………………………….......108 Table 7: Key findings of "before" and "during" phases of change……………………….......127 Table 8: Table of Terms from Search Strategy……………………….......………….…….....167 Table 9: Checklist for identifying potentially relevant material...............................................171 Table 10: Determining Factor……………………………………………………………….....172 List of Figures Figure 1: Phase of change and the relationship with formal learning…………………..…........29 Figure 2: Hypothesized fully-mediated model 1…………………………………………...…..67 Figure 3: Alternate partially‐mediated model 2…………………………………………….......67 Figure 4: The hypothesized model with indirect and direct effects of uncertainty……….......113 Figure 5: The Manager as the Communicator Model……………………………………........144 Figure 6: Four elements of evidence-based management……………………………………..162 Figure 7: PRISMA Diagram…………………………………………………………………..170 MANAGERS AS COMMUNICATORS 1 Chapter 1: Introduction Dissertation Topic and Method This dissertation examined the role of managers as effective communicators in reducing employees’ uncertainty before and during organizational change and how managers could adjust their communication in order to most effectively manage employees' uncertainty. Managing and responding to employees' uncertainty presented challenges to organizations, leading to failures when the appropriate measures were not in place to effectively anticipate and deal with change management. In order to explore this role of managers, the dissertation was conducted using reviews and analyses of primary research. The systematic review was based on evidence-based research (EBR) methods, using qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies prepared by research scholars. Evidence-based research, which was based on evidence from existing studies, was used to draw conclusions for this dissertation. The theories identified to support this dissertation’s review of the literature and the literature itself provided a framework in conducting this dissertation. They offered different "lenses" through which to view both of the dissertation’s research questions. As such, a goal of the dissertation was using EBR methodology to examine relevant scholarship on managers’ roles in anticipating employees’ reactions to organizational change, providing greater clarity on what was already known and might be known on this dissertation’s topic, moving forward. Moving forward in this context meant managers using the findings of evidence based research to practice evidence based management (EBM). EBM used research evidence to help managers make more effective decisions. There were various definitions of evidence based management (EBM) offered; however, Briner, Denyer and Rousseau (2009)'s definition was the one chosen by this dissertation’s author. MANAGERS AS COMMUNICATORS 2 According to Briner, Denyer and Rousseau (2009), evidence based management meant "making decisions about the management of employees, teams or organizations through the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of four sources of information: 1) The best available scientific evidence, 2) organizational evidence and characteristics, 3) stakeholders’ values and concerns, and 4) practitioner expertise and judgment" (p. 19). Statement and Significance of the Problem Organizations experienced change on an ongoing basis (Self & Schraeder, 2009). Despite decades of research into organizational change, some authors have concluded that a high proportion of change initiatives were unsuccessful, often falling short of expectations (Waldersee &

2015 - 2016 UMUC Stateside Undergraduate - Catalog

Author
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 2015
Field of study

Innovation and influence: How individuals and organizations make use of multiple network structures to increase creativity and diffusion

Author: Blaney J.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2015
Field of study

