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Community college alumni private fundraising: Strategies and factors for success – A systematic review
No full textThe time has come for community colleges to realize the potential of alumni private funding gifts. While some community colleges have developed alumni associations with success as a source for private fundraising, there are many that have not been successful. Today leaders are still perplexed as to the strategies and factors that contribute to the success of alumni fundraising in the community college environment. Alumni associations can be a funding source and alumni can be advocates, volunteers, and recruiting ambassadors for the colleges. Many community colleges do not know how to engage former students as alumni or begin the process of grooming current students for their role as alumni. Community colleges must begin to realize how its alumni can be a source to address the needs of the college.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the literature to determine the most effective strategies to create successful alumni associations. Evidence based research was be used to analyze how community colleges can identify and engage former students as alumni, what the role of the community college president and chief development officer is in establishing successful community college alumni associations, and what factors are important in developing successful alumni programs to realize the potential of private fundraising gifts. Invest, communicate, engage, and then make the ask! This study will contribute to the community college literature and provide community college leadership with the strategies and factors for success in creating alumni associations to assist with the needs for additional funding sources and to utilize alumni as advocates, volunteers, and recruiting ambassadors for the colleges.COMMUNITY COLLEGE ALUMNI PRIVATE FUNDRAISING
Community College Alumni Private Fundraising:
Strategies and Factors for Success – A Systematic Review
Claudia Yvonne Owens
A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Management
Dr. Charlene Nunley, Ph.D.
Dr. Susan McMaster, DM
August 3, 2016
COMMUNITY COLLEGE ALUMNI PRIVATE FUNDRAISING i
Abstract
The time has come for community colleges to realize the potential of alumni private funding gifts. While some community colleges have developed alumni associations with success as a source for private fundraising, there are many that have not been successful. Today leaders are still perplexed as to the strategies and factors that contribute to the success of alumni fundraising in the community college environment. Alumni associations can be a funding source and alumni can be advocates, volunteers, and recruiting ambassadors for the colleges. Many community colleges do not know how to engage former students as alumni or begin the process of grooming current students for their role as alumni. Community colleges must begin to realize how its alumni can be a source to address the needs of the college.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the literature to determine the most effective strategies to create successful alumni associations. Evidence based research was be used to analyze how community colleges can identify and engage former students as alumni, what the role of the community college president and chief development officer is in establishing successful community college alumni associations, and what factors are important in developing successful alumni programs to realize the potential of private fundraising gifts.
Invest, communicate, engage, and then make the ask! This study will contribute to the community college literature and provide community college leadership with the strategies and factors for success in creating alumni associations to assist with the needs for additional funding sources and to utilize alumni as advocates, volunteers, and recruiting ambassadors for the collegesCOMMUNITY COLLEGE ALUMNI PRIVATE FUNDRAISING ii
Dedication
To God be the Glory! I am thankful that the goal of completing my dissertation has been fulfilled. This study is dedicated to my beautiful mother, Clarice Render, who I love and adore. It was her work ethic and desire to become a registered nurse and earn a nursing degree as a non-traditional student that provided the motivation for me to pursue my dream of a doctorate degree during this time in my life. As a youngster, I remember going to open labs with her on Saturday mornings; she showed me what can be achieved through hard work and perseverance. Thank you, Mom!
There is a saying “Not everyone deserves a seat in the front row of your life.” I am blessed that my front row is filled with family and friends who supported and cheered me on the entire journey. I share this accomplishment with those cheerleaders, like Judge Pinkey S. Carr, who began calling me “Doc a Roc” throughout this journey. Hearing those words always provided that extra motivation required to keep me pursuing my dream. I know Judge Carr, my cousin Sterling, my long-time friend Beverly, my D.C. hostess Donna, and others will continue to occupy the front row of my life going forward. I am grateful for their comradery!
In the midst of my joy and celebration of the honor of earning a doctorate degree, I remember those loved ones whose physical presence are no longer here. My husband Thomas Ritchie Owens, my best friend Tamara Neal Lott, my father James Albert Render, Jr., and my grandparent’s whose spiritual presence was felt along the way. Whenever self-doubt attempted to hinder my progress or life’s challenges attempted to put up road blocks, it was their spiritual presence that reminded me there are always giants at the gate of completion but to push forward any way. What a learning journey this has been. I am blessed!COMMUNITY COLLEGE ALUMNI PRIVATE FUNDRAISING iii
Acknowledgments
I am thankful to Dr. Bradley Ebersole, president of Washington State Community College, for encouraging me and recommending that I attend University of Maryland University College (UMUC) for earning my doctorate degree. Earning my doctorate was a dream and goal on my bucket list. I am also thankful that UMUC offers a program that encourages completion of a dissertation while also completing coursework, this is ideal for the adult student. I am grateful my two advisors, Dr. Charlene Nunley and Dr. Susan McMaster, provided the right balance of constructive feedback and encouragement to motivate me to continue and finish. The completion of this dissertation is a reflection of the combination of their efforts, too, and I share all the accolades with both Dr. Nunley and Dr. McMaster. I would be remiss if I did not also acknowledge the other faculty members of UMUC who shared their knowledge and practical experience to provide a scholarly environment for learning.
To my fellow colleagues (Wendy, Lenaire, and Kelemsis) who were there from the first class, and Angela who joined us along the way, we did it! Thank you for listening to me, sharing with me, and laughing with me through this amazing learning journey; we are indeed academic scholars full of potential and ready for the possibilities.COMMUNITY COLLEGE ALUMNI PRIVATE FUNDRAISING iv
Table of Contents
Chapter One: Introduction...........................................................................................................1
Background and Context ..................................................................................................1
Statement of Problem........................................................................................................3
Significance to the Problem...............................................................................................6
Context of the Problem......................................................................................................8
Theoretical Background..................................................................................................10
Definition of Terms ..........................................................................................................14
Research Questions..........................................................................................................15
Purpose of Study ..............................................................................................................15
Summary..........................................................................................................................16
Chapter Two: Literature Review ...............................................................................................18
Introduction.....................................................................................................................18
Background ......................................................................................................................18
Need for Alumni Associations.........................................................................................19
Need to Develop Strategies to Engage Alumni .............................................................19
Defining the Community College Alumni......................................................................20
Leadership Roles in Creating Successful Alumni Programs ......................................28
Successful Alumni Programs: Community Colleges ...................................................33
Effective Alumni Programs: Evidence from the Four-Year Sector...........................34
Factors Important In Developing Successful Alumni Programs in Community Colleges .............................................................................................................................40
Theoretical Framework...................................................................................................44
Summary..........................................................................................................................52COMMUNITY COLLEGE ALUMNI PRIVATE FUNDRAISING v
Chapter Three: Conceptual Model ...........................................................................................54
Introduction.....................................................................................................................54
Assumptions.....................................................................................................................54
Components of Conceptual Model ................................................................................55
Elements for Success........................................................................................................71
Summary..........................................................................................................................76
Chapter Four: Research Methodology .....................................................................................78
Introduction.....................................................................................................................78
The Methodology Protocol ..............................................................................................79
Selection of Expert Panel...............................................................................................103
Summary........................................................................................................................105
Chapter Five: Findings and Analysis......................................................................................107
Introduction...................................................................................................................107
Subject Matter Experts; Feedback and Analysis........................................................107
Findings from the Literature ........................................................................................114
Findings Regarding the Significance of this Study.....................................................115
Expert Opinion Articles and Scholarly Studies ..........................................................116
Grey Literature ..............................................................................................................116
Findings Based on the Research Questions .................................................................118
Unanticipated Findings .................................................................................................129
Limitations.....................................................................................................................130
Conclusion and Summary .............................................................................................130
Chapter Six: Recommendations and Implications for Practitioners ...................................132
Introduction...................................................................................................................132COMMUNITY COLLEGE ALUMNI PRIVATE FUNDRAISING vi
