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Examining employee voice behavior: A systematic review of voice antecedents

Author: Wharton Jacquelyn D.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2016
Field of study

In today’s complex and rapidly changing business environment, managers face increasing challenges in information processing and problem solving. Organizations inevitably need employee ideas and thoughts that speed innovation and enhance organizational effectiveness. Without employee input, managers can make incorrect decisions according to inaccurate information. The purpose of the current study was to identify the most salient antecedents of employee voice behavior, a voluntary form of communication that challenges workplace conditions for improvement, even when others disagree. The salient antecedents are the most prominent behaviors promoting employee voice that were identified by research evidence. This study’s methodology is a systematic review that provides a practitioner-oriented, evidence-based research approach. Using a thematic synthesis, this dissertation evaluated and configured known scholarship on voice antecedents according to the results of 57 research studies. This dissertation found leader openness and psychological safety were the most salient voice antecedents. Through this study, the researcher extends knowledge on employee voice behavior by clarifying the behaviors that encourage employees to speak up in organizations. Leadership support for the salient antecedents encourages employee constructive ideas and suggestions for workplace improvements that may affect the long-term viability of the organization.Running head: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF VOICE ANTECEDENTS Examining Employee Voice Behavior: A Systematic Review of Voice Antecedents Jacquelyn D. Wharton A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Management Dissertation Committee Dr. Leslie Dinauer Dr. Kriesta Watson 2016 ii Table of Contents List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vii List of Appendices ........................................................................................................... viii Abstract ............................................................................................................................... x Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 The British Petroleum 2010 Oil Disaster ................................................................ 1 Employee Communication at British Petroleum .................................................... 4 An Introduction to Employee Voice Behavior ....................................................... 6 Benefits of Employee Voice Behavior ................................................................... 8 Employee Voice Antecedents ................................................................................. 9 Significance of the Current Study ......................................................................... 11 Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................... 11 The Purpose of the Study ...................................................................................... 13 Research Question ................................................................................................ 13 Research Study Limitations .................................................................................. 13 Definition of Key Terms ....................................................................................... 14 Summary ............................................................................................................... 17 Organization of Dissertation Chapters .................................................................. 18 Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................ 20 Changes in Employee Voice Behavior in Organizations ...................................... 20 The Employee Voice Behavior Domain ............................................................... 22 Individual Voice Antecedents ............................................................................... 26 Leadership Voice Antecedents ............................................................................. 32 iii The Leader as a Voice Manager ................................................................34 Leader Behaviors That Inhibit Employee Voice .......................................35 Leader Openness ........................................................................................36 Authentic Leadership .................................................................................37 Ethical Leadership and Trust in the Leader ...............................................37 Leader Consultation Behavior ...................................................................39 Leader–Member Exchange Relationships .................................................40 Leader Response to Employee Voice Behavior.........................................42 Leader Response to Stress and Voice Behavior ........................................43 Leader Actions and Employee Voice Behavior .........................................44 Voice Response and Exit ...........................................................................44 Dysfunctional Leadership ..........................................................................45 Research Proposition 1 ..............................................................................46 Organizational Voice Antecedents ....................................................................... 46 Research Proposition 2 ..............................................................................52 The Conceptual Framework for the Current Study............................................... 52 Leadership Roles and Behaviors ................................................................55 Organizational Role ...................................................................................56 Summary ............................................................................................................... 57 Chapter 3: Research Methodology.................................................................................... 59 Evidence-Based Management ............................................................................... 59 Systematic Reviews ...................................................................................61 Systematic Review Stages .........................................................................63 Stage 1: The Research Question ........................................................................... 