Innovations must be created and diffused to benefit organizations, a process that has been shown to require multiple network structures. Yet, scholars have done little to examine how both structural hole networks and closed networks can be developed and utilized by either organizations or the individuals that make them up. Using a systematic review methodology, this dissertation investigates how individuals and organizations are able to make use of bridging and bonding network structures simultaneously, thereby increasing both the creation and diffusion of innovation. As a result of this research, it can be surmised that organizations and individuals make use of multiple network structures differently. This study contributes to the conversation around trust, innovation, and social capital by furthering our understanding of how a portfolio of ties helps organizations access both boundary spanning networks and strong-tie networks simultaneously. Furthermore, this systematic review introduces a new tie type—the unidirectional tie—that takes a more nuanced approach to the exchange of social capital by allowing for the possibility of nonreciprocal trust where information and trust flow in only one direction between actors.INNOVATION AND INFLUENCE !1 Innovation and influence: How individuals and organizations make use of multiple network structures to increase creativity and diffusion. Justin R. Blaney B.A. George Fox University, 2004 M.B.A. Texas A&M University, 2011 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Management Dr. Leslie Dinauer Dr. Kriesta Watson August 22, 2015 Running head: INNOVATION AND INFLUENCE 1 INNOVATION AND INFLUENCE !2 Copyright Innovation and influence: How individuals and organizations make use of multiple network structures to increase creativity and diffusion. © 2015 by Justin R. Blaney. All rights reserved. INNOVATION AND INFLUENCE !3 Acknowledgements I would like to thank my dissertation advisors, Dr. Leslie Dinauer and Dr. Kriesta Watson for your dedication and guidance during the entire dissertation process. In addition, I would like to thank the professors at University of Maryland University College who helped develop my writing, critical thinking and love for research: Dr. Michael Frank, Dr. Nick Allen, Dr. Laura Witz, Dr. John Sherlock, Dr. Diana Watts, and Dr. Tom Mierzwa. Thank you to the following professors, colleagues, scholars, authors, UMUC staff, and business people for your quick and thoughtful responses to my requests for feedback: Dr. Ronda Ansted, Dr. Thamara Barthelus, Dr. Warren Bird, Dr. David Bourgeois, Dr. Nicky Britten, Marina Caminis, Dr. Rona Campbell, Dr. Robert Cross, Dr. Denise Daniels, Seth Godin, Monica Graham, Dr. Mark Granovetter, Dr. Adam Grant, Michelle Howard, Dr. Daniel Levin, Dr. James Muguira, Dr. George Noblit, Dr. Pandora Pound, Dr. Lee Rainie, Jeff Rogers, Dr. Jon Sharpe, Dr. Ed Stetzer, Cynthia Thomes, Dr. James Webb, and Berry Zimmerman. To everyone else who has helped me on my journey to complete this dissertation, including Megan Kanne for your expert editing, my colleagues at UMUC, the reviewers who provided feedback along the way, and my parents and family, I wish to share my sincere thanks. Most importantly, thank you to my wife, Anna, and daughters, Lily, Emma, and Mackenzie, for supporting me during these last few years as I’ve spent many countless hours away from them researching and writing. INNOVATION AND INFLUENCE !4 Abstract Innovations must be created and diffused to benefit organizations, a process that has been shown to require multiple network structures. Yet, scholars have done little to examine how both structural hole networks and closed networks can be developed and utilized by either organizations or the individuals that make them up. Using a systematic review methodology, this dissertation investigates how individuals and organizations are able to make use of bridging and bonding network structures simultaneously, thereby increasing both the creation and diffusion of innovation. As a result of this research, it can be surmised that organizations and individuals make use of multiple network structures differently. This study contributes to the conversation around trust, innovation, and social capital by furthering our understanding of how a portfolio of ties helps organizations access both boundary spanning networks and strong-tie networks simultaneously. Furthermore, this systematic review introduces a new tie type—the unidirectional tie—that takes a more nuanced approach to the exchange of social capital by allowing for the possibility of nonreciprocal trust where information and trust flow in only one direction between actors. Keywords: bonding tie, boundary spanning, bridging tie, closed network, diffusion, evidence-based management, influencer, innovation, knowledge creation, network structure, social capital, structural hole, systematic review, tie strength, trust INNOVATION AND INFLUENCE !5 Table of Contents Copyright ....................................................................................................................................2 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................3 Abstract .......................................................................................................................................4 Table of Contents .........................................................................................................................5 List of Tables ...............................................................................................................................11 List of Figures ..............................................................................................................................13 Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................15 Dissertation Prologue .......................................................................................................15 Dissertation Introduction .................................................................................................20 Problem Statement and Significance ...............................................................................24 Significance for Managers ...................................................................................24 Significance for Scholars .....................................................................................27 Research Question ...........................................................................................................28 Assumptions and Limitations ..........................................................................................29 Definitions of Key Constructs and Theories ....................................................................31 Actor ....................................................................................................................31 Actor Behaviors ...................................................................................................31 Boundary Spanning ..............................................................................................32 Contingency Theory .............................................................................................34 INNOVATION AND INFLUENCE !6 Human Capital .....................................................................................................34 Influencers ............................................................................................................34 Innovation ............................................................................................................36 Innovation Diffusion ............................................................................................36 Network Structure ................................................................................................37 Networking ..........................................................................................................37 Nonreciprocal Trust .............................................................................................37 Portfolio Theory ...................................................................................................39 Social Capital Dimension ....................................................................................41 Structural Hole .....................................................................................................41 Tie ........................................................................................................................41 Tie Strength ..........................................................................................................41 Trust .....................................................................................................................42 Type I Tie .............................................................................................................43 Type II Tie ............................................................................................................43 Unidirectional Tie ................................................................................................44 Dissertation Outline .........................................................................................................45 Chapter 2: Literature Review .......................................................................................................47 Chapter Prologue .............................................................................................................47 Chapter Introduction ........................................................................................................49 INNOVATION AND INFLUENCE !7 Social Capital Definition ......................................................................................50 The History of Social Capital Scholarship .......................................................................53 Concept Confusion ...............................................................................................56 General Benefits of Social Capital ...................................................................................57 Introduction ..........................................................................................................57 Effect of Social Capital on Career Advancement ................................................58 Effect of Social Capital on Income Growth .........................................................61 Effect of Social Capital on Sales Performance ....................................................63 Effect of Social Capital on Opportunity Recognition ..........................................64 Summary of Social Capital Benefits ....................................................................64 Three Key Dimensions of Social Capital .........................................................................65 Section Introduction .............................................................................................65 Tie Strength ..........................................................................................................65 Network Structure ................................................................................................70 Actor Behaviors ...................................................................................................77 A Review of Literature at the Intersection of Social Capital and Innovation ..................79 Overview of Innovation and Diffusion ................................................................80 Diffusion of Innovations ......................................................................................84 Influencers ............................................................................................................85 Social Capital and Innovation ..............................................................................86 INNOVATION AND INFLUENCE !8 Trust and Social Capital .......................................................................................91 Literature Review Summary ............................................................................................93 Chapter 3: Conceptual Model ......................................................................................................94 Chapter Introduction ........................................................................................................94 Type I and II Taxonomy for Social Capital Constructs Related to Innovation ................96 Influencers ............................................................................................................97 Nature of the Relationships Between Actors .......................................................98 Centrality and Embeddedness ..............................................................................99 Ego and Alter Actors ............................................................................................99 Conclusion ...........................................................................................................99 Chapter 4: Methods ......................................................................................................................100 Chapter Introduction ........................................................................................................101 Research Question ...........................................................................................................102 Purpose of Research .........................................................................................................102 Systematic Review Process: A Configurative Approach .................................................103 Link to Evidence Based Management .............................................................................105 EBR Related to Social Capital .........................................................................................106 Research Design: Extended Meta-Ethnography ..............................................................107 Phase 1-3: Summary. ...........................................................................................111 Phase 4: Identification of Relevant Studies. ........................................................111 INNOVATION AND INFLUENCE !9 Phase 5: Selection of Studies ...............................................................................115 Inclusion Criteria. ................................................................................................115 Exclusion Criteria. ...............................................................................................115 Phase 6: Study Quality Assessment .....................................................................117 Phase 7 and 8: Data Extraction and Relating Studies to Each Other ...................120 Phase 9: Translating the Studies Into Commonality ............................................124 Phase 10: Synthesis ..............................................................................................125 Methodological Challenges .............................................................................................127 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................128 Chapter 5: Findings and Discussion ............................................................................................129 Chapter Prologue .............................................................................................................129 Chapter Introduction ........................................................................................................131 Phase 11: Reporting the Findings ........................................................................131 Organizational Actors ......................................................................................................132 Portfolio Theory ...................................................................................................135 Specialization Within Portfolio Theory ...............................................................138 Two Key Roles: Innovation Creators and Diffusers ............................................141 Innovation Creators ..............................................................................................141 Innovation Diffusers ............................................................................................143 Passing Innovations From Creators to Diffusers .................................................146 INNOVATION AND INFLUENCE !10 Individual Actors ..............................................................................................................151 Restraints on Individual Actors ............................................................................151 Nonreciprocal Trust .............................................................................................154 Unidirectional Ties ...............................................................................................158 Nonreciprocal Information Flow .........................................................................162 The Influencer Role .............................................................................................163 Model Issues that Warrant Further Examination .............................................................168 Contradictions Among Included Studies .............................................................169 The Dark Side of Social Capital ..........................................................................170 Oversimplification of Current Social Capital/Innovation Models .......................171 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................172 Chapter 6: Conclusion ..................................................................................................................174 Chapter Introduction ........................................................................................................174 Phase 12: Recommendations For Future Research ..............................................175 Phase 13: Putting Findings Into Action ...........................................................................175 Epilogue ...........................................................................................................................180 References ...................................................................................................................................183 Appendix A .................................................................................................................................201 Appendix B .................................................................................................................................203 INNOVATION AND INFLUENCE !11 List of Tables Table 1: Thirteen phases of extended meta-ethnography……..……………………..………….109 Table 2: Search strings and number of results…….……………………………………………112 Table 3: Exclusion criteria and resulting number of citations….…………….…………………116 Table 4: Quality and relevancy appraisal model………..…………………………..…………..119 Table 5: Key themes from the body of citations used in this systematic review…………….…121 Table 6: Key words and phrases from the body of citations used in this systematic review.…..123 Table 7: An example of the coding system used by this research ..…………………………….124 Table 8: Support from citations related to organizational actors..……………….……………..134 Table 9: Support from citations related to portfolio theory..…………………….……………..138 Table 10: Support from citations related to the need to recognize actor specialization in network structure……………………………………….………………………………………140 Table 11: Support from citations related to the creation of innovations………………………..143 Table 12: Support from citations related to the interrelation of social capital and innovation diffusion …………………………………………………………………………………….….145 Table 13: Support from citations related to sharing innovations between creators and diffusers…………………………………………………………………………………..…….150 Table 14: Support from citations related to restraints on individual actors..…………….……..153 Table 15: Support from citations related to nonreciprocal trust..……………………..………..157 INNOVATION AND INFLUENCE !12 Table 16: Support from citations related to unidirectional ties, nonreciprocal information flow and the role of the influencer ………………………………….……………………………….161 Table 17: Citations used in synthesis…………………………..……………………………….203 INNOVATION AND INFLUENCE !13 List of Figures Figure 1: An example of a network consisting of ego and alter actors..…………………………31 Figure 2: An illustration of boundary spanning ties, which are also known as bridging ties………………………………………………………….………………………………..…..33 Figure 3: How Influencers can increase social capital through unidirectional ties……….…..…35 Figure 4: Bilateral ties contrasted against unidirectional ties and how nonreciprocal trust can increase social capital..………………………………….………………………….……………39 Figure 5: Portfolio theory at work within an organization..……………………….…….………40 Figure 6: Strong and weak ties within and between networks..…………………….…..………..42 Figure 7: The differences between Type I and Type II network connections..…………………..44 Figure 8: An illustration of structural holes, which are also

Managing beyond the contract: Communicating and connecting to build sustainable collaborative relationships in international public-private partnerships

Author: Oshin-Martin M.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2015
Field of study