Key Recommendations ..................................................................................................134
Blueprint for Implementing Alumni Programs ..........................................................142
Challenges.......................................................................................................................143
Gaps in Literature..........................................................................................................145
Suggested Additional Research ....................................................................................146
Conclusion: Significance to Scholarship and Practice ..............................................146
References..................................................................................................................................148
Appendix ...................................................................................................................................162COMMUNITY COLLEGE ALUMNI PRIVATE FUNDRAISING vii
List of Tables
TABLE
4.1 Keyword Search: “community colleges” AND “alumni associations” ...........................82
4.2 Keyword Search: “community college alumni” ...............................................................83
4.3 Keyword Search: “community colleges” AND “alumni associations” ...........................85
4.4 Keyword Search: “colleges OR university* AND “alumni associations”........................87
4.5 Keyword Search: presidents AND alumni OR fundraising .............................................89
4.6 Literature Reviewed for Research Question A: What evidence does the literature provide of a relationship between the selected definition of the term alumni, former student engagement, alumni donor characteristics, and private fundraising at community colleges? ...........................................................................................................................91
4.7 Literature Reviewed for Research Question B: What can be learned from the literature about the roles of the college president and the chief development officer in developing successful community college alumni associations? ........................................................93
4.8 Literature Reviewed for Research Question C: What can be learned from the two-year colleges and the four year colleges with successful alumni programs about the elements that contribute to success? ...............................................................................................95
4.9 Literature Reviewed for Research Question D: What factors does the literature indicate contribute to increased private fundraising gifts from alumni of community colleges? ............................................................................................................................97
4.10 Literature Reviewed for System Theory ...........................................................................98
4.11 Literature Reviewed for Leader Member Exchange Theory ............................................99
4.12 Literature Reviewed for Social Identity Theory .............................................................101COMMUNITY COLLEGE ALUMNI PRIVATE FUNDRAISING viii
List of Figures
FIGURE
3.1 Why Alumni Association Are Needed ..............................................................................55
3.2 Conceptual Model: Effective Strategies for Creating Successful
Alumni Associations .........................................................................................................60
6.1 Definition and Characteristics of Community College Alumni Who Give ....................137
6.2 Practitioner’s Model of Best Practices ............................................................................142COMMUNITY COLLEGE ALUMNI PRIVATE FUNDRAISING
Chapter One: Introduction
Background and Context
The time has come for community colleges to realize the potential of alumni private funding gifts. According to the American Association of Community Colleges (2016), in 2013-2014, community colleges awarded 795,235 associate degrees and 494,995 certificates. For over 7.3 million students community colleges provide the start of their post-secondary education. “Therefore, it has come as a surprise for some that community colleges have not sought to engage their alumni in fundraising activities more fully, similar to alumni fundraising programs found at four-year colleges and universities” (Starace, 2012, p. 1).
Community colleges have considered creating alumni programs since 1906 when Kentucky Community College established an alumni fund (Perkins, 1990). And, in 1958, the idea to start alumni associations at community colleges was introduced by Dr. Issac Beckes, President of Vincennes University (Shuford, 2007). In 1982 Kopecek, President of Northampton County Area Community College and Susan Kubik, Director of Alumni Affairs at the College commented, “The problems of organizing a group as heterogeneous as community college alumni are not easily overcome. The potential benefits, however, are well worth the effort” (Kopecek & Kubik, 1982, p. 75). In subsequent years, since 1982, many community colleges have started alumni programs; however, most have been slow to invest the time or money to realize the full potential of engaging former students as alumni (Shuford, 2007). “One of the most important resources that universities and colleges have is their alumni” (Pung, 2013, p. 1). Today community college leaders acknowledge the four-year colleges and universities are successful in alumni private fundraising; however, they still are perplexed as to the strategies and COMMUNITY COLLEGE ALUMNI PRIVATE FUNDRAISING 2
factors that contribute to the success of alumni fundraising in the community college environment.
According to Buckla (2004), “Understanding philanthropic phenomena in higher education merits study because fundraising is a critical source of revenue that helps maintain academic program quality, invigorate capital projects, and spur exponential endowment growth -providing a stable source of operating income during times of prosperity and times of financial distress” (p. 2). One element of philanthropy that many four-year colleges engage in involves the creation of alumni associations. Active alumni associations have brought many benefits to four-year colleges and universities. There are some community colleges that have been successful, but many are unengaged or are novices in alumni relations.
Overall, community colleges educate the largest number of undergraduate students in higher education (Sheldon, 2003). Students who attend community colleges reside in the local community and often community college alumni remain in the area to work, thus contributing to the workforce needs and local economy. Yet, community colleges receive only 2 percent of potential financial support from private funding among institutions of higher education, although they represent the largest sources of higher education in the country (Keener, Carrier, & Meaders, 2002).
Creating community college alumni associations are one way to engage former students and begin the process of private fundraising. Four-year colleges and universities have used alumni associations as one method of philanthropy that have raised millions of private fundraising dollars (Heaton, 2014). Although such associations are not typically sources to replace operating funding, they can provide gifts to support scholarships that can increase enrollment (thereby increasing operating funds), funds to support “quality extras” that cannot be COMMUNITY COLLEGE ALUMNI PRIVATE FUNDRAISING 3
supported with current levels of operating funds, and gifts to support facilities construction and equipment beyond the levels that public funding can support. Skari and Ullman (2012) conclude from their research that community college students who go on to earn bachelor degrees at four-year colleges or universities are more likely to give back, if asked, to their community college.
Alumni associations can be a funding source for community colleges. Alumni can be advocates, volunteers, and a recruiting tool for the colleges. According to Heaton (2014), “Community college presidents often ask about the return on investment in alumni relations, but the value of alumni engagement extends beyond private philanthropy” (p. 37). As Shuford (2007) states in her study, “Alumni can inform the world of how community colleges are making a difference” (p. 1). After graduation most community college alumni remain in the community and as Rump (as cited in The Development & Alumni Relations Report, 2008) comments, “Our alumni are our greatest asset because they are our product. They also provide credibility to what we
Volunteer management: Understanding volunteer motivation and recognizing critical tactics for managing the volunteer workforce
No full textThe volunteer workforce is a critical asset within many different types of organizations. Volunteers provide much more than menial labor; they perform many tasks and hold positions of leadership at all levels of organizations. For the purposes of this dissertation, a volunteer is defined as an individual who offers his or her time and talents for the benefit of an individual, group, or organization without the expectation of financial compensation. Many organizations that depend on volunteers do not have adequate strategies for acquiring, developing, and maintaining a volunteer workforce. The purpose of this dissertation is to explore the unique dynamics associated with managing a volunteer workforce and to identify best practices and effective strategies for enhancing or improving its performance. The research question was used to investigate strategies essential for the management of a volunteer workforce, recognizing that each volunteer has unique motivation(s) for his or her voluntary activities. It was posited that volunteers have different motivations than the paid workforce. Examining the motivations underpinning volunteering was therefore essential for determining how to positively influence the job performance of the volunteer workforce. This dissertation could be used to provide managers with insights into essential strategies for effectively managing a volunteer workforce. Data from the study acknowledges that different organizations with different voluntary activities must engage in unique strategies. However, the study concluded with distinct strategies essential to volunteer management no matter the organization or the volunteer activity. The essential strategies for volunteer management are: (a) acquiring, (b) developing, and (c) maintaining this workforce. These three strategies are equally important; each strategy affects the others.Running head: VOLUNTEER MANAGEMENT 1
Volunteer Management: Understanding Volunteer Motivation
and Recognizing Critical Tactics for Managing the Volunteer Workforce
Michael D. White
A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Management
Dr. Eric Dent
Dr. Deborah Wharff
February 17, 2016
VOLUNTEER MANAGEMENT 2
Abstract
The volunteer workforce is a critical asset within many different types of organizations. Volunteers provide much more than menial labor; they perform many tasks and hold positions of leadership at all levels of organizations. For the purposes of this dissertation, a volunteer is defined as an individual who offers his or her time and talents for the benefit of an individual, group, or organization without the expectation of financial compensation. Many organizations that depend on volunteers do not have adequate strategies for acquiring, developing, and maintaining a volunteer workforce. The purpose of this dissertation is to explore the unique dynamics associated with managing a volunteer workforce and to identify best practices and effective strategies for enhancing or improving its performance. The research question was used to investigate strategies essential for the management of a volunteer workforce, recognizing that each volunteer has unique motivation(s) for his or her voluntary activities. It was posited that volunteers have different motivations than the paid workforce. Examining the motivations underpinning volunteering was therefore essential for determining how to positively influence the job performance of the volunteer workforce. This dissertation could be used to provide managers with insights into essential strategies for effectively managing a volunteer workforce. Data from the study acknowledges that different organizations with different voluntary activities must engage in unique strategies. However, the study concluded with distinct strategies essential to volunteer management no matter the organization or the volunteer activity. The essential strategies for volunteer management are: (a) acquiring, (b) developing, and (c) maintaining this workforce. These three strategies are equally important; each strategy affects the others.