63 iv Stage 2: Research Methodology ........................................................................... 64 Systematic Reviews and the Configurative Research Approach ...............64 Stage 3: Search Strategy ....................................................................................... 65 The Refworks Database Management Tool ...............................................69 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ................................................................72 Stage 4: Quality and Relevance Assessment ........................................................ 73 Assessing Quality and Relevance in Research Studies ..............................74 Study Quality and Relevance Assessment of the Evidence Body .............77 Assessment rankings (High, Medium, Low) .............................................80 Stage 5: Synthesis and Analysis ........................................................................... 80 The Synthesis of the Evidence ...................................................................80 Thematic Synthesis ....................................................................................82 Thematic Synthesis Inductive and Deductive Logic .................................82 The Concept of Research Saliency ............................................................83 Stakeholder Expert Panel ...........................................................................85 Summary ............................................................................................................... 86 Chapter 4: Findings ........................................................................................................... 87 Search Results ............................................................................................87 Quality and Relevance Assessment Results ..............................................89 Thematic Synthesis and Coding.................................................................89 Antecedent Themes ....................................................................................92 Analysis of Synthesis Results ............................................................................... 96 Synthesis Results Prior to Consideration of Study Quality .......................98 The Salient Voice Antecedents-Leader Openness and Psychological Safety .... 100 v Study Research Question and Propositions ........................................................ 100 Response to the Research Question and Propositions .............................100 Summary ............................................................................................................. 101 Chapter 5: Implications ................................................................................................... 103 Implications to Practitioners ....................................................................103 Implications to Scholars ...........................................................................117 Study Limitations .....................................................................................117 Conclusion ...............................................................................................119 References ....................................................................................................................... 120 vi LIST OF TABLES 1 Summary of Voice Behavior Antecedents by Major Category ............................ 24 2 Threats to Internal Validity ................................................................................... 78 3 Study Quality Assessment Checklist ................................................................... 79 4 Description of the Evidence Body ........................................................................ 88 5 Example of Thematic Coding ............................................................................... 91 6 Summary Voice Antecedent Saliency Counts ...................................................... 93 7 Non-Salient Voice Antecedents ............................................................................ 94 8 Voice Antecedents Supported by Three or More Studies by Assessment Ranking ................................................................................................................. 97 vii LIST OF FIGURES 1 Conceptual Diagram. ............................................................................................ 56 2 The Four Elements of Evidence-Based Management ........................................... 60 3 Example Worksheet That Was Used to Review the Studies That Were Included or Excluded in the Evidence. ................................................................. 71 4 The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items For Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis) Diagram Provides a Summary of Search Results. ................................ 72 5 Saliency Percentages for Psychological Safety and Leader Openness. ................ 99 viii LIST OF APPENDICES A List of Library Databases Used for the OneSearch Strategy .............................. 140 B Search Results by Search String ......................................................................... 141 C Search Results by Study...................................................................................... 149 D Study Quality and Relevance Assessment Part 1 ............................................... 153 E Study Quality and Relevance Assessment Parts 2–3 .......................................... 160 F Saliency Themes and Study Counts .................................................................... 219 G Stakeholder Expert Panel .................................................................................... 226 H Expert Stakeholder Survey ................................................................................ 228 I Activities Supporting Leader Openness and Psychological Safety ................... 