Partnerships between the public and private sectors are increasingly becoming the default approach for economic and infrastructure development worldwide. Such partnerships enable the partners to compensate for gaps in knowledge and capacity. However, the literature suggests that many public-private partnerships (PPP) fail to achieve their intended goals, arguing that managers may not possess the skill sets necessary to navigate the multiplicity of relationships involved. Using the theories of interpersonal-intercultural communication, social capital, relational signaling, and social networking, this dissertation investigated how PPP actors build sustainable and trusting collaborative relationships that facilitate mutual benefits and partner satisfaction. It examined the influence of interpersonal-intercultural communication, rapport, and social interactions on relationship development and maintenance leading to project success. An evidence-based research approach was undertaken, involving a systematic literature review and thematic synthesis of available empirical evidence. The findings suggested that the inherent conflicts between PPP actors, which can create project delays and failures, were reduced when all stakeholders were connected through effective communication and social interaction, based on a collaborative rather than contractual approach. Moreover, the study concluded that most PPP managers lacked "soft" relationship-building skills. This dissertation presents conclusions concerning the communication and other relationship challenges that PPP managers face and approaches to overcome them.Running head: PPP COMMUNICATION & COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS Managing Beyond the Contract: Communicating and Connecting to Build Sustainable Collaborative Relationships in International Public-Private Partnerships Moronke Oshin-Martin A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College In Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Management Dr. Deborah M. Wharff Dr. G. David Andersen Dr. Eric B. Dent December 31, 2014 PPP COMMUNICATION & COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS 2 Abstract Partnerships between the public and private sectors are increasingly becoming the default approach for economic and infrastructure development worldwide. Such partnerships enable the partners to compensate for gaps in knowledge and capacity. However, the literature suggests that many public-private partnerships (PPP) fail to achieve their intended goals, arguing that managers may not possess the skill sets necessary to navigate the multiplicity of relationships involved. Using the theories of interpersonal-intercultural communication, social capital, relational signaling, and social networking, this dissertation investigated how PPP actors build sustainable and trusting collaborative relationships that facilitate mutual benefits and partner satisfaction. It examined the influence of interpersonal-intercultural communication, rapport, and social interactions on relationship development and maintenance leading to project success. An evidence-based research approach was undertaken, involving a systematic literature review and thematic synthesis of available empirical evidence. The findings suggested that the inherent conflicts between PPP actors, which can create project delays and failures, were reduced when all stakeholders were connected through effective communication and social interaction, based on a collaborative rather than contractual approach. Moreover, the study concluded that most PPP managers lacked “soft” relationship-building skills. This dissertation presents conclusions concerning the communication and other relationship challenges that PPP managers face and approaches to overcome them. Keywords: evidence-based management, public-private partnership, partnerships, collaboration, interpersonal communication, intercultural communication, public-private cooperation. PPP COMMUNICATION & COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS 3 Dedication To my late mother, for trusting me enough to support and finance my solo venture from the UK to the U.S. to seek my fortunes. To my Dad, and late Father-in-Law for encouraging and pushing me to begin and complete my doctoral journey, especially in management and international affairs. PPP COMMUNICATION & COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS 4 Acknowledgements My doctoral journey was a challenging, inspiring, and rewarding experience made possible by the support of my family, many friends, colleagues, and the doctoral faculty and staff at UMUC. First and foremost, I wish to thank God for giving me the health and strength to begin and complete this program. To my family, I share this honor with you. I could not have completed this degree without the patience and support of my husband, Jason, whose innumerable sacrifices allowed me to focus on my studies. Thank you to my children, Alex, Lorion, Jay, and Grace for your support and encouragement and for offering to read drafts of my work, even when you didn’t always understand what you were reading. Your enthusiasm fueled me. My deep appreciation and gratitude to my advisor and dissertation chair, Dr. Deborah Wharff, whose advice and feedback guided me through the process and the dissertation woes that come with the territory. You constantly challenged my thinking on the topic throughout the process. I truly appreciate that you were so generous with your time to listen to me thinking out loud, and your willingness to communicate by any means and as often as necessary. Your encouragement, advice, and dedication pushed me forward and past the finishing line. I would also like to thank my other dissertation advisors, Dr. G. David Andersen and Dr. Eric Dent, for their thought-provoking suggestions, friendly guidance, and constant encouragement. My sincere gratitude to the members of my subject matter expert panel who so generously spared time from their busy schedules to review several chapters of my dissertation in order to help me further develop my ideas and provide suggestions for improvement. I would like to recognize Dr. Michael Frank, Dr. Diana Watts, Dr. Laura Witz, Dr. John Sherlock, Dr. Kimberly Kelley, and Dr. Bijlani for shaping and guiding my academic PPP COMMUNICATION & COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS 5 development over the years. Thanks also to TAs Dr. Chris Cason and Dr. John Kearney, as well as program Academic Specialist Marina Caminis for their support and encouragement. To my fellow doctoral colleagues, particularly my friend Ed, as well as those who graduated earlier, thank you for your support, feedback, and friendship. We accomplished our goals because we pushed and pulled each other along. Our team spirit led us through many challenging times over the course of the years. I wish you all much success. Thank you to the many friends, family members, and co-workers who encouraged me to move forward on my doctoral goal, who read my papers on occasion and cheered me on throughout. I am truly blessed with having you all in my life. PPP COMMUNICATION & COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS 6 List of Figures Figure 1. Five Common PPP Models…………………………………. 27 Figure 2. An Example of the Variety of Actors in a PPP Project…….. 28 Figure 3. The General Goals of the Stakeholder..……………………...29 Figure 4. The 4 Elements of Evidence-Based Management…………...42 Figure 5. The Types of Evidence Used in Systematic Reviews………..43 Figure 6. The PRISMA Model for Systematic Reviews……………….49 Figure 7. Research Organization Schematic…………………………...62 Figure 8. Definitions of Social Capital………………………………...64 Figure 9. Social Network Ties………………………………………....68 Figure 10. The Transactional Communication Model………………...75 Figure 11. PPP Collaboration Continuum…………………………….90 Figure 12. Competency Model…………….………………………….176 Figure 13. Conceptual Framework Model……………………………180 Figure 14. Attributes, Behaviors and Outcomes……………………...204 Figure 15. Soft Skills Map……………………………………………205 PPP COMMUNICATION & COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS 7 List of Tables Table 1. Various Definitions of PPPs in the Literature……………………24 Table 2. Three Dimensions of Culture…………………………………….80 Table 3. Low-Context and High-Context Cultural Communication Styles……………………………....81 PPP COMMUNICATION & COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS 8 Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 2 Dedication ........................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. 4 List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... 6 List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... 7 Chapter One: Introduction and Overview of the Literature .............................................. 11 Statement and Significance of the Problem .................................................................. 11 Purpose of the Research ................................................................................................ 17 Research Background and Overview of the Literature ................................................. 21 PPP characteristics and models. ................................................................................ 26 Study Importance and Value to Management ............................................................... 33 Research Questions and Propositions ........................................................................... 33 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................. 34 Definitions of Key Concepts Used in This Dissertation ............................................... 36 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 38 Organization of the Dissertation ................................................................................... 38 Chapter 2: Methodology ................................................................................................... 40 The Evidence-Based Research Movement ................................................................... 40 Evidence-Based Management (EBMgt) ....................................................................... 41 PPP COMMUNICATION & COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS 9 Systematic Reviews ...................................................................................................... 44 Identification of Potential Studies: Search Strategy ..................................................... 47 Quality Appraisal of Evidence ...................................................................................... 52 Data Extraction and Thematic Synthesis ...................................................................... 53 Advisory Panel of Subject Matter Experts.................................................................... 55 Chapter 3: Systematic Literature Review ......................................................................... 60 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................. 63 Systematic Review ........................................................................................................ 86 Conflicting goals ....................................................................................................... 87 Communication. ........................................................................................................ 96 Cultural value differences ....................................................................................... 121 Power, politics, and external stakeholder engagement.. ......................................... 145 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 150 Chapter 4: Analysis and Discussion ............................................................................... 151 Review of Research Problem, Argument, Research Questions, and Propositions ..... 152 Summary of Findings .................................................................................................. 155 Consideration of Alternative Points of View .............................................................. 171 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 172 Chapter 5: Conceptual Framework ................................................................................ 174 Graphical Analysis and Synthesis ............................................................................... 174 PPP COMMUNICATION & COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS 10 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 185 Chapter 6: Conclusions, Implications, and Trends ......................................................... 187 Implications for Management ..................................................................................... 190 Implications of Emerging Trends ............................................................................... 207 Limitations and Areas for Future Research ................................................................ 211 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 214 References ....................................................................................................................... 217 Appendix A: Methodology ............................................................................................. 249 Appendix B: Critical Appraisal Form ............................................................................. 251 Appendix C: Expert Panel Letters .................................................................................. 253 Appendix D: List of Publications ................................................................................... 270 Appendix E: Analytic Themes/Keywords ...................................................................... 272 Appendix F: Findings/Number of Studies ...................................................................... 277 PPP COMMUNICATION & COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS 11 Chapter One: Introduction and Overview of the Literature In order to understand people, we have to understand their way of life and approach. If we wish to convince them, we have to use their language in the narrow sense of the mind. Something that goes even much further than that is not the appeal to logic and reason, but some kind of emotional awareness of the other people. —Nehru, Indian statesman Statement and Significance of the Problem Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) have grown increasingly popular over the past 25 years as governments worldwide turn to the private sector for the development, financing, and provision of public infrastructure and services ranging from the construction of dams, bridges, transportation, and telecommunication systems to health and social services delivery (Hodge & Greve, 2007; Kwak, Chih, & Ibbs, 2009; Osborne, 2000; Roehrich, Lewis, & George, 2014; Siemiatycki, 2010). The United States, The United Kingdom (UK), Australia, Europe, and Canada frequently use PPPs or P3, also called Public Finance Initiatives (PFI) in the UK, for urban renewal projects and large-scale economic development and infrastructure development and maintenance to respond to the basic needs of increasingly changing demographics and urban growth (Chan & Levitt, 2011; European Commission, 2013; Siemiatycki, 2013). Some examples of these projects are the Channel Tunnel Rail Link in the UK, M5 toll motorway in Hungary, the Perpignan-Figueiras Rail Concession, cross-border link between France and Spain, the Canadian-US Ontario-Detroit Bridge Crossing, and the Takoradi Power Station in Ghana. Inadequate infrastructure has a negative effect on a country’s economic growth, driving unemployment and associated social problems (McKinley Global Institute [MGI], 2013; Woetzel & Pohl, 2014). In this dissertation, the different types of public-private collaborations are PPP COMMUNICATION & COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS 12 referred to as PPPs for simplicity. In the United States, for example, an assessment of America’s infrastructure needs by The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE, 2013) reported that the government would need to spend an estimated