Keywords: volunteer management, volunteer motivation, volunteer workforce
VOLUNTEER MANAGEMENT 3
Acknowledgements
What an amazing journey! First, I want to thank my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ, for His guidance into and throughout this journey. “Your life is a journey that you must travel with a deep consciousness to God” (1 Peter 1:18, The Message). I would not have begun or completed this journey without God’s divine direction, grace, and mercy. Great thanks, love, and appreciation also go to my parents, Gary and Reta White, for their continued love, encouragement, guidance, and demonstration of how to walk this life with a deep consciousness of God. True, unwavering support came from my beautiful and loving wife, Marquita White, who was with me every step of the journey. I would have given up on this journey without her love and encouragement. This journey was covered with prayer by my parents, wife, in-laws (Benny and Gloria Hart), and the congregation of Abundant Life Community Church, where I serve as pastor. My daughters, Samantha and Chelsea, who are my biggest fans, both also completed their academic journeys during this time. I am exceptionally proud of them and the Godly women they have become; I appreciate their love and support. I could not have completed this journey without the support of my family and friends.
This academic journey would not have been possible without the great support of the faculty and staff of the doctoral program at UMUC—thank you! Each step I took was educational and enlightening into a different way of thinking. I cannot express my thanks and appreciation enough to my dissertation advisors, Dr. Eric Dent and Dr. Deborah Wharff. Without their advice, guidance, patience, and support, I would not have completed the dissertation process. Lastly, I wish to express my gratitude to the great support system that I found through this journey: my doctoral cohort. Each one provided a different aspect of collegial encouragement that made this experience possible. My fellow Doctors, thank you! VOLUNTEER MANAGEMENT 4
Table of Contents
Abstract ...............................................................................................................................2
Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................................3
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................8
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................9
Chapter 1: Introduction to Volunteer Management ...........................................................10
Theoretical and Analytic Framework for Volunteerism ............................................12
Background ................................................................................................................14
Problem and Purpose Statement ................................................................................16
Importance to Management .......................................................................................19
Organizational benefits. .....................................................................................20
Organizational risks. ..........................................................................................22
Research Question .....................................................................................................23
Propositions ................................................................................................................23
Summary ....................................................................................................................24
Dissertation Organization ..........................................................................................24
Chapter 2: Systematic Literature Review ..........................................................................26
Organization ...............................................................................................................26
Empirical Foundation for Volunteerism ....................................................................26
Literature challenges. .........................................................................................28
Defining a Volunteer ..................................................................................................29
Theoretical Lens .........................................................................................................32 VOLUNTEER MANAGEMENT 5
Theory of human motivation. .............................................................................33
Motivation-Hygiene Theory. .............................................................................36
Organizational Citizenship Behavior. ................................................................38
Social Exchange Theory. ...................................................................................40
Characteristics and Attributes of Volunteerism .........................................................41
Motivation. .........................................................................................................44
Understanding motives. ..............................................................................45
Motive identification. .................................................................................48
Categories of motives. ................................................................................51
Availability. ........................................................................................................59
Factors to Consider when Managing a Volunteer Workforce ...................................63
Practice and Strategies for Volunteer Management ...................................................68
Managerial implications. ....................................................................................68
Strategy Identification. .......................................................................................73
Volunteer management strategies from previously introduced literature. .........80
Literature Review Summary ......................................................................................82
Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................84
Restatement of the Problem .......................................................................................85
Diversity of the Literature ..........................................................................................86
Conceptual Framework ..............................................................................................87
Foundational theories. ........................................................................................88
Contextual outline. .............................................................................................90
Conceptual framework introduced. ....................................................................91 VOLUNTEER MANAGEMENT 6
Summary ....................................................................................................................93
Chapter 4: Methodology ....................................................................................................94
Evidence-Based Research (EBR)...............................................................................95
Evidence-Based Research and Volunteer Management ............................................97
Volunteer management discovery. .....................................................................97
Subject Matter Experts ...............................................................................................99
Feedback and Edits from SME Reviews .................................................................101
Summary ..................................................................................................................103
Chapter 5: Analysis and Discussion ................................................................................104
Purpose of Study Revisited ......................................................................................104
Exploration of the Research Question .....................................................................106
Presentation of the Findings .....................................................................................106
First finding—motivation. ...............................................................................107
Internal motivation. ..................................................................................109
External motivation. .................................................................................109
Motivation summation. ............................................................................110
Second finding—volunteers are a different type of workforce. .......................111
Volunteers are a different type of workforce summation. .......................114
Third finding—effective strategies for volunteer management. ......................115
Acquire. ....................................................................................................117
Develop. ...................................................................................................120
Maintain. ..................................................................................................124
Effective strategies for volunteer management summation. ....................127 VOLUNTEER MANAGEMENT 7
Summary of Chapter 5 .............................................................................................128
Chapter 6: Conclusion, Implications, and Recommendations for Future Study ..............130
Overall Conclusions .................................................................................................130
Implications for Management ..................................................................................132
Implications of Trends .............................................................................................135
Technology and virtual interaction. .................................................................136
Globalization. ...................................................................................................136
Sociocultural shift. ...........................................................................................136
Legislation. .......................................................................................................137
Limitations and Areas for Further Research ............................................................138
Summary ..................................................................................................................139
References ........................................................................................................................141
Appendix A: Dissertation Definitions .............................................................................152
Appendix B: Subject Matter Expert Evaluation & Feedback Forms ...............................154
Feedback from Graham Cuskelly ............................................................................154
Feedback from Bryan Cutshall ................................................................................157
Feedback from Nancy Macduff ...............................................................................159
VOLUNTEER MANAGEMENT 8
List of Tables
Table 1. Volunteer Definition Dimensions .......................................................................31
Table 2. Correlation Matrix of Volunteer Management. ..................................................73
Table 3. Diversity of Literature ........................................................................................87
Table 4. Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) Participating in This Study ............................100
VOLUNTEER MANAGEMENT 9
List of Figures
Figure 1. Geographic locations of studies on volunteerism. ............................................29
Figure 2. Maslow’s model of human needs ......................................................................34
Figure 3. The four W’s of volunteering............................................................................43
Figure 4. Yeung’s (2004) octagon model of volunteer motivation. .................................54
Figure 5. Foundational theories. .......................................................................................89
Figure 6. Theory, stakeholders, and limitations. ..............................................................91
Figure 7. Volunteer management conceptual framework. ...............................................92
Figure 8. Central figure of the conceptual framework. ..................................................105
Running head: VOLUNTEER MANAGEMENT 10
Chapter 1: Introduction to Volunteer Management
More and more organizations are utilizing volunteers to accomplish their missions. “Without volunteer participation the services that are offered by many profit and nonprofit organizations would be unavailable or provided at higher costs to consumers and taxpayers” (Fisher & Ackerman, 1998, p. 262). If a person walks into nearly any hospital, a volunteer will greet the person. When people attend many national and international sporting events, volunteers are encountered. Within most nonprofits, volunteers are doing much of the work. While enjoying one of the county fairs across America, volunteers can be found throughout the event. It would be difficult to find a church across the globe that could survive without the dedication of its volunteers. Looking into most organizations, someone can be found working extra time or performing an extra job without additional compensation; he or she is volunteering time to serve that organization. Success for many organizations rests with the efforts of their volunteers and their voluntary work. Therefore, volunteers need to internalize the organization’s mission and believe in it (Drucker, 1998).