231 ix DEDICATION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There are several individuals who helped me to pursue the completion of my doctoral degree that want to thank or acknowledge here. I thank my husband, Vincent for his continuous support and being a role model for me. My daughter Ashley was also very supportive by helping me to devote more time to my studies. The faculty and staff at the University of Maryland University College cultivated my interest in becoming a researcher. I would like to acknowledge several individuals who are professors, supervisors, UMUC administrative staff, family members, and friends who impressed and influenced me the past few years: Dr. Nick Allen, Ms. Marina Caminis, Ms. Gloria Harris, Dr. Tom Mierzwa, Ms. Lorraine Moore, Dr. John Sherlock, Ms. Kathleen Sobieralski, Ms. Cynthia Thomes, Dr. Deborah Wharff, Dr. Joseph Whelan, Dr. Dennis Winters, Dr. Robert Wise, and my cohort class members. My advisors, Dr. Leslie Dinauer and Dr. Kriesta Watson were a source of inspiration for me. Both professors provided encouragement and taught me to maintain high standards and to pace myself to accomplish what I needed to do. Their patience and knowledge helped me to understand the connection between scholarship and practice. I must thank God for answering my prayers. This dissertation is dedicated to my loving family for their patience, sacrifice, and understanding: Vincent, Ashley, Justin, Amari, Ariyah, Ronnie, Minnie, and Nemo. x Abstract In today’s complex and rapidly changing business environment, managers face increasing challenges in information processing and problem solving. Organizations inevitably need employee ideas and thoughts that speed innovation and enhance organizational effectiveness. Without employee input, managers can make incorrect decisions according to inaccurate information. The purpose of the current study was to identify the most salient antecedents of employee voice behavior, a voluntary form of communication that challenges workplace conditions for improvement, even when others disagree. The salient antecedents are the most prominent behaviors promoting employee voice that were identified by research evidence. This study’s methodology is a systematic review that provides a practitioner-oriented, evidence-based research approach. Using a thematic synthesis, this dissertation evaluated and configured known scholarship on voice antecedents according to the results of 57 research studies. This dissertation found leader openness and psychological safety were the most salient voice antecedents. Through this study, the researcher extends knowledge on employee voice behavior by clarifying the behaviors that encourage employees to speak up in organizations. Leadership support for the salient antecedents encourages employee constructive ideas and suggestions for workplace improvements that may affect the long-term viability of the organization. Keywords: employee communication, employee voice, leader openness, leader voice behaviors, psychological safety, saliency, speaking up A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF VOICE ANTECEDENTS 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Employees are recognized as an invaluable source of ideas for improving the work environment. Working on the front lines, they offer innovative ideas, suggest ideas for organizational policies and procedures, alert management to problems inside and outside of the workplace, and identify innovative solutions that result in competitive advantages for the organization (Detert & Burris, 2007; Wilkinson & Fay, 2011). Additionally, employee expertise and knowledge enhances management decision making and benefits individuals, leaders, and organizations (Farndale, Van Ruiten, Kelliher, & Hope-Hailey, 2011). Although employee input improves the work environment, in many organizations, employees are often fearful of communicating ideas, suggestions, and opinions to their leaders. Individuals are reluctant to speak up when they have no one to protect them from the negative consequences that might occur when they express their ideas and opinions (Withey & Cooper, 1989). Additionally, several tragic events have occurred historically that illustrate the adverse consequences that could occur when employee ideas and suggestions are (a) not bought forward, or (b) communicated, but ignored by leaders. One such event is the British Petroleum Company (BP) oil disaster on April 10, 2010, in the Gulf of Mexico. The facts surrounding the BP oil disaster demonstrate a form of communication referred to as employee voice behavior, which is the focus of the current research study. The British Petroleum 2010 Oil Disaster The 2010 BP oil disaster exemplifies the hazards of deep water drilling and a work environment in which poor decisions and communication contributed to a disastrous event. In the public eye prior to the Gulf of Mexico oil disaster, BP was to the A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF VOICE ANTECEDENTS 2 world merely another source for automobile gasoline or heating fuel for consumers to purchase, but all of that changed when the Horizon oil rig exploded, resulting in the death of 11 workers and the injury of 17 other employees. The rig’s explosion and subsequent fire released an estimated 200 million gallons of oil into the gulf and surrounding coastlines, creating extensive environmental damage in the region (McCoy, 2014). The Maconto well which was several thousand feet below the rig, gushed crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico until workers capped it 85 days after the incident (Adams & Gabbatt, 2014). The oil spill affected 68,000 square miles of ocean, comparable to the size of Oklahoma, and by early June 2010, crude oil had reached the coastlines of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas (Sheppard, 2015). Before the disaster, the Horizon rig drilled its target depth of 18,360 feet and management was ready to temporarily cap the well closed. BP hired Halliburton to run technical model simulations on gas leakage, to conduct cement lab tests, and to cement closed the well (Ingersoll & Locke, 2012). Halliburton recommended 21 centralizers were needed to stop the gas from flowing from the well to the rig, not BP management’s lower estimate of only six centralizers (Ingersoll & Locke, 2012). The leaders decided to (a) assume the risks of capping the well with fewer centralizers, and (b) forego safety tests that would have shown that gas was leaking from the well to the rig (Adams & Gabbatt, 2014; Ingersoll & Locke, 2012). Unfortunately, BP’s decisions were wrong. Oil and gas poured up from the well to the rig, which led to the Marconto well blowout and the Deepwater Horizon rig explosion (Adams & Gabbatt, 2014; Bradberry, 2010). Operationally, the rig was not prepared for an emergency of this magnitude. Its fire prevention system failed to engage, and the blowout preventer—the ultimate failsafe—did not work because the batteries A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF VOICE ANTECEDENTS 3 were dead and a valve was faulty (Adams & Gabbatt, 2014). Previously, when employees raised