3.6 trillion by 2020 to fix the country’s decaying infrastructure as a result of years of delayed infrastructure maintenance projects. Without private investment, the government would have to depend on public tax dollars to accomplish this. Globally, infrastructure investments needs are estimated at

57 trillion in 2013-2030 to support economic growth through 2030 (MGI, 2013, p. 2). The UK, an early and prolific user of PPPs, has more than 600 PPP construction and public services delivery ranging from bridges and roads to hospitals, schools, and prisons worth over 100 billion (Roehrich et al., 2014; HM Treasury, 2013). Like many Olympic Games host countries before it, the UK used PPPs for the construction of Olympic stadiums and other facilities for the 2012 Games, as well as to revitalize the predominantly low-income East London neighborhood surrounding the venue (Maurrasse, 2012; Payne, 2012). Similar efforts have been credited for the redevelopment of Barcelona, Spain, following the 1992 Olympic Games (Bel & Warner, 2009; Nello, 1997), and Beijing, China’s 2008 Olympic Games (Ke, 2014; Chinyere, 2013). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil is expecting to achieve similar urban renewal successes from its 2016 event (Maurrasse, 2012; Payne, 2012). PPPs are particularly vital in developing countries, where the demand for public services and new infrastructure is acute and growing, but funding and capacity in the public sector of these countries to implement such projects are limited (Kwak et al., 2009). Worldwide, nearly 1.3 billion people lack access to electricity while 780 million people worldwide lack access to clean water (Kenny & Lavanchy, 2013). PPPs are frequently the only means to provide such services, as the public sector in developing countries cannot deliver the resources alone. Private PPP COMMUNICATION & COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS 13 sector engagement, working together with government and communities, is necessary to close that gap, improve living conditions, and economic development (IFC, 2010). In this dissertation, a PPP is defined as a relationship between government and companies that involves “the sharing of power, work, support and/or information with others for the achievement of joint goals and/or mutual benefits” (Trafford & Proctor, 2006, p. 117). In partnering with the private sector, governments have an opportunity to meet the growing demands for new and better infrastructure since PPPs can help relieve the burden on the public sector and allow risks to be transferred from the public to the private sector, or shared between the two. Moreover, PPPs are attractive because they enable the public sector to leverage the innovations and efficiencies of the private sector, and financing in situations where budget constraints hinder vital development. For the private sector, PPPs provide access to new markets (CCPPP, 2014; Chan & Cheung, 2014; Jamali, 2004; Ke, Wang, Chan & Cheung, 2009; MGI, 2013). Investment in PPPs in the early 1990s reached 131 billion (Thomsen, 2005), and has risen significantly since. In emerging and developing countries, where the demand for infrastructure is great (Schwartz, 2013), private investment in infrastructure PPPs is robust. The World Bank (2013) reported that private investments in PPPs rose 4% in 2012 from 2011 to US

181.4 billion. In Latin America and Caribbean countries, investments rose 50% to

87 billion and accounted for 48% of global investment, which is the largest share of any region and the most investment seen in the region in the last two decades. Brazil had 54 of the 78 new projects, which accounts for 87% of the total investment in the region. Chile, Peru, Argentina, Mexico, Nicaragua, and Uruguay had the remaining new projects (World Bank, 2013). However, the number of PPPs has declined since 2010 despite the demand for PPPs in PPP COMMUNICATION & COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS 14 infrastructure (Schwartz, 2013). Studies suggest a variety of reasons including the impact of the global recession as well as concerns among investors that the risks associated with these investments are often very costly, and the returns are not as high as expected. Moreover, projects have unraveled in the face of public protests, investor withdrawal, or as a result of government dissatisfaction (Hayllar, 2010; Hayllar & Wettenhall, 2009; Hodge & Greve, 2007). Marin, Izaguirre, and Danilenko (2010) found that European and Western companies have lost ground to new private companies from emerging markets in Brazil, Russia, India, and China, and developing markets, including Colombia, Chile, and Argentina because of difficulties in working relationships between foreign and local partners. Koschmann, Kuhn, and Pfarrer (2012) described PPPs as “a unique form of social organization” (p. 332) because they bring together and depend on businesses, government, and civil society to address complex social problems in collaboration. Scholars and practitioners contend that alt

Navigating a Path to the Entrepreneurial Community College: Strategies for Transformational Change in Organizational Culture, Presidential Competencies, and New Business Models

Author: Brock S.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2015
Field of study