Volunteer participation has expanded beyond the traditional understanding of volunteerism (Choudhury, 2010). Volunteerism continues to increase within organizations that operate in both the nonprofit and profit sectors; volunteers are more than a resource for free labor; they fulfill many vital roles of leadership within the organization(s) they serve (Warner, Newland, & Green, 2011). High quality volunteers are an important and indispensable human resource that can reduce the cost of a project and increase its quality (Wang & Wu, 2014). Managing the volunteer workforce has become increasingly challenging for organizational executives and leaders, as the volunteer workforce offers many unique challenges that differ from the paid workforce (Cuskelly, Taylor, Hoye, & Darcy, 2006). Effective management is VOLUNTEER MANAGEMENT 11
vital for the success of an organization that relies on volunteerism. Managers need their volunteer workforce to maintain high levels of performance and be productive members of the organization; therefore, organizational success depends on each stakeholder, volunteer, volunteer manager, and the organization itself being actively involved in the volunteer workforce strategy.
Competition for the volunteer’s time is a significant theme in the current dissertation. A growing number of organizations require the use of volunteers to accomplish their missions. Studies have acknowledged that volunteerism is declining, resulting in a limited number of volunteers with the necessary skills available to serve (Beirne & Lambin, 2013; Cuskelly et al., 2006; Rodell, 2013). With more organizational leaders needing volunteers and fewer volunteers available or willing to work, organizational leaders are in competition for the volunteer’s service. Cuskelly et al. (2006) indicated a significant relationship between management practices and volunteers choosing an organization to serve. The relationship is used to enhance the link between volunteer satisfaction, volunteer motives, and the way managers utilize volunteers. The relationship grows stronger as the satisfaction of the voluntary experience correlates to the continued commitment of the volunteer to serve a particular organization (Clary et al., 1998; Degli Antoni, 2009; Jensen & McKeage, 2015; Pauline & Pauline, 2009). The establishment of effective volunteer management strategies can be the competitive edge that an organization needs to acquire and maintain the volunteer workforce essential to accomplishing its missions.
The current chapter begins with a theoretical and analytical framework for the study of managing volunteers. After the problem and purpose statement are presented, the challenges of managing the volunteer workforce are established, followed by an introduction of the need for the identification of the best practices to determine the most productive strategies for managing this workforce. This chapter shows the importance of the current dissertation to the field of VOLUNTEER MANAGEMENT 12
management, including the benefits and risks associated with utilizing the volunteer workforce. Additionally, the research questions and propositions are discussed to provide a framework for the systematic review of the literature found in Chapter 2. The current dissertation is used to explore the diverse and varied definitio
Organizational compassion as a mediating factor in mergers and acquisitions
No full textThe purpose of this research is to identify the organizational behaviors influencing employee engagement
during M & A transactions. The research addresses the differences in behaviors between mission driven and
commercial organizations. This study analyzes if there is a relationship between organizational compassion
and employee engagement during a merger or acquisition.RESEARCH POSTER PRESENTATION DESIGN © 2015 www.PosterPresentations.com
Problem Statement
An average, 75% of mergers and acquisitions fail within the first five years (King, Dalton, Daily, & Covin,
2004; Netter, Stegmoller, & Wintoki, 2011). These failures cost the global economy trillions of dollars in
wasted time, effort and capital (Gupta, & Gerchak, 2002). Merged organizations rely on employees to
execute strategies, maintain productivity and achieve organizational goals to remain viable and successful.
Employee identification with and trust in the merged firm affects employee engagement. In mergers and
acquisitions, senior leaders need to understand the role of organizational behaviors on employee
identification and trust to facilitate a successful merger or acquisition.
Study Purpose:
The purpose of this research is to identify the organizational behaviors influencing employee engagement
during M & A transactions. The research addresses the differences in behaviors between mission driven and
commercial organizations. This study analyzes if there is a relationship between organizational compassion
and employee engagement during a merger or acquisition.
Research Question:
How does organizational compassion affect the socio-cultural outcomes of mergers and acquisitions?
Problem Statement, Purpose, & Research Question
Social Identity Theory: How individuals identify in the context of a social structure or group scenario.
During M &A a new group (organization) is formed with new organizational norms and behaviors.
Positive or negative identification with this group contributes to success or failure.
Psychological Contract : Underpinned by Social Exchange Theory the assumed reciprocal expectations
between employee and organization based on a level of trust. Expanding on SIT an M &A transaction
redefines the psychological contract and threatens or reinforces trust by employees contributing to
success or failure.
Organizational Compassion: Collective organizational behavior composed of three sub-processes:
collective noticing, collective feeling and collective responding. OC is being studied as a moderating
factor on employee behaviors in the context of mergers and acquisitions.
Theoretical Lenses
Initial Findings
Study Findings
• Organizational collective behaviors influence the success or failure of M&A transactions.
• The presence of organizational compassion during mergers and acquisitions has a positive impact on
performance outcomes.
• Organizations were most influenced by collective noticing and responding
• Organizations were minimally influenced by collective feeling
• Mission based organizations have a lower presence of organizational compassion.
• Organizational compassion burnout increases the potential absence of organizational compassion
behaviors.
Findings
Organizational behaviors during M & A as a mediating factor on employee engagement
Concept Framework
Study Variables
• Independent Variables
• Employee Engagement – employees are involved and enthusiastic
• Basic needs are met – have the supplies, equipment and information to do my job
• Organizational Commitment – ownership (financial / emotional), opportunities to learn
and grow, sense of belonging / group inclusion
• Organizational Citizenship Behaviors – additional responsibilities, longer hours, chance
to learn and grow, opportunity to contribute and “extra mile” work
• Dependent Variables
• Socio-Cultural Organizational Outcomes:
• Success: high employee satisfaction, low resistance & low voluntary turn-over
• Failure: low employee satisfaction, high resistance & high voluntary turn-over
• Moderating Factors
• Organizational Compassion – collective behaviors of an organization of 3 factors
• Collective Noticing – organizational awareness, systematic feedback, data gathering
• Collective Feeling – empathy, mindfulness of well-being, concern, caring
• Collective Responding – communication, feedback loops, notification
Management Implications
Practitioners
• Leaders can improve pre-merger / acquisition planning by assessing current organizational compassion
factors of the parent and child organizations.
• Organizations can improve M & A success by incorporating organizational compassionate behaviors
and strategies during implementation.
• Findings can be applied to the use and development of internal organizational technology solutions that
support organizational compassion factors.
• Good communication feedback loops should be established at an organizational level to support M & A
success.
• Engaging OC behaviors firms can positively affect employee engagement reducing turn-over, increasing
employee investment and improving employee performance.
Scholars
• Expands the business intelligence model to incorporate firm behaviors and culture as a factor in success
or failure during planning phases.
• Contributes to organizational compassion literature by introducing mergers and acquisitions as a
specific context.
• This research contributes to the understanding of behavioral differences between mission and
commercial organizations during mergers and acquisitions.
Future Research
Primary Research
• Assessment of pre and post M & A employee engagement levels in mission driven organizations
• Case studies of Joint Venture organizations as a tangential and unique structure outside of M & A
Secondary Journal Publications
• United States regional comparisons
• Global comparisons – analysis in context of cultural variables
• Exploration of mission oriented organizational factors contributing to the deficit in organizational
compassion behaviors
Tool Development
• Develop an analytical validated tool assessing the level of organizational compassion
University of Maryland University College – Doctor of Management
Amanda Neikam, MBA/MHA
Organizational Compassion as a Mediating Factor in Mergers and Acquisitions
Methodology & Results
Dissertation Committee: Dr. Thomas Mierzwa & Dr Denise Breckon
Contact: [email protected]
Systematic Literature Review
• Research strength through multiple case studies
• Thematic synthesis of multiple concepts
Search Strategy
• Database selection: UMUC OneSource, JHU
Welch Library, Emerald, snowballing
• Scan literature for relevant concepts
• Define and refine search terms / string
• Define and apply search limitations
• Quality screening – QAT Tool
• Systematic coding and analysis
UMUC One
Search Results
(n =258 )
Screening for Duplication- Non-Peer Reviewed –
Non-English Translation
(n =996)
Title / Abstract
screen -
(n = 854 )
Results excluded
(n = 783)
Quality
screening - PAT
(n =74)
Results
excluded
(n =31)
Studies included
in thematic
analysis
(n = 43)
Database
Results
(n = 2376 )
Other Results
(n = 5 )
Screening for Cross Database Duplication
(n = 854)
PRISMA
Data Sets:
Screening
• Duplication between queried strings; duplication between databases
• Non-English and non-peer reviewed
• Title and Abstract Review
• Standardized quality evaluation utilizing author derived Quality
Assessment Tool (QAT)
• Application of Weight of Evidence (WoE) for contrary evidence
Results
• 40 included studies all peer reviewed and full text from 1999 to 2014
• 35 quantitative studies; 8 qualitative studies
• Manually coded, extracted and analyzed by the author.