ideas and suggestions to resolve operational problems, managers simply ignored their concerns (Wartzman, 2010). Instead, leaders focused on their financial goals and drilling deeper and deeper for crude oil (Ingersoll & Locke, 2012). The employees at BP understood what happened to workers who communicated bad news to their leaders. They were labelled as troublemakers and sometimes fired (Wartzman, 2010). Consequently, employees feared losing their jobs and they learned to accept problems rather than challenging the decisions that eventually led to the immitigable disaster (Ingersoll & Locke, 2012; Wartzman, 2010). Unfortunately, the rig’s poor operational condition, the employees’ fear of communicating bad news, and the leaders’ disregard for employee input on risky decisions contributed to this disastrous event. Sadly, the loss of life, the devastating impact on the economy, the severe medical conditions of many employees, and the damaging consequences to the Gulf Coast might have been avoided had BP only fostered an environment that welcomed employee ideas for improving the organization (Hoffman, 2010; Ingersoll & Locke, 2012; Wartzman, 2010). The BP oil spill took its toll on countless lives that were inextricably altered because of this incident (Atkins, 2010). More than 5 years later, the spill cleanup has been substantially completed and responsible parties have agreed to pay billions to settle the claims that arose from the crude oil spill (Elliot, 2015; Sheppard, 2015). Many scientists say that it will take an unknown amount of time, perhaps even decades, to grasp fully the spill’s impact on the region (Hammer, 2015). Much of the damage caused by the spill yet affects wildlife and the families who lost their love ones in the incident. The employees who were directly involved in the decisions were charged with 14 counts of criminal acts, and two site

Critical factors influencing knowledge exchange between global STEM organizations

Author: Glowitz Joseph Andrew
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2016
Field of study

This research identifies critical factors that influence knowledge exchange between knowledge workers in professional organizations in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). The influence of boundary systems on global knowledge exchange between organizations was also studied. The significance of the research was to establish the critical relationships so that best practices could be suggested for STEM organizations. Theoretical lenses that guided this research included absorptive capacity theory, boundary spanning theory, cultural dimension theory, and trust theory. These theoretical lenses focused on organizations engaged in global knowledge exchange. The study’s methodology employed an evidence-based research synthesis approach and systematic review technique with configurative thematic synthesis. The study’s findings identified ten critical factors that influence knowledge exchange between global STEM organizations. Findings also identified boundary system influences on global knowledge exchange, and the pivotal role that the level of trust between and within organizations has in global knowledge exchange. The research led to recommended management practices for practitioners in STEM organizations to improve their ability to facilitate global knowledge exchange within communities of practice.CRITICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE BETWEEN GLOBAL STEM ORGANIZATIONS By Joseph Andrew Glowitz Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management 2015 Advisory Committee: Dr. Thomas J. Mierzwa Dr. Denise A. Breckon ABSTRACT Title of Dissertation: CRITICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE BETWEEN GLOBAL STEM ORGANIZATIONS Joseph Andrew Glowitz, Doctor of Management, 2015 Dissertation Directed By: Dr. Thomas J. Mierzwa and Dr. Denise A. Breckon This research identifies critical factors that influence knowledge exchange between knowledge workers in professional organizations in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). The influence of boundary systems on global knowledge exchange between organizations was also studied. The significance of the research was to establish the critical relationships so that best practices could be suggested for STEM organizations. Theoretical lenses that guided this research included absorptive capacity theory, boundary spanning theory, cultural dimension theory, and trust theory. These theoretical lenses focused on organizations engaged in global knowledge exchange. The study’s methodology employed an evidence-based research synthesis approach and systematic review technique with configurative thematic synthesis. The study’s findings identified ten critical factors that influence knowledge exchange between global STEM organizations. Findings also identified boundary system influences on global knowledge exchange, and the pivotal role that the level of trust between and within organizations has in global knowledge exchange. The research led to recommended management practices for practitioners in STEM organizations to improve their ability to facilitate global knowledge exchange within communities of practice. Keywords: absorptive capacity, boundary spanning, culture, knowledge, STEM, trust © Copyright by Joseph Andrew Glowitz 2015 Acknowledgements I would like to thank my dissertation advisors, Dr. Thomas Mierzwa and Dr. Denise Breckon for their guidance and mentorship during my dissertation process. In addition, I would like to thank the professors at University of Maryland University College who helped develop my writing, critical thinking, and scholarly abilities: Dr. Bryan Booth, Dr. Michael Frank, Dr. Claudine SchWeber, Dr. Laura Witz, Dr. John Sherlock, Dr. Subash Bijlani and Dr. Timothy Reed. A special thanks goes out to Dr. Wanda Wagner for her fantastic mentorship and encouragement. Thank you to the UMUC staff, Marina Caminis and Monica Graham. I also wish to acknowledge the participation of the five Subject Knowledge Experts who offered valuable observations and input for the research. Thank you also to my friends for their words of encouragement to help me on my doctoral journey, including Foster Tucker, and Mack Hicks. Special thanks to my fellow cohort members at UMUC, including Justin Blaney, Steven Deck, Joanne Koravos, Cami Fawzy, Katherine Freeley, Penny Reese, and Will Porter. Also, thanks to Dr. Ray Kennedy and Tim Tune for their expert editing and writing advice, other reviewers who provided feedback along the way, and to my other friends and family, I wish to share my sincere than i Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Problem ..................................................................................... 