Community colleges increasingly face the need to engage in entrepreneurial activities to fill funding gaps created by reduced state funding and increased operational costs. The research attention given to four-year universities and colleges has not been paid to find solutions for the external challenges that community colleges face with funding deficits, increased operational costs, and increased competition for resources. Community colleges also experience internal barriers preventing them from engaging in and sustaining entrepreneurial activities including, traditional organizational cultures that are resistant to change and averse to risk taking, a lack of qualified presidential candidates for future vacancies, and outdated business and finance models and practices. Using an systematic review research methodology, this study examined the relevant literature related to the theories and concepts of organizational culture and change, the Third Wave of Entrepreneurship, transformational leadership theory, jumping the S-curve as a new business model, presidential competencies, and board models. This study resulted in a set of proven, evidence-based strategies that provide a solid foundation for guiding the transformational change in traditional community colleges needed to sustain an entrepreneurial community college capable of pursuing and sustaining revenue-generating activities. Strategies include the development and implementation of: 1) rating criteria for evaluating candidates for community college president positions; 2) new business and finance policies that incorporate the elements of Myran’s New Business and Finance Model; 3) a President’s Entrepreneurial Council; 4) an evaluation model for assessing outcomes of entrepreneurial activities: and 5) the Entrepreneurial Board Model.NAVIGATING A PATH TO THE ENTREPRENEURIAL COMMUNITY COLLEGE Navigating a Path to the Entrepreneurial Community College: Strategies for Transformational Change in Organizational Culture, Presidential Competencies, and New Business Models By Susanne M. Brock Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management in Community College Policy and Administration December 2015 Advisory Committee Dr. Patricia A. Keir Dr. Trudy BersNAVIGATING A PATH TO THE ENTREPRENEURIAL COMMUNITY COLLEGE ii ABSTRACT Community colleges increasingly face the need to engage in entrepreneurial activities to fill funding gaps created by reduced state funding and increased operational costs. The research attention given to four-year universities and colleges has not been paid to find solutions for the external challenges that community colleges face with funding deficits, increased operational costs, and increased competition for resources. Community colleges also experience internal barriers preventing them from engaging in and sustaining entrepreneurial activities including, traditional organizational cultures that are resistant to change and averse to risk taking, a lack of qualified presidential candidates for future vacancies, and outdated business and finance models and practices. Using an systematic review research methodology, this study examined the relevant literature related to the theories and concepts of organizational culture and change, the Third Wave of Entrepreneurship, transformational leadership theory, jumping the S-curve as a new business model, presidential competencies, and board models. This study resulted in a set of proven, evidence-based strategies that provide a solid foundation for guiding the transformational change in traditional community colleges needed to sustain an entrepreneurial community college capable of pursuing and sustaining revenue-generating activities. Strategies include the development and implementation of: 1) rating criteria for evaluating candidates for community college president positions; 2) new business and finance policies that incorporate the elements of Myran’s New Business and Finance Model; 3) a President’s Entrepreneurial Council; 4) an evaluation model for assessing outcomes of entrepreneurial activities: and 5) the Entrepreneurial Board Model.NAVIGATING A PATH TO THE ENTREPRENEURIAL COMMUNITY COLLEGE iii DEDICATION To my wonderful husband, children, family, and friends, thank you so much for your love, encouragement, support, and patience as I pursued this dream.NAVIGATING A PATH TO THE ENTREPRENEURIAL COMMUNITY COLLEGE iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank James, my husband of 27 years, and our children, Jessica, Chase, and Caitlyn. I appreciate your love, encouragement, and sacrifices made throughout this journey. I would like to express my appreciation to my mother for always being a cheerleader for me in everything I do. I would also like to take this opportunity to remember my late father-in-law who was like a father to me and would be so proud to have been here to celebrate this accomplishment. I would like to thank my expert reviewers for their time spent reviewing my dissertation and their feedback that enhanced the quality of my work. Having affirmation from experts in their fields was invaluable and encouraging. I am so appreciative of the faculty in the Doctor of Management in Community College Policy and Administration program at UMUC, particularly Dr. Patricia Keir. As my primary advisor, Dr. Keir continued to challenge me to transform my thinking and writing, and kept pushing me to achieve a goal that I am tremendously proud to have accomplished. NAVIGATING A PATH TO THE ENTREPRENEURIAL COMMUNITY COLLEGE v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................. ii DEDICATION............................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. v CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION......................................................................................... 1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 1 Statement of the Problem............................................................................................................. 5 Statement of Purpose.................................................................................................................... 8 Background of the Problem......................................................................................................... 9 Decreased Funding and Increased Cost and Price of Higher Education ................................... 12 Community College Leadership Development Gap ............................................................................... 14 Community College Organizational Culture and Resistance to Change .................................. 16 Impact of Shared Governance in Community Colleges ....................................................................... 23 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................................ 26 Theoretical Context .................................................................................................................... 27 Community College Organizational Culture and Resistance to Change .................................. 27 Shared Governance and the Entrepreneurial Board Model ................................................................ 29 Entrepreneurial Leadership Theory in Community Colleges ........................................................... 30 The New Business and Finance Model for Community Colleges ................................................ 32 Research Questions..................................................................................................................... 34 Definition of Terms ..................................................................................................................... 35 Chapter One Summary .............................................................................................................. 38 CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY..................................................................................... 39 Introduction to the Systematic Review Methodology.............................................................. 39 Research Approach and Use of Systematic Review................................................................. 40 Literature Search and Evaluation Process ...................................................................................................... 45 Research Questions Formation ............................................................................................................................... 46 Locating Studies Relevant to Dissertation Topic ...................................................................................... 46 Approach for Filtering and Validating Evidence .................................................................... 50NAVIGATING A PATH TO THE ENTREPRENEURIAL COMMUNITY COLLEGE vi Practical Screen for Inclusion ................................................................................................................................. 50 Quality Appraisal ............................................................................................................................................................ 51 Data Extraction and Synthesis of Studies................................................................................. 52 Research Validity and Reliability.............................................................................................. 54 Identification of Expert Reviewers and Use of Feedback ....................................................... 55 First Expert Reviewer Work Experience and Background ................................................................ 57 Second Expert Reviewer Work Experience and Background .......................................................... 57 Third Reviewer Work Experience and Background ............................................................................... 58 Expert Reviewers Feedback .................................................................................................................................... 58 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 59 CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL MODEL............... 60 Introduction to Literature Review ............................................................................................ 60 Organizational Culture, Business Culture, and Risk in Community Colleges ..................... 62 Organizational Culture Definition and Characteristics of Community College Culture ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 63 Business Culture of Community Colleges ..................................................................................................... 67 Risk Taking and Aversion to Risk in Community Colleges ............................................................. 71 Managerialism in Community Colleges .......................................................................................................... 73 Shared Governance on Establishing an Entrepreneurial Culture ................................................... 74 The Role of Community College Boards in Entrepreneurial Activity Engagement ........ 77 Organizational Change in Community Colleges ....................................................................................... 80 Leadership Skills, Experiences, and Competencies Gaps Impacting Entrepreneurship in Community Colleges............................................................................... 83 Skills and Challenges for Contemporary Community College Presidents .............................. 84 Transformational and Entrepreneurial Leadership Theories................................................ 90 Building on Transformational Leadership Theory ................................................................................... 91 The Emergence of Entrepreneurial Leadership Theory in Community Colleges .............. 92 Building on a Foundation of Corporate Entrepreneurial Cultures and Characteristics............................................................................................................................ 94 The Entrepreneurial Community College and Entrepreneurial Models for Engaging in Entrepreneurial Ventures...................................................................................................... 96 The Entrepreneurial Community College ....................................................................................................... 96 Workforce Development and Entrepreneurship Strategies in Community Colleges ... 114 Myran’s New Business and Finance Model for Community Colleges ................................... 116 NAVIGATING A PATH TO THE ENTREPRENEURIAL COMMUNITY COLLEGE vii Cross-Industry Comparison and Contrast of Entrepreneurial Organizations .................. 120 General Electric’s (GE) Strategic Business Units (SBU) ................................................................. 121 University of Phoenix’s For-Profit Business Model ............................................................................ 122 Florida Community College at Jacksonville’s Entrepreneurial Enterprises ........................ 124 Kirkwood Community College’s Strategic Partnerships .................................................................. 127 Brazosport Colleges’ Business within the College ............................................................................... 129 Summary of Literature Review ............................................................................................... 131 Introduction to Conceptual Model for Developing Practices and Guidelines .................... 132 Barriers and Challenges for Traditional Community Colleges Seeking to Generate Alternative Sources of Revenue ......................................................................................................................... 134 Major Concepts, Theories, and Models Related to Community College Engagement in Entrepreneurial Activities ...................................................................................................................................... 138 Summary of Conceptual Model............................................................................................... 141 Literature Review Limitations................................................................................................. 142 CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS................................................................ 143 Overview ................................................................................................................................... 143 The Systematic Review Research Method.............................................................................. 143 Methodology for Critical Analysis of Scholarly Research and Gray Literature .............. 144 Critical Analysis of Expert Reviewers’ Feedback ................................................................. 154 Summary of Expert Reviewers’ Feedback .................................................................................................. 156 Response to Expert Reviewers’ Feedback .................................................................................................. 160 Discussion of Findings .............................................................................................................. 162 Research Questions ..................................................................................................................................................... 162 Research Question #1 Findings ........................................................................................................................... 163 Summary of Key Findings for Research Question #1 ........................................................................ 169 Research Question #2 Findings ........................................................................................................................... 170 Summary of Key Findings for Research Question #2 ........................................................................ 182 Unanticipated Findings ............................................................................................................ 182 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 183 CHAPTER FIVE: IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH............................................................................................................. 185 Overview ................................................................................................................................... 185 Implications of Findings for Community College Practices ................................................. 185NAVIGATING A PATH TO THE ENTREPRENEURIAL COMMUNITY COLLEGE viii Recommended Set of Strategies and Implementation Guidelines........................................ 186 Recommended Strategy #1 – Use Rating Criteria for Evaluating Entrepreneurial Community College Presidential Candidates ............................................................................................ 187 Recommended Strategy #2 – Use the New Business and Finance Model to Enhance Operations and Generate Revenue .................................................................................................................... 194 Recommended Strategy #3 – Create a Culture of Entrepreneurship and Establish a President’s Council for Entrepreneurship .................................................................................................... 200 Recommended Strategy #4 – Create an Evaluation Model for Assessing Entrepreneurial Activities ...................................................................................................................................... 202 Recommended Strategy #5 –Implement the Entrepreneurial Board Model ....................... 204 Identification of Gaps in Research .......................................................................................... 207 Gap #1 – Recent Studies on Current Entrepreneurial Community College Presidents ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 208 Gap #2 – Research on Faculty and Staff Perceptions of and Involvement in Entrepreneurship in Community Colleges .................................................................................................. 209 Gap #3 – Business and Finance Models for Entrepreneurial Community Colleges ..... 210 Gap #4 - The Entrepreneurial Board Model Adapted for Use in Entrepreneurial Community Colleges ................................................................................................................................................. 211 Suggestions for Future Research............................................................................................. 211 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 212 REFERENCES......................................................................................................................... 215NAVIGATING A PATH TO THE ENTREPRENEURIAL COMMUNITY COLLEGE ix APPENDICES APPENDIX 1. SEARCH TERMS………………………………...……………………233 APPENDIX 2. EXPERT REVIEW EVALUATION FORM..………..………….….…236NAVIGATING A PATH TO THE ENTREPRENEURIAL COMMUNITY COLLEGE x LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1. New Business and Finance Model Interlocking Elements…………..……….33 Table 2.1. Research Criteria Template for Literature Review………………..……..…..52 Table 3.1. Five Elements of Model of Institutional Entrepreneurship…..........….….…103 Table 3.2. Recommendations for Community College Best Practices…………...….…108 Table 4.1. Literature Review of Major Works and Studies………..………………..….147 Table 4.2. Expert Reviewers Rating Scores………………..………………………......157 Table 5.1. Criteria for Presidential Candidates Skills, Experiences, and Competencies.190 Table 5.2. Business Dimension Best Practices and Ideas for Implementation……....…196 Table 5.3. Finance Dimension Best Practices and Ideas for Implementation………….198 Table 5.4. Rating Criteria for Appointing or Electing Board Members………………..206NAVIGATING A PATH TO THE ENTREPRENEURIAL COMMUNITY COLLEGE xi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1. Steps for Performing Systematic Reviews…………………………….…..45 Figure 3.1. Frequency of Entrepreneurial Practice by Dimension……………….…..106 Figure 3.2. Example of an Innovation Life Cycle S-Curve………………………..…118 Figure 3.3. Four Elements of the New Business and Finance Model………….…..…119 Figure 3.4. Conceptual Model for Developing Entrepreneurial Strategies………..…133 Figure 5.1. Product Model for Entr