Mergers and acquisitions create a new organization that develop their own unique organizational
behaviors. The presence or absence of organizationally compassionate behaviors influence Social
Identity and the Psychological Contract. Both SI and PC levels are found to directly impact the level
of Employee Engagement in organizations. Employee Engagement is a key measure of organizational
success or failure of M & A transactions (socio-cultural outcomes).
Organizational compassion is a specific organizational behavior composed of: collective noticing,
feeling and responding. Applying this behavior as the specific mechanism during M & A transactions.
Definitions: Mission based organizations: non-publically held, non-commercial firms (health care,
religious and non-profit organizations)
Commercial organizations: publically traded, margin based, commercial entities with shareholder
responsibilities.
Primary Concept Related Concept Synonyms
Organizational Change Change Change Management
Merger & Acquisition M&A Merger, Acquisition
Employee Engagement Commitment Turn over, dedication, loyalty
Organizational Compassion
Collective Noticing,
Collective Feeling,
Collective Responding
Awareness, mindfulness,
listening
Self-kindness, common
humanity
Communication, notification
Organizational
Compassion Factor Number of Articles
Noticing 26
Feeling 11
Responding 3
Developing intercultural competence in community college career and technical programs
No full textRapidly changing technology and the relatively uncomplicated mobility of people and ideas across national borders are trademarks of globalization that are changing the nature of how, where, and with whom we work and live. Given the role of community colleges in workforce preparation, it is important that they prepare graduates for this reality. Promoting the development of intercultural competence—the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that allow people to productively interact with those from other cultures—will help community college graduates compete in today’s globalized economy. This preparation is particularly important for graduates of career and technical programs, who have only their community college experience through which to acquire these skills. If community colleges do not help students develop their intercultural competence, the students may not be competitive upon entering the workforce.
Four research questions guided the literature search in the fields of globalization, international education, intercultural competence, campus internationalization, human capital theory, cultural and symbolic leadership, and strategic planning. Forty-two studies were selected as the focus of this dissertation, and critical interpretive synthesis was applied as the research method. Critical interpretive synthesis allows the researcher to identify and synthesize themes from different types of studies in different fields.
Ten general themes were identified in the 42 studies, and these 10 themes were synthesized into three conceptual themes: (a) which international education activities promote intercultural competence, (b) why students and community colleges should want to develop intercultural competence, and (c) how community colleges can create sustainable international education programming to promote intercultural competence in their students.
These three themes were then interpreted and an intervention strategy was devised. This strategy assumes that all stakeholders need to work together to develop cross-cultural contact activities that bring American and international students together in purposeful ways to develop intercultural competence. This strategy also promotes comprehensive internationalization of the campus so that students in all programs benefit from these activities. Comprehensive internationalization requires the full commitment of the college’s executive leadership, including the Board of Trustees. An intervention model outlining the steps colleges can take to achieve this outcome is also presented.DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE
CAREER AND TECHNICAL PROGRAMS
Developing Intercultural Competence in Community College
Career and Technical Programs
Wendy M. Patriquin
A Thesis
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements of the Degree of
Doctor of Management
Dr. Charlene Nunley
Dr. Susan McMaster
Dr. Patricia Keir
August 30, 2016DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE
CAREER AND TECHNICAL PROGRAMS i
Abstract
Rapidly changing technology and the relatively uncomplicated mobility of people and ideas across national borders are trademarks of globalization that are changing the nature of how, where, and with whom we work and live. Given the role of community colleges in workforce preparation, it is important that they prepare graduates for this reality. Promoting the development of intercultural competence—the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that allow people to productively interact with those from other cultures—will help community college graduates compete in today’s globalized economy. This preparation is particularly important for graduates of career and technical programs, who have only their community college experience through which to acquire these skills. If community colleges do not help students develop their intercultural competence, the students may not be competitive upon entering the workforce.
Four research questions guided the literature search in the fields of globalization, international education, intercultural competence, campus internationalization, human capital theory, cultural and symbolic leadership, and strategic planning. Forty-two studies were selected as the focus of this dissertation, and critical interpretive synthesis was applied as the research method. Critical interpretive synthesis allows the researcher to identify and synthesize themes from different types of studies in different fields.
Ten general themes were identified in the 42 studies, and these 10 themes were synthesized into three conceptual themes: (a) which international education activities promote intercultural competence, (b) why students and community colleges should want to develop intercultural competence, and (c) how community colleges can create sustainable international education programming to promote intercultural competence in their students.
These three themes were then interpreted and an intervention strategy was devised. This DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE
CAREER AND TECHNICAL PROGRAMS ii
strategy assumes that all stakeholders need to work together to develop cross-cultural contact activities that bring American and international students together in purposeful ways to develop intercultural competence. This strategy also promotes comprehensive internationalization of the campus so that students in all programs benefit from these activities. Comprehensive internationalization requires the full commitment of the college’s executive leadership, including the Board of Trustees. An intervention model outlining the steps colleges can take to achieve this outcome is also presented.
Keywords: community college, international education, internationalization, intercultural competence, workforce development
DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE
CAREER AND TECHNICAL PROGRAMS iii
Dedication
To my husband, Tim, who patiently listened to me, soothed me, and fed me, depending on what I needed to keep going. To my daughter, Vivian, who was my motivation in so many ways for undertaking this program. Finally, to my parents, who offered only support when I said “I’m going back to school . . . again.”
DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE
CAREER AND TECHNICAL PROGRAMS iv
Acknowledgments
The journey through the University of Maryland University College’s Doctor of Management in Community College Policy and Administration program has been challenging, but with the support of all of the excellent faculty, it has also been supremely rewarding. I have nothing but respect and gratitude for Drs. Charlene Nunley, Susan McMaster, and Patricia Kier, whose patience and guidance helped me complete the dissertation process.
I must also acknowledge my small, yet mighty, cohort of classmates: Angela, Claudia, and Lenaire. Your support has made this journey easier, and your friendship has been a bonus! I have enjoyed working with all of you so much.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the support of my colleagues at Parkland College, who were more than understanding when I had to run off to do homework instead of volunteering for committee work—I owe you.
DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE
CAREER AND TECHNICAL PROGRAMS v
Contents
Chapter One: Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1
Background ................................................................................................................................ 1
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................ 5
Significance of the Problem ........................................................................................................ 7
Context of the Problem ............................................................................................................... 9
Purpose ..................................................................................................................................... 10
Theoretical Background ............................................................................................................ 10
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 13
Definitions of Concepts and Terms ........................................................................................... 14
Chapter Two: Literature Review .............................................................................................. 19
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 19
Further Defining Intercultural Competence for the Workplace ................................................ 19
Need for Intercultural Competence in the Workforce ............................................................... 21
Current Programs for Promoting Intercultural Competence in Higher Education.................... 25
Barriers to Internationalization.................................................................................................. 28
Research on Outcomes of Internationalization Efforts ............................................................. 29
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 35
Summary and Analysis of the Literature................................................................................... 45
Chapter Three: Conceptual Model ........................................................................................... 48
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 48
Assumptions .............................................................................................................................. 48
Elements of the Model .............................................................................................................. 49 DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE
CAREER AND TECHNICAL PROGRAMS vi
Summary .................................................................................................................................. 63
Chapter Four: Research Methodology ..................................................................................... 64
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 64
Research Design and Methodology .......................................................................................... 64
Key Words and Search Criteria ................................................................................................. 68
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ............................................................................................... 73
Evaluation of the Literature....................................................................................................... 74
Criteria for the Subject Matter Experts’ Review ....................................................................... 92
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 94
Chapter Five: Analysis and Findings ........................................................................................ 95
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 95
Expert Panel Feedback .............................................................................................................. 96
Critical Analysis of Literature Related to the Problem Statement ...........................................103
Critical Analysis of Literature Related to the Research Questions ......................................... 107
Analysis of Findings................................................................................................................ 110
Synthesis of Findings .............................................................................................................. 113
Interpretation of Findings ........................................................................................................ 115
Limitations of the Research..................................................................................................... 117
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 117
Chapter Six: Implications, Recommendations, and the Need for Future Research ........... 119
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 119
Implications of the Findings for Management Practice .......................................................... 120
Recommendations ................................................................................................................... 121 DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE
CAREER AND TECHNICAL PROGRAMS vii
Implementation Model ............................................................................................................ 131
Challenges and Opportunities ................................................................................................. 133
Suggestions for Future Research ............................................................................................. 134
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 135
References ................................................................................................................................. 137
DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE
CAREER AND TECHNICAL PROGRAMS viii
List of Tables and Figures
Tables
Table 2.1. Skills and Qualities Employers Valued When Hiring ...............................................24
Table 2.2. Summary of Studies on Intercultural Competence (IC) ............................................29
Table 4.1. Search Terms and Results ..........................................................................................71
Table 4.2. Studies on International Education Strategies That Build Intercultural Competence (IC) ..........................................................................................................................................75
Table 4.3. Evaluation of Articles Including Expert Opinion ......................................................82
Table 4.4. Evaluation of Articles on Theories ............................................................................87
Table 6.1. Summary of the Community Colleges for International Development (CCID) Framework for Comprehensive Internationalization .............................................................127
Table 6.2. Recommendations Based on Leadership Theory and Strategic Planning ...............130
Figures
Figure 1.1. International Student Enrollment at Community Colleges (2004/05–2014/15) ........5
Figure 1.2. Educational Attainment in 2000 and 2011 in Selected Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Member Countries ...................................................9
Figure 2.1. Number of Community College Students Studying Abroad (2003–2013) ..............26
Figure 3.1. Complete Conceptual Model ....................................................................................49
Figure 3.2. Effects of Globalization on the Need for Intercultural Competence ........................50
Figure 3.3. Barriers to Effective Internationalization at Community Colleges ..........................54
Figure 3.4. Model of Intervention to Solve the Intercultural Competence Problem ..................62
Figure 4.1. Critical Interpretive Synthesis Process .....................................................................68 DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE
CAREER AND TECHNICAL PROGRAMS ix
Figure 5.1. Critical Interpretive Synthesis Process Completed ................................................115
Figure 5.2. Synthesis and Interpretation of Research Findings ................................................116
Figure 6.1. Implementation Model ...........................................................................................131 DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE
CAREER AND TECHNICAL PROGRAMS 1
Chapter One: Introduction
Background
Globalization, according to New York Times writer Thomas Friedman, has led to the world becoming flat (2006). He describes how this process of increased interconnectivity around the world has evolved from the time Columbus set sail in 1492, through periods of imperial expansion and commerce, through two world wars and the growth of multinational corporations as powerful global actors. Today, individuals have also become empowered—with the use of personal computers and fiber-optic cables—to influence change around the world. More important, according to Friedman, is the pace at which the interconnectedness of governments, economies, organizations, and individuals has been increasing and will continue to increase. The world is becoming smaller and increasingly complex at an increasing rate.
Globalization has created a work environment where the mastery of specific knowledge or technical skills alone is not sufficient to remain competitive. In a survey conducted in the early 2000s, 51% of manufacturers stated that their employees would need improved basic reading, writing, and communication skills for their companies to remain globally competitive (Deloitte, 2005). A 2006 survey of human resource professionals conducted jointly by The Conference Board, Corporate Voices for Working Families, the Partnerships for 21st Century Skills, and the Society for Human Resource Management identified the need for soft skills among employees. More than half of those surveyed (58%) responded that “critical thinking and problem solving skills are ‘very important’ for high school graduates’ successful job performance, yet nearly three-quarters (70%) rated these graduates as deficient in critical thinking” (2006, p. 4). These basic “soft skills” are often overlooked, yet they are just as important as the technical skills required for workers to be successful. DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE
CAREER AND TECHNICAL PROGRAMS 2
Because more companies are doing business around the world or setting up offices and factories in multiple countries, a multicultural workforce is becoming more common. According to Steers, Sanchez-Runde, and Nardon (2010), global managers must be comfortable and able to function productively in multiple cultures. Equally important is the way that globalization is affecting how people work in the new setting. According to Romano and Dellow (2009), “research has shown that as work tasks become more complex, workers in both small and large firms are increasingly grouped together in problem-solving teams” (p. 13). They stated, “The ability to work in teams, communicate with an increasingly diverse labor force, and think critically to solve problems are the skills and dispositions that higher education is well equipped to deliver” (p. 14). The implication is that workers will need to have strong basic skills, such as communication and problem solving, and be able to use them with multicultural groups. It is worth noting that a recent report by the American Association of Community Colleges (AACC, 2012) also stated, “It is important that college graduates, whatever their location, be not just globally competitive but also globally competent, understanding their roles as citizens and workers in an international context” (p. viii).
An additional challenge to some local companies is the demographic changes that have taken place in the United States. The foreign-born population in the United States continues to grow and affect the local workforce. According to U.S. Census Bureau data (2012), in 2010 the foreign-born population was 12.3% of the total U.S. population (p. 44). This represents an increase from 11.1% in 2000, which was an increase from 7.9% in 1990. In fact, the proportion of the foreign-born population is now approaching the high levels reached during the period of the Great Migration from Europe: 14.7% in 1910 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2003, p. 17). The increase in immigration is having an impact on the composition of the U.S. labor force. DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE
CAREER AND TECHNICAL PROGRAMS 3
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2015), 16.5% of the labor force in 2014 was foreign-born compared with 14.8% in 2005. Of these foreign-born workers, 48% were Hispanic or Latino, 24% were Asian, 17% were White, and 9% were Black. As immigration increases, so will the diversity of the workforce.
Globalization is increasing the range in company nationalities for which one could work as well as the nationalities or ethnicities of people with whom one could work, thereby creating challenges for human resource management. Winkler (2014) confirmed that today’s demographic changes and the spread of activities by multinational organizations have created greater cultural diversity in many organizations. According to Fidler (2012), research has indicated that this diversity encourages innovation. However, for th
Advancing beyond the ceiling: The gender barrier effect on women's advancement in Fortune 500 (F500) firms
No full textThis dissertation investigated the gender-based barriers and facilitators to women’s advancement to top management teams (TMTs) in U.S. Fortune 500 corporations (F500s). The study identified enabling factors that could facilitate the advancement of women to top management teams and discussed the implication of women’s inclusion in TMTs for firm performance. The research conducted a configurative systematic review of literature using an evidence-based research synthesis methodology to analyze the influence of gender-based barriers to women’s advancement in F500s. The review assessed gender-based barriers by examining the prevalent inhibitors reported to government agencies in charge of gender issues such as the U.S. Glass Ceiling Commission. The research identified some gender-favorable practices viewed by multinational leaders as facilitators to women’s advancement. Furthermore, the study highlighted enablers of female promotion to TMTs with an aim to provide them as a resource for F500 leadership and the management of future gender diversity challenges. Three propositions guided this research. One predicted that gender barriers limit women’s advancement in F500s; another suggested that an impact assessment of TMT diversity might prove that female inclusion adds value to top teams; and, the third focused on analyzing the significance of women’s advancement for firm performance. This dissertation found that removal of gender-based barriers and diversity in F500 leadership could enhance the chances of female promotion to top teams. Also, more women in top leadership might increase a firm’s financial performance. The study identified some gaps for further research and highlighted the significance of a gender-diverse leadership on F500 performance.Running head: ADVANCING BEYOND THE CEILING: THE GENDER EFFECT
Advancing Beyond the Ceiling: The Gender Barrier Effect on
Women’s Advancement in Fortune 500 (F500) Firms
Olutoyin B. Oyelade
Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Management
University of Maryland University College
May 2016
Dissertation Committee
Leslie Dinauer, PhD
Kriesta Watson, EdD
ADVANCING BEYOND THE CEILING: THE GENDER EFFECT ii
Abstract
This dissertation investigated the gender-based barriers and facilitators to women’s advancement
to top management teams (TMTs) in U.S. Fortune 500 corporations (F500s). The study
identified enabling factors that could facilitate the advancement of women to top management
teams and discussed the implication of women’s inclusion in TMTs for firm performance. The
research conducted a configurative systematic review of literature using an evidence-based
research synthesis methodology to analyze the influence of gender-based barriers to women’s
advancement in F500s. The review assessed gender-based barriers by examining the prevalent
inhibitors reported to government agencies in charge of gender issues such as the U.S. Glass
Ceiling Commission. The research identified some gender-favorable practices viewed by
multinational leaders as facilitators to women’s advancement. Furthermore, the study
highlighted enablers of female promotion to TMTs with an aim to provide them as a resource for
F500 leadership and the management of future gender diversity challenges. Three propositions
guided this research. One predicted that gender barriers limit women’s advancement in F500s;
another suggested that an impact assessment of TMT diversity might prove that female inclusion
adds value to top teams; and, the third focused on analyzing the significance of women’s
advancement for firm performance. This dissertation found that removal of gender-based
barriers and diversity in F500 leadership could enhance the chances of female promotion to top
teams. Also, more women in top leadership might increase a firm’s financial performance. The
study identified some gaps for further research and highlighted the significance of a gender-diverse
leadership on F500 performance.