1 Overview ............................................................................................................................................... 1 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................................ 3 Research Purpose ................................................................................................................................. 5 Gaps in the Research ............................................................................................................................. 7 Research Questions ............................................................................................................................... 9 Significance of this Study for Management ........................................................................................... 9 Study Scope and Limitations ................................................................................................................ 11 Dissertation Organization ................................................................................................................... 15 Chapter 2: Literature Review and Conceptual Model .......................................................................... 16 Critical Analysis of the Literature Themes .......................................................................................... 17 Interpretive Model ............................................................................................................................... 55 Thesis Statements ................................................................................................................................ 60 Summary of the Chapter ...................................................................................................................... 62 Chapter 3: Method ................................................................................................................................... 63 Systematic Review Method .................................................................................................................. 63 Quality Analysis and Assessment ......................................................................................................... 75 Configurative Thematic Synthesis ....................................................................................................... 81 Considerations from Expert Review Panel .......................................................................................... 86 Summary of the Results ........................................................................................................................ 89 Synthesis of the Results ........................................................................................................................ 92 Summary of the Chapter ...................................................................................................................... 93 Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ........................................................................................................... 94 Findings of the Evidence ..................................................................................................................... 94 Summary Findings and the Reinterpreted Conceptual Framework .................................................. 112 Limitations of the Interpretation of the Study Findings ..................................................................... 116 Summary of the Findings ................................................................................................................... 119 Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ............................................................................................. 120 Study Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 121 Implications for Management and Practice ...................................................................................... 123 Areas for Future Research ................................................................................................................. 124 Summary Observations ...................................................................................................................... 127 References ............................................................................................................................................... 127 Appendices .............................................................................................................................................. 169 Curriculum vitae .................................................................................................................................... 220 ii List of Tables TABLE 1 SUMMARY OF HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL DIMENSIONS ........................................................43 TABLE 2 THESIS STATEMENTS AND VARIABLES ...............................................................................62 TABLE 3 A LIST OF POTENTIAL KEYWORDS ....................................................................................69 TABLE 4 LITERATURE DATABASE SEARCH KEYWORDS OF INTEREST ................................................70 TABLE 5 LITERATURE QUALITY ASSESSMENT CRITERIA ..................................................................78 TABLE 6 LITERATURE SCREENING AND QUALITY ASSESSMENT RESULTS ..........................................79 TABLE 7 FIVE-STEP THEMATIC SYNTHESIS CODING PROCESS .........................................................84 TABLE 8 SUBJECT MATTER EXPERT (SME) REVIEW PANEL ...........................................................87 TABLE 9 THEMATIC SYNTHESIS RESULTS - CRITICAL KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE FACTORS .................95 TABLE 10 CROSS-INFLUENCING KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE FACTORS .............................................100 TABLE 11 INFLUENCE OF BOUNDARY SYSTEMS ON GLOBAL KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE ...................106 iii List of Figures FIGURE 1. RESEARCH STUDY PROBLEM DOMAIN SPACE. ..............................................................7 FIGURE 2. NONAKA AND TAKEUCHI SECI KNOWLEDGE MODEL. ................................................21 FIGURE 4. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT LIFE CYCLE. ..................................................................23 FIGURE 5. DISPERSED KNOWLEDGE DOMAINS. ............................................................................25 FIGURE 6. LEARNING PROCESS IN KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT. .................................................26 FIGURE 7. ABSORPTIVE CAPACITY MODEL. .................................................................................39 FIGURE 8. KNOWLEDGE CENTER KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE. ........................................................53 FIGURE 9. CONCEPTS SUPPORTING KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE. .....................................................56 FIGURE 10. THEORETICAL LENS OF KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE. .....................................................57 FIGURE 11. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: GLOBAL KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE. ..............................60 FIGURE 12. SIMPLIFIED EVIDENCE-BASED MANAGEMENT PYRAMID OF EVIDENCE. ....................75 FIGURE 13. PRISMA PROCESS DOCUMENTATION DIAGRAM. .....................................................80 FIGURE 14. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW DATASET BY STUDY QUALITY RATING. .................................90 FIGURE 15. DATA SOURCES BY YEAR OF PUBLICATION. ..............................................................91 FIGURE 16. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW DATA BY TYPE OF STUDY. ......................................................92 FIGURE 17. RANKING OF THE ANALYTICAL THEMES AND CRITICAL FACTORS. ...........................96 FIGURE 18. THESIS STATEMENT 1: FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE. ...........99 FIGURE 19. THESIS STATEMENT 2: BOUNDARY SYSTEMS - GLOBAL KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE. .108 FIGURE 20. THESIS STATEMENT 3: TRUST AND GLOBAL KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE. ...................110 FIGURE 21. STUDY FINDINGS SUMMARY. ..................................................................................115 FIGURE 22. REINTERPRETED CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK. .........................................................116 FIGURE 23. INFLUENCES ON GLOBAL KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE. ...............................................122 iv List of Appendices APPENDIX A ENABLERS AND INHIBITORS TO KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE ....................................169 APPENDIX B LITERATURE REVIEW KEY CONCEPTS AND RESEARCH STUDY RELEVANCE .........170 APPENDIX C PROPOSITIONS AND SUPPORTING INITIAL LITERATURE .........................................171 APPENDIX D SYSTEMATIC REVIEW APPROACH AND METHOD ...................................................172 APPENDIX E INITIAL KEYWORD SEARCH OPTIONS ....................................................................173 APPENDIX F WEB OF SCIENCE RESULTS - KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT ....................................174 APPENDIX G WEB OF SCIENCE RESULTS - KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER ..........................................175 APPENDIX H WEB OF SCIENCE RESULTS - GLOBAL ORGANIZATION ..........................................176 APPENDIX I WEB OF SCIENCE RESULTS - CULTURAL DIFFERENCE ............................................177 APPENDIX J WEB OF SCIENCE RESULTS - ABSORPTIVE CAPACITY .............................................178 APPENDIX K WEB OF SCIENCE RESULTS - BOUNDARY SPANNING .............................................179 APPENDIX L WEB OF SCIENCE RESULTS - TRUST AND MANAGEMENT .......................................180 APPENDIX M UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND ONESEARCH DATABASES ........................................181 APPENDIX N RESULTS OF INITIAL LITERATURE KEYWORD SEARCH .........................................182 APPENDIX O RESULTS OF SECONDARY LITERATURE KEYWORD SEARCH .................................183 APPENDIX P RESULTS OF DETAILED DATA SOURCE QUALITY APPRAISAL ANALYSIS ..............184 APPENDIX Q QUALITY ASSESSMENT AND DATA NARRATIVE TABLE ........................................190 APPENDIX R PREFERRED REPORTING FOR SYSTEMATIC REVIEWS & META-ANALYSES ............204 APPENDIX S CODING MANUAL AND THEMATIC RESULTS .........................................................205 APPENDIX T THEMATIC SYNTHESIS CRITICAL FACTORS BY AUTHOR .......................................206 APPENDIX U ATLAS.TI GRAPHICAL THEMATIC OCCURRENCE, BY THEME ................................208 APPENDIX V ATLAS.TI DATA SOURCE THEME OUTPUT BY AUTHOR ........................................209 APPENDIX W SUBJECT MATTER EXPERT FEEDBACK SUMMARY .................................................209 APPENDIX X SYSTEMATIC REVIEW LITERATURE DATA SOURCES ...............................................215 APPENDIX Y ATLAS.TI PARENT THEME CODE REPORT, BY AUTHOR ........................................216 APPENDIX Z KEY CRITICAL FACTORS IN CASE STUDIES ...........................................................218 APPENDIX AA COPYRIGHT REPRINT LICENSE ...........................................................................219 1 Critical Factors Influencing Knowledge Exchange between Global STEM Organizations Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Problem Overview Chapter 1 introduces the dissertation and research. Chapter 1 has six sections: 1. Background; 2. Problem statement; 3. Research questions; 4. Significance of the study; 5. Scope and limitations of the study; and 6. Dissertation organization. Organizations continue to explore and implement knowledge based systems to utilize new information and address organizational needs, business requirements, and provide a learning environment to create, acquire, share, and transfer information between stakeholders, such as employees and offices in worldwide locations. The transformation from traditional workers to knowledge workers infers that knowledge management is important to businesses, incorporating the tenets of more traditional, long-standing management theories and practices. These new work practices are incorporated into realigned business strategies. New technologies provide the ability to communicate globally has enabled a new look at how the workplace operates, including a virtual office. These technology advances allow organizations to expand globally to offshore host countries to create a new business presence, or to utilize offshore knowledge and labor in domestic