Retirement-eligible employees in an aging workforce: Achieving productive retention

Author: Koravos J.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2015
Field of study

As a large swath of older workers approach retirement, this aging workforce is triggering the threat of a labor shortage and brain drain in many organizations. To mitigate these problems, organizations need to understand the factors associated with retention behaviors of their retirement eligible employees (REEs). Research to date has focused primarily on age in relation to preparation for the cessation of work life, rather than prolonging it. The purpose of this dissertation is to systematically identify, analyze, and synthesize existing research in order to identify factors that motivate REEs to delay retirement while maintaining job performance – termed productive retention. This dissertation employs an evidence-based research methodology to conduct a systematic review of the relevant research, analyzed through a realist philosophical lens. The findings show that mechanisms of perceived organizational support and self-efficacy are positively related to productive retention. However, different contexts were found to cause those mechanisms to misfire, in tandem or separately, resulting in different outcomes. Four contexts revealed by the research that matter include (a) an authentic culture of organizational support for REEs, (b) an inauthentic culture of low organizational support, (c) authentic organizational support within the high stress child social welfare job environment, and (d) inauthentic organizational support within the high stress context. Outcomes range from production retention, a lack of retention and productivity, and an outcome of low retention while productivity is maintained. This study addresses a gap in the research on productive retention of REEs, as well as the need for systematic reviews on the topic of older worker retention. Furthermore, this study provides practitioners with a framework of understanding for productive retention of their valued REEs.i RETIREMENT-ELIGIBLE EMPLOYEES IN AN AGING WORKFORCE: ACHIEVING PRODUCTIVE RETENTION By JoAnne Koravos Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management 2015 Advisory Committee: Dr. Thomas J. Mierzwa Dr. Denise A. Breckon ii iii ABSTRACT As a large swath of older workers approach retirement, this aging workforce is triggering the threat of a labor shortage and brain drain in many organizations. To mitigate these problems, organizations need to understand the factors associated with retention behaviors of their retirement eligible employees (REEs). Research to date has focused primarily on age in relation to preparation for the cessation of work life, rather than prolonging it. The purpose of this dissertation is to systematically identify, analyze, and synthesize existing research in order to identify factors that motivate REEs to delay retirement while maintaining job performance – termed productive retention. This dissertation employs an evidence-based research methodology to conduct a systematic review of the relevant research, analyzed through a realist philosophical lens. The findings show that mechanisms of perceived organizational support and self-efficacy are positively related to productive retention. However, different contexts were found to cause those mechanisms to misfire, in tandem or separately, resulting in different outcomes. Four contexts revealed by the research that matter include (a) an authentic culture of organizational support for REEs, (b) an inauthentic culture of low organizational support, (c) authentic organizational support within the high stress child social welfare job environment, and (d) inauthentic organizational support within the high stress context. Outcomes range from production retention, a lack of retention and productivity, and an outcome of low retention while productivity is maintained. This study addresses a gap in the research on productive retention of REEs, and the need for a systematic review on the topic of older worker retention. Furthermore, this study provides practitioners with a framework of understanding for productive retention of their valued REEs. Keywords: aging workforce, older worker, retention, productivity, self-efficacy, organizational support, retirement iv © Copyright by JoAnne Koravos 2015 v Dedication First and foremost, this dissertation is dedicated to my mother, Patricia Ann Stacy Koravos; an educator, an intellectual, and my best friend. She opens her heart and mind to people and possibilities and loves all forms of knowledge. Her positive attitude about life is extraordinary. The world would be a better place if more people possessed her accepting love for humanity and the belief that everyone at their core are good. I will never be the woman she is, but will forever be grateful for her influence. She is the main reason I am a life-long learner and a fearless participant in my own life. I will forever cherish our conversations and am grateful she will be here to see my dream of achieving a doctorate come to fruition. For over 3 years my family and friends have worked around my schedule, as I declined events and visits to slog away at my schoolwork. I am grateful for their love and understanding and hope my grandchildren will someday realize what their grandmother accomplished in the sixth decade of her life. It is never too late to pursue your dreams and make them a reality. And finally, I thank my husband, Mike Soboroff. How can I put into words how grateful I am for the sacrifice you willingly accepted? You took on so many responsibilities, such as: keeping the household running in my absence; bringing me coffee at my desk and filling my cup when it was empty; rescheduling and rearranging our life around my course deliverables without one complaint; gracefully standing back during my many periods of frustration and let them run the course; and, chauffeuring me for many, many, many hours up and down the east coast to visit family, while I worked in my “mobile office” in the back seat of the car. Without your love and support this journey would have been much harder, and possibly unsustainable. This is the definition of unconditional love. vi Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my dissertation advisors Dr. Tom Mierzwa and Dr. Denise Breckon for their support and patience as they guided me through the process of conducting my research and assembling the dissertation. I would also like to acknowledge the unwavering support of Dr. Wanda Wagner, TA extraordinaire. As I reflect on the past years, I realize how difficult it is to train a group of experienced practitioners in a new way of thinking and making sense of the world. Closing the gap between scholarship and practice by creating a generation of managers who practice evidence-based management is on the horizon and I am honored to be part of this community. Also, and most importantly, I want to acknowledge my cohort of fellow students who propped me up day after day. Although, all of us have impressive professional accomplishments, we were reduced to our core intellects and intuitions during hundreds of lengthy debates and discussions on management topics ranging from theory, to research methods, to innovation, and beyond. At the beginning I was skeptical of the cohort model, but as time went on I came to realize the benefits and how lucky I was to be in a cohort learning environment. We learned to respect each other’s perspectives, interpretations, and ultimately our newly acquired scholarly prowess. So to all of you – Brenda, Cami, Jamie, Jessica, Joe, Katherine, Penny, Robert, Sean, Steve, and Terri - congratulations on your academic achievement! Our connection to each other will not end with the successful attainment of the Doctor of Management degree. In fact, many of you will continue to be my life-long friends and confidants. vii Table of Contents Dedication ............................................................................................................................v Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ vi List of Tables .................................................................................................................... xii List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xiii Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Problem ............................................................1 Overview ..................................................................................................................1 The Older Worker Demographic .................................................................9 Employment and occupation..........................................................10 Compensation ................................................................................12 Global phenomenon .......................................................................14 Defining the Retirement Eligible Employee (REE) ...................................18 Definition of Terms................................................................................................21 Research Question .................................................................................................24 Purpose of this Study .............................................................................................25 Significance of this Study ......................................................................................25 Scope and Limitations............................................................................................28 Summary ................................................................................................................29 Organization of the Study ......................................................................................30 Chapter 2: Literature Review and Conceptual Framework ........................................31 Integrative Themes in the Literature ......................................................................33 Employee Age and Self-Efficacy...............................................................34 Employee Age and Discrimination ............................................................36 viii Employee Age and Leadership ..................................................................39 Employee Age and Employee Retention ...................................................42 Employee Age and Productivity ................................................................44 Strategic Human Resource Management ...................................................50 Organizational Culture and Change ...........................................................54 Regulatory Environment ............................................................................57 