Keywords: career, ceilings, enablers, firm performance, fortune 500s, gender-based barriers,
gender, glass ceiling, leadership, organization, top management teams, women’s advancement
ADVANCING BEYOND THE CEILING: THE GENDER EFFECT iii
Dedication
To Olusola, my friend, partner, and support, who allowed me to complete this study
within the set time. To God, my Father, by whose empowerment I navigate this trajectory of
life.
ADVANCING BEYOND THE CEILING: THE GENDER EFFECT iv
Acknowledgements
This dissertation was accomplished with immense support from my family, colleagues,
cohort members, and faculty of the University of Maryland University College (UMUC). Of
particular note is my spouse, Olusola, a selfless leader, without whose support I could not have
embarked on this educational adventure. To my daughters, Ife and Anjola, I thank you for your
understanding of my irregular time schedules, for managing the missed appointments, and
coping without mom sometimes. To my son, Ore, I say well done for growing up on me while I
completed this study and for competing with me for better grades. I also thank my siblings and
parents for their constant encouragement to me during this program.
My profound appreciation goes to my dissertation committee, Dr. Leslie Dinauer and Dr.
Kriesta Watson, for their insights, support, and guidance to complete this dissertation. Thanks to
my professors—Dr. Dennis Winters and Dr. Deborah Wharff, for their unflinching support at the
start of the Doctoral program, Dr. Kent Halverson for his faith in me, and Dr. Kriesta Watson for
demystifying statistics. I thank the team at the UMUC writing center for providing me with
helpful feedback. To my mentors, I say thank you for your unwavering commitment to my goals.
I thank my cohort, for being such great repositories that I could bank on through the research
journey. The program was more fun because of you.
Finally, thanks to God who makes all things work together for good to them that love
Him and to them who are the called according to His purpose. I am honored to call you Father.
ADVANCING BEYOND THE CEILING: THE GENDER EFFECT v
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii
Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iv
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................. 10
Scholars’ Perspectives on Gender Barriers ............................................................................... 12
Historical and Current Status of Gender Diversity ................................................................... 13
Recent Developments on Gender-Based Barriers ..................................................................... 15
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 18
Purpose of Study ....................................................................................................................... 24
Research Question(s) Warrants, Assumptions, or Propositions ............................................... 24
Significance of the Study to Management ................................................................................ 25
Definition of Key Terms ........................................................................................................... 27
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................... 29
Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 31
Theoretical Lens ........................................................................................................................ 31
Literature Review of Theory, Practice, and Research .............................................................. 34
Gender-Based Barriers and Ceilings on Women’s Advancement ............................................ 36
Women’s Advancement Facilitators ......................................................................................... 47
Summary .................................................................................................................................. 56
ADVANCING BEYOND THE CEILING: THE GENDER EFFECT vi
Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 58
Approach to Methodology ........................................................................................................ 58
Systematic Review Process ....................................................................................................... 59
Why a Configurative Systematic Review? ............................................................................... 61
Presenting the Results: A Narrative Approach ......................................................................... 62
Comprehensive Search Terms and Delimiters .......................................................................... 66
Identifying Databases and Sources ........................................................................................... 71
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ............................................................................................... 73
Data Extraction Protocols ......................................................................................................... 81
Evaluation and Quality Appraisal ............................................................................................. 83
Data Analysis and Synthesis Protocols ..................................................................................... 86
Role of Expert Panel ................................................................................................................. 90
Chapter 4: Findings and Analysis ................................................................................................. 92
Findings Summary .................................................................................................................... 93
Authors’ Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 95
Findings .................................................................................................................................... 99
The Enablers and Facilitators of Women’s Advancement to TMTs ...................................... 109
What is the Implication of Women’s Advancement to TMTs for Firm Performance? .......... 121
Expert Panel ............................................................................................................................ 130
Summary of Findings .............................................................................................................. 132
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ................................................................................... 138
Gender-based Barriers ............................................................................................................ 138
Comparing Evidence with Practice ......................................................................................... 142
ADVANCING BEYOND THE CEILING: THE GENDER EFFECT vii
Women’s Advancement Enablers ........................................................................................... 147
Business Case Arguments ....................................................................................................... 148
Significance of the Study to Practitioners ............................................................................... 150
Recommendations for Practitioners ........................................................................................ 152
Future Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 156
Limitations .............................................................................................................................. 157
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 160
References .................................................................................................................................. 164
Endnotes ..................................................................................................................................... 182
Appendix A: Additional Data on Gender Barriers and Research Protocols Tables A1 to A6 ... 185
Appendix B: Gender Diversity Statistics in U.S. Regions Figures B1 to B4 ............................. 193
Appendix C: F500s Expert Panel Feedback ............................................................................... 199
ADVANCING BEYOND THE CEILING: THE GENDER EFFECT viii
List of Tables
Table 1: Keyword Search Terms .................................................................................................. 68
Table 2: List of Databases Searched ............................................................................................. 73
Table 3: Concept Integration of Selected Studies: Gender Factors by Author and Impact
Assessment ................................................................................................................................... 79
Table 4: QUADAS Quality Assessment Tool .............................................................................. 85
Table 5: Prominent Gender-Based Barriers and Women's Advancement Enablers ..................... 94
Table 6: Configurative Systematic Review: Evidence Summary ................................................ 95
Table 7: Percentage of Male/Women's Managers in an Executive Position .............................. 101
Table 8: Comparative Ratings of Gender Performance, Top Jobs by Department Functions .... 115
Table 9: Analysis of Leadership Effectiveness by Gender and Position, Percentile Scores ...... 117
Table 10: Women Executives in Listed Companies: Report on 14 U.S. Regions ...................... 118
Table A1: Literature Chart: Included Studies Phase II Analysis of Gender Barrier Themes ..... 186
Table A2: Search Protocol Matrix: ABI Inform ......................................................................... 188
Table A3 Search Protocol Matrix: Social Science Citation ....................................................... 189
Table A: Search Protocol Matrix: Emerald ................................................................................ 191
Table A6: Dissertation Search Databases and Journal Retrieval Process ................................... 192
ADVANCING BEYOND THE CEILING: THE GENDER EFFECT ix
List of Figures
Figure 1. Representation of women CEOs on F500 companies Catalyst (2013) projects. .......... 22
Figure 2. Sample of case study narrative synthesis format. ......................................................... 64
Figure 3. Sample case study narrative synthesis format (worksheet). ......................................... 65
Figure 4. Research synthesis processes. ...................................................................................... 66
Figure 5. Keyword search results for gender diversity and women's advancement. ................... 70
Figure 6. Delimiters and strings, phase 3 narrowed search results of gender diversity and
women's advancement. ................................................................................................................. 71
Figure 7. Flowchart of included and excluded articles, phase one .............................................. 77
Figure 8. A conceptual illustration of facilitators in F500s. ........................................................ 98
Figure 9. Performance reports of women CEOs in U.S. F500s. ................................................ 123
Figure 10. Performance of F500 Boards with 0 or more than 1 woman on the Board. ............. 129
Figure B1. Women’s board composition on listed firms and women’s CEOs in Fortune
companies. ................................................................................................................................. 186
Figure B2. 39 Women CEOs in F1000 companies. .................................................................... 187
Figure B3. Women directors and executive officers of listed firms. .......................................... 188
Figure B4. Gender Distribution on Boards in 35 European Union Countries. .......................... 190
ADVANCING BEYOND THE CEILING: THE GENDER EFFECT 10
Chapter 1: Introduction
Over the years, the subject of gender-based barriers has continued to generate a high level
of interest and stimulates robust debate across vertical sectors of management practice and
academia due to its influence on career advancement and gender diversity. The topic elicits the
interest of stakeholders in the private and public sectors because of its perceived limitations to
women’s advancement to top teams. These challenges and their effect on Fortune 500 companies
(F500) have become one of the most discussed and researched constructs in literature. There are
divergent positions on the reasons for women’s absence in U.S. F500 top leadership. These
views range from those who advocate male-dominance in top teams, including those backed by
organizational structural issues, to an inadequacy of women’s qualifications and skills for the
position to which they aspire, and the issue of female incapacity, amongst others. There are also
the traditional practices that place women in supportive rather than leadership roles, irrespective
of their track record. The ensuing consequences vary for both the organization and its workers.