locations. Globalization of the world economy has introduced changes to the standard business model, requiring a rethinking of how businesses relate to their employees and customers. Organizations are not immune from impacts from global events that transcend geography, geopolitical boundaries, national politics, or governmental policies. To accommodate the new global paradigm, business practices continue to evolve, to better position organizations and to 2 increase their competitiveness. Changing business practices require knowledge workers to be better informed, and organizations need to be agile and dynamic in their use of intellectual property, foreign direct investments, and human capital management to remain competitive in the global marketplace. Global communities of practice (COP) utilize information in many locations, sharing information and knowledge from individual to individual and organization to organization. These knowledge communities utilize enabling technology to establish communication pathways. Stakeholders add value to the knowledge stream to work together seamlessly. Virtual enterprises span boundaries that previously were not conducive to knowledge exchange. Changes in work practices have introduced challenges that are different compared to traditional, co-located workplaces. For instance, an organization located in one location usually has a common language, cultural background, similar policies and procedures, and a legal system to operate. A virtual global workplace transcends geographic boundaries to take advantage of a diverse and varied workforce. The discussion of the global workplace sets the context for the research, insofar as the scope of the research expands beyond a U.S. centric focus. Global organizations look for ways to strengthen their business model and reduce costs, and many offshore locations are advantageous in reducing business costs. The challenges of cultural and linguistic barriers along with other business challenges such as differing laws, regulations, and standards require that global enterprises need to compete. The business model in virtual settings is different, with different business models in different locations. Organizations need to develop a context-sensitive knowledge strategy for each specific site, to effectively compete. The strategy required is one that offers improved stakeholder access to information, added value for organizations to provide for a return on shareholder investments. This research 3 will identify and evaluate the critical factors that enable knowledge exchange to take place among global STEM organizations. Two Academy of Management (2015) focus areas are relevant to this research, including “international management and technology and innovation management” (para. 1). The Academy of Management (2015) defines international management as the “theory, research, and practice of management with a cross-border or cross-cultural dimension” (para. 1). Further, the Academy of Management (2015) defines technology and innovative management as a discipline that pertains to the “interdisciplinary scholarship and dialog on the management of innovation and technological change from a variety of perspectives, including strategic, managerial, behavioral, and operational issues” (para. 1). Problem Statement The problem statement defined for this research is the challenge for global STEM organizations to share and exchange knowledge across cultural boundaries. The diversity of the global cultural mosaic introduces a new dynamic of workforce collaboration. Not only must individuals work towards a common business interest, but they must also develop interpersonal relationships, often with those who have a different cultural perspective. Multinational enterprises that operate globally have the challenge of being in multiple geographic locations spanning multiple cultural experiences and perspectives.The knowledge base for such organizations is dispersed over a wide geographic area (Asakawa & Lehrer, 2003, p. 31). This georgaphic dispersion presents challenges for individuals to locate information, exchange knowledge, and integrate knowledge based systems. Global STEM organizations compete in the worldwide marketplace, similar to domestic organizations. Global STEM organizations may derive competitive advantage from using varying degrees of knowledge from different geographic locations to leverage expertise in other locations. To be sucessful, kno

Equality in the workplace: Examining the viability of antidiscrimination policy to foster an inclusive organizational culture

Author: Nichols-Holmes Gia'Donna Maria
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2016
Field of study

This dissertation responded to a perceived need for organizational development of the inclusion of gay men and lesbians in the workplace and examined reasons for an inclusive organizational culture. The purpose of this dissertation was to examine the relationship between antidiscrimination policies and an inclusive workforce. This dissertation also focused on antidiscrimination workplace policies that, if enforced by management, might be responsible for the development of inclusive work environments. Also examined in this dissertation was compliance with workplace policies for the purpose of improving productivity and morale, particularly in regard to gay and lesbian employees. In this dissertation, gays and lesbians were considered one group since the Systematic Review of the Literature showed that gay men and lesbians were often exposed to similar types of exclusive discrimination in the workplace. Concepts and practices such as organizational change, management approaches, techniques, workplace behavior, sexual orientation disclosure, and out-group identification were addressed to help establish their relationship to the implementation of workplace antidiscrimination policies focused on gay men and lesbians.Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE Equality in the workplace: Examining the viability of antidiscrimination policy to foster an inclusive organizational culture Gia’Donna Maria Nichols-Holmes A thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management James P. Gelatt, Ph.D. Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D. Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE ii Table of Contents List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... iiv List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ v Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... vi Dedication .................................................................................................................................... vii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... viii Chapter One: Introduction and Overview of Relevant Literature .................................................. 