Summary of the Literature Review ........................................................................59 Conceptual Framework ..........................................................................................63 Theoretical Framework ..............................................................................63 Interpreted Theoretical Model ...................................................................67 Discussion of Research Variables ..............................................................68 Dependent variables .......................................................................70 Independent variables ....................................................................72 Moderating variables .....................................................................78 Thesis Statement ....................................................................................................81 Chapter 3: Methodology..................................................................................................83 Theory and Practice of Evidence-Based Research ................................................85 Research Design.....................................................................................................87 The Realist Approach ............................................................................................88 Systematic Review Methodology ..........................................................................89 Search Strategy ......................................................................................................91 Keywords and Search Phrase .....................................................................91 Data Sources Explored ...............................................................................92 ix Search Results ............................................................................................93 Quality Appraisal ...................................................................................................93 Iterative Searches .......................................................................................99 Considerations from the Expert Panel ...................................................................99 Summary of Results .............................................................................................101 Descriptive Statistics ................................................................................101 Data Extraction and Data Analysis ..........................................................102 Triangulation ........................................................................................................105 Synthesis of Results .............................................................................................107 Threats to Validity ...............................................................................................109 Next Steps: Synthesis, Findings, and Dissemination ...........................................110 Chapter 4: Analysis of Findings ...................................................................................111 Theoretical Explanation of REE Factors .............................................................112 Findings of Evidence ...........................................................................................113 Generative Mechanisms ...........................................................................114 Finding #1: Authentic Organizational Support Context ..........................115 Interventions within the authentic organizational support context ..........................................................................................117 Outcome pattern to Finding #1 ....................................................119 Finding #2: Inauthentic Organizational Support......................................119 Interventions ................................................................................121 Outcome pattern to Finding #2 ....................................................121 Findings #3 and #4: High-Stress Work Environment ..............................122 x Interventions ................................................................................124 Outcome patterns for Findings #3 & #4 ......................................124 Using Theory to Make Sense of the Patterns within the Findings .......................125 REE Productive Retention Theory.......................................................................128 Summary of Findings – Addressing the Research Question ...............................129 Limitations of Interpretation of Findings .............................................................131 Conclusion ...........................................................................................................132 Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ...................................................................133 Study Conclusions ...............................................................................................133 Implications for Management Practice ................................................................136 Building Contextual Layers .................................................................................139 Implications for Future Research .........................................................................140 Summary of Observations....................................................................................142 References ........................................................................................................................145 Appendix A The Process of Realist Synthesis .................................................................173 Appendix B A task-and-time template for realist synthesis ............................................174 Appendix C Citation Report for Topic Search on Aging Workforce ..............................175 Appendix D Databases Searched Directly by UMUC OneSearch Discovery Tool ........176 Appendix E Literature Search Results .............................................................................177 Appendix F Search Results and Study-Level Quality Appraisal .....................................178 Appendix G Results from Iterative Searches During Data Extraction and Analysis ......186 Appendix H Panel of Subject Matter Experts ..................................................................187 Appendix I Master Data Table .........................................................................................193 xi Appendix J Data Extraction Process for Realist Review .................................................196 Appendix K Primary Research Data Table ......................................................................197 Appendix L Coding Hierarchy: Parent Nodes and Child Nodes Expanded to Level 2 ...231 Appendix M Synthesis Map: Collation of Evidential Data around the C-M-O Framework ...........................................................................................................232 Appendix N Summary of Node “Organizational Support” .............................................238 xii List of Tables Table 1. Demographic Profile of the Older Worker ......................................................... 10 Table 2. Median Usual Weekly Earnings of Full-Time Wage and Salary Workers in the United States by Age for Second Quarter, 2015 ......................................... 12 Table 3. Longitudinal Search Results by Country for Aging Workforce Research ......... 27 Table 4. Themes and Propositions Derived from Literature Review ............................... 61 Table 5. Management Theories Emerging from the Literature Review Explaining Older Worker Behavior in Relation to Productive Retention ............................... 66 Table 6. Summary of Research Variables that Define the Relationships in the Conceptual Model ................................................................................................. 70 Table 7. Thesis Statement Recast in Realist Terms .......................................................... 81 Table 8. Set of ‘a priori’ Themes to Inform Initial Search Strategy ................................. 91 Table 9. Study-Level Appraisal Tool for Classification and Quality Assessment ........... 96 Table 10. Review-Level Appraisal Tool for Classification and Quality Assessment ...... 97 Table 11. Iterative Search Results (Intervention studies = 18, Theoretical studies = 8) .. 99 Table 12. Descriptive Statistics for Final Sample of 18 Studies..................................... 102 Table 13. Sample of Primary Research Data Table ........................................................ 104 Table 14. Interventions the Parent Node Used to Code Review-Level Data within NVivo10 .................................................................................................. 105 Table 15. Master Data Table Hierarchy Supporting the Realist Framework ................. 108 Table 16. Sample of Synthesis Map-Collation Table: CMO Framework ...................... 109 Table 17. Thesis Statement for Productive Retention of REEs ...................................... 113 Table 18. Sets of Interventions Emerging from the Evidential Literature ...................... 117 Table 19. Theories Related to Generative Mechanisms of Self-Efficacy and POS ........ 128 Table 20. Retirement-Eligible Employee (REE) Productive Retention Theory ............. 129 Table 21. Summary of CMO Configuration for Productive Retention of the REE ........ 130 xiii List of Figures Figure 1. As the population ages, so will the workforce .................................................... 4 Figure 2. As the population ages, so will the workforce .................................................... 5 Figure 3. As the year 2020 approaches, the percentage of the labor force represented by older workers increases ...................................................................................... 6 Figure 4. Mandated coverage increases costs of younger workers compared to older workers ........................................................................................................ 13 Figure 5. Population 65-84 years and 85 years and over in the world’s four largest countries: 2012, 2030, and 2050 ............................................................... 15 Figure 6. Proportion of the population aged 60 years or over: World and development regions 1950 to 2050 ............................................................................................. 17 Figure 7. The decision tree that follows the REE’s decision of whether to delay retirement and stay in the workforce, or retire and leave the workforce .............. 21 Figure 8. Published items and citations by ye