Practitioners find that women who feel dissatisfied with their perceived relegation by these
practices not only miss their promotional benefits, but also might intentionally jeopardize the
growth of the firm since they are unfulfilled in their career expectations.
Furthermore, inquiries from field experts and interactions with senior corporate managers
on the gender barrier topic indicate that leadership and organization structural gaps are the main
banes of F500 firms. The experts cited different cases of disgruntled senior women who failed to
offer meaningful advice to leadership when armed with information that could avert a crisis in
the firm. These potential female leaders did not adequately defend the organization, where
possible, due to a perception that management had failed to advance their cause while others
simply resigned due to the frustrations experienced in the course of their duties. Several authors
ADVANCING BEYOND THE CEILING: THE GENDER EFFECT 11
cited the case of Slaughter (2012), who resigned from her senior role with the U.S. government
due to the bureaucratic bottlenecks and structural imbalances that limited her advancement while
in service. Slaughter presented cases of top women officials in the public sector (reflecting the
private sector), to prove that gender barriers and gaps in organizational structure mostly affected
women’s advancement and retention in senior positions. The author further maintained that some
of these women who reached the highest position in their careers could not keep their jobs due to
deficiencies in the firm’s policy, structure, and practices. The senior leaders were eventually
frustrated out of office. Slaughter inferred that the organizational practices that hindered
women’s advancement in the top echelon of the U.S. government were similar to those that
affected female promotion in the private sector and resulted in various crises. Slaughter
suggested that these challenges required urgent correction to bridge diversity gaps and to achieve
positive and sustainable firm performance in organizations.
The practitioner's perspectives and assertions of Slaughter (2012) lent credence to the
career advancement dilemma that women encountered due to barriers to TMT diversity.
Consequently, the author reported that women were more disadvantaged in pursuing their career
goals than males as a result of managing their professional and domestic obligations, while
pursuing advancement to top teams in F500s. However, scholars including Hewlett (2013)
offered a different position on the gender barrier issue. Hewlett attributed the limitations to
women’s advancement to a sponsorship gap in their career progression. In her view, sponsorship
of females to top positions would achieve rapid advancement that years of skills and
qualifications would not. Moreover, writers of popular literature, such as Sandberg (2013) noted
that ambition fuels women’s advancement. Furthermore, Sandberg asserted that women who
aspire to become leaders, and are passionate and purposeful about their ambition eventually
ADVANCING BEYOND THE CEILING: THE GENDER EFFECT 12
advance beyond workplace ceilings. While the debate rages on as to why senior women are
unable to attain, retain, or sustain their leadership roles, scholars and practitione
Building intercultural competence in community college career and technical programs
No full textIf community colleges are to ensure that their graduates can compete in today’s globalized workforce, programs that develop intercultural competence need to become a part of the curriculum, especially in CTE programs.Building Intercultural Competence in Community College Career and Technical Programs
Wendy Patriquin
DMCC 892 SOARS Presentation
Summer 2016
BACKGROUND
If community colleges are to ensure that their graduates can compete in today’s globalized workforce, programs that develop intercultural competence need to become a part of the curriculum, especially in CTE programs.
1. Which international education activities contribute to developing intercultural competence in community colleges? 2. How can community colleges incorporate intercultural competence training into career and technical programs to improve success in a diverse workplace? 3. How can human capital theory support and encourage the development of intercultural competence for workforce development? 4. How can cultural and symbolic leadership theories and strategic planning be applied to implement and sustain programs that build intercultural competence?
PROBLEM STATEMENT
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
CONCEPTUAL MODEL
ASSUMPTIONS
•International programming at community colleges is not robust.
•Many leaders view mission of the community college as focused on community very narrowly defined.
•Students build intercultural competence through international education activities.
•Campus culture must value intercultural competence.
•Creating and sustaining international education opportunities requires strategic planning.
•Graduates with intercultural competence will be more competitive in the globalized workforce.
• Synthesis of disparate fields of study
• What works, for whom, and under what conditions?
• “Authorial voice” in the interpretation of findings (Dixon-Woods et al., 2006)
• Creates hypothesis about what might work in a similar situation
FINDINGS: SYNTHESIS AND INTERPRETATION
RESEARCH METHOD: Critical Interpretive Synthesis (CIS)
1. Literature search (#results: >1500)
2. Sort by inclusion/ exclusion ; literature evaluation (#results: 42)
3. Analyze (#themes: 10)
4. Synthesize (#themes: 3)
5. Interpret results:
Intervention strategy
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT
• Cross-cultural contact:
best way to build intercultural competence for CTE students
must be purposeful; students must be motivated
• Work with local employers and industries:
provide context for required skills, knowledge, and attitudes
motivate colleges to train and students to learn
• Need for comprehensive internationalization:
campus cultures value international education and interculturalism
leaders demonstrate they value international educatio
Community college alumni private fundraising: Strategies and elements for success
No full textMany community colleges do not know effective strategies to develop successful programs to realize the potential benefits of alumni giving.Community College Alumni Private Fundraising:
Strategies and Elements for Success
Problem Statement
Invest time and financial support
Engage both current and former students
Build partnerships with service community
Make the ask
Many community colleges do not know effective strategies to develop successful programs to realize the potential benefits of alumni giving.
Figure 3.1 Why Alumni Associations Are Needed
Implications for Practitioners
Claudia Y. Owens
The Graduate School University of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD
Research Questions
A.What evidence does the literature provide of a relationship between the selected definition of the term alumni, former student engagement, alumni donor characteristics, and private fundraising at community colleges?
B.What can be learned from the literature about the roles of the college president and the chief development officer in developing successful community college alumni associations?
C.What can be learned from the two-year colleges and the four-year colleges with successful alumni programs about the elements that contribute to success?
D.What factors does the literature indicate are important in developing successful alumni programs in community colleges to increase private fundraising gifts from alumni?
Research Methodology
Findings from Research
First consider the culture, traditions, and history of the college and the characteristics that define alumni. Then decide “Who should belong?”
The role of the community college president and the chief development officer is to build relationships.
Have a strong relationship between the community college and the surrounding community.
Private fundraising should include campus leadership, faculty, staff, foundation board members, and college trustees.
Engaged alumni are informed alumni, who become alumni who support.
Systematic Review Study Protocol
Qualitative and quantitative studies
Grey literature
Four-year college articles published after 2000 Figure 3.2. Conceptual Model Creating Successful Alumni Associations
Theoretical Framework
System Theory
Social Identity Theory
Leader Member Exchange Theor