1 Problem Context (Statement and significance of the problem) ................................................ 1 Importance to Management ...................................................................................................... 3 Organizational Culture and Change .................................................................................... 5 Workplace Antidiscrimination Policies and Management Practices .................................. 9 Introducing Antidiscrimination Policies to Change Organizational Culture .................... 10 Organizational Justice and Management’s Compliance with Antidiscrimination Policy 11 Sexual Orientation Disclosure .......................................................................................... 13 Research Questions ................................................................................................................. 15 Propositions............................................................................................................................ 15 Definition of Key Terms ......................................................................................................... 16 Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................. 19 Chapter Two: Methodology .......................................................................................................... 21 Purpose of Dissertation ........................................................................................................... 21 Discussion of Evidence Based Research ................................................................................ 22 Justification for Using the EBR Method for a Management Based Dissertation ................... 23 The Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 24 Explanation of Methodology .................................................................................................. 25 Factors for Inclusion or Exclusion of Studies (Identification of Relevancy) ......................... 26 Thematic Synthesis: Characteristics and Coding .................................................................... 28 Discussion of the Use of the Expert Panel .............................................................................. 30 Summary of Chapter ............................................................................................................... 33 Chapter Three: Systematic Literature Review .............................................................................. 34 Organizational Culture and Change ........................................................................................ 35 Workplace Antidiscrimination Policies and Management Practices ...................................... 57 Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE iii Introducing Antidiscrimination Policies to Change Organizational Culture .......................... 84 Organizational Justice and Management’s Compliance with Antidiscrimination Policy ...... 95 Sexual Orientation Disclosure .............................................................................................. 117 Chapter Conclusions: How the Findings Supported Research Questions ............................ 133 Support for Research Question 2. ................................................................................... 138 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 141 Chapter Four: Analysis and Discussion ...................................................................................... 142 Analysis of the Research Questions ...................................................................................... 142 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 146 Studies Opposing the Inclusion of Gay and Lesbian Workers ............................................. 146 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 147 Chapter Five: Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................ 148 Theoretical Lens.................................................................................................................... 148 Management Practices that Foster and Sustain Inclusion in the Workplace (Findings)....... 148 Chapter Six: Conclusions, Implications and Trends ................................................................... 154 Overall Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 154 Implications for Management ............................................................................................... 155 Recommendations for Management ..................................................................................... 156 Diversity Training ........................................................................................................... 156 Negative Responses to Diversity Training ..................................................................... 158 Management Style and the “Reflected Best Self” .......................................................... 160 Conclusions for Implications for Management............................................................... 162 Emerging Trends ................................................................................................................... 162 Limitations and Areas for Future Research .......................................................................... 164 Threats to Validity .......................................................................................................... 164 Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 165 Suggestions for Future Research .................................................................................... 165 Final Summary ...................................................................................................................... 166 References .................................................................................................................................. 168 Appendix A ................................................................................................................................ 177 Appendix B ................................................................................................................................ 185 Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE iv List of Tables Table 1 Number of Articles Reviewed for each Theme ……………………………………… . 22 Table 2 