Addressing Autistic Spectrum Disorders in educational settings: With use of the Model Core Teaching Standards

Author: Hays Caitlin
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 2015
Field of study

Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD), including both Autism and Asperger’s Syndrome, is a group of developmental disabilities that can cause significant social, communication and behavioral challenges. In educational settings, students with a clinical diagnosis of an ASD often require special services, such as personal aides, note-takers, or alternative quiet testing areas (Safran, 2002). Teachers may encounter students with varying degrees of ASD and should understand how best to meet each student’s needs. The Model Core Teaching Standards: A Resource for State Dialogue, developed by the Council of Chief State School Officers, expresses the importance of three main principles – knowledge, disposition, and performance – that teachers are expected to provide in order to create an effective teaching and learning environment for all students (Duyar & Normore, 2012). These three characteristics of the Model Core Teaching Standards can be implemented by teachers to better address ASD in educational settings: using a knowledge of ASD and the understanding of the needs of students with such exceptionalities to establish appropriate services; considering diverse day-to-day situations and having the capacity and willingness to adapt through a reflective disposition; and maximizing performance by planning a program of teaching/learning that is effective for all students, including those students with ASD.Addressing ASD 1 Addressing Autistic Spectrum Disorders in Educational Settings: With Use of the Model Core Teaching Standards Caitlin Hays Major: Social Science Email: [email protected] University of Maryland – University College Addressing ASD 2 Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD), including both Autism and Asperger’s Syndrome, is a group of developmental disabilities that can cause significant social, communication and behavioral challenges. In educational settings, students with a clinical diagnosis of an ASD often require special services, such as personal aides, note-takers, or alternative quiet testing areas (Safran, 2002). Teachers may encounter students with varying degrees of ASD and should understand how best to meet each student’s needs. The Model Core Teaching Standards: A Resource for State Dialogue, developed by the Council of Chief State School Officers, expresses the importance of three main principles – knowledge, disposition, and performance – that teachers are expected to provide in order to create an effective teaching and learning environment for all students (Duyar & Normore, 2012). These three characteristics of the Model Core Teaching Standards can be implemented by teachers to better address ASD in educational settings: using a knowledge of ASD and the understanding of the needs of students with such exceptionalities to establish appropriate services; considering diverse day-to-day situations and having the capacity and willingness to adapt through a reflective disposition; and maximizing performance by planning a program of teaching/learning that is effective for all students, including those students with ASD. Knowledge plays a key role in understanding the needs of students with ASD and is especially important since numbers of diagnosed cases are continually increasing (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2010). The CDC estimated an average of 1 in 110 children is born with an ASD. Many students exhibiting signs of an ASD are never even diagnosed—this is especially true for girls, even when equally severe symptoms are shown by both genders (Russell, Ford, Steer, & Golding, 2010). Russell et al. found, ―fifty-five percent of children with ASD traits at the same levels as those who had an ASD diagnosis had not been Addressing ASD 3 identified as needing extra support from education.‖ Because so many students with ASD may still be undiagnosed, teachers must broaden their knowledge of the condition and be aware of both diagnosed and undiagnosed students in the classroom. Teachers must embrace the understanding that undiagnosed students may still need the same services and consideration requested of their clinically diagnosed peers. The development of a reflective disposition is ideal in considering diverse day-to-day situations and having the capacity and willingness to embrace diversity and adapt. Students with an ASD may be more prone to sensitivity caused by a misinterpreted gesture or more easily frustrated when the plan at hand changes (Safran, 2002). It is important that teachers remain sensitive to the issues concerning ASD that may come up on a day-to-day basis in the classroom. A major shadow looming over ASD is the prevalence of depression (Stewart, Barnard, Pearson, Hasan, & O’Brien, 2006). Characteristics common with ASD, such as social withdrawal and disturbance in both sleep and appetite, paired with the stress and loneliness of navigating a world unaccustomed to ASD tendencies, only aids in the onset of depression. To combat these feelings of isolation, Safran suggests teachers should focus on creating and maintaining their classroom as a ―safe, supportive, and accepting community.‖ There are many steps a teacher can make in creating a supportive classroom environment, such as staying aware of bullying and offering a safe haven for students with ASD. By drawing on their own reflective disposition, a teacher is better able to creatively adapt to each new situation, by remaining sensitive to the feelings and signals from each student. Performance can be maximized by teachers planning, implementing, and assessing a teaching/learning program that is effective for all students in the classroom, including those students with ASD. Students with ASD can display a wide range of symptoms varying vastly in Addressing ASD 4 severity. Some may have problems with auditory processing disorder or executive function, others with social anxiety caused by group work (Safran). Students with ASD may also have trouble understanding what would normally be considered simple and straight-forward directions for an assignment, listening when sitting in the back of the room, or concentrating on work when only a ticking of a clock can be heard (Myles & Adreon, 2001, p. 13-19). With the right planning, inconveniences which arise with ASD may be avoided. Safran suggests implementing careful structure into everyday routines, such as thoughtfully assigning seats and delegating tasks when group work is required. In order to maximize performance, teachers must keep students with ASD in mind every step of the way, whether they are creating lesson plans, explaining instructions, or even organizing the classroom. While Autistic Spectrum Disorders may cover quite a range of symptoms, the three characteristics of the Model Core Teaching Standards —knowledge, disposition, and performance—can be adopted and implemented by teachers to benefit most situations. Teachers must be sensitive to students’ needs and remain aware that a non-diagnosis doesn’t mean a non-condition. It is up to teachers to become educated and promote understanding on the subject of ASD. Safran wrote, ―Although relatively few students with [an Autism Spectrum Disorder] have been formally recognized, growing awareness and attention in the educational community will likely lead to significantly increased identification.‖ And with increased identification, the educational community will have to increase its services offered for those with ASD, allowing these exceptional students to finally receive the support needed to thrive. Addressing ASD 5 References Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010, May 13). Facts about ASDs. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/facts.html Duyar, I., & Normore, A.H. (2012). Discretionary behavior and performance in educational organizations: The missing link in educational leadership and management. Bradford, UK: Emerald Group Publishing. Myles, B.S. & Adreon, D. (2001). Asperger syndrome and adolescence: Practical solutions for school success. Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism Asperger Publishing Co. Russell, G., Ford, T., Steer, C. & Golding, J. (2010). Identification of children with the same level of impairment as children on the autistic spectrum, and analysis of their service use. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 643–651. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02233.x Safran, J. (2002). Supporting students with Asperger’s syndrome in general education. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34, 60-66. Retrieved from http:// www.sacramentoasis.com/docs/7-13-07/supporting_students_with_as.pdf Stewart, M.E., Barnard, L., Pearson, J., Hasan, R., & O’Brien, G. (2006.) Presentation of depression in autism and Asperger syndrome: A review. Autism, 10, 103-116. doi: 10.1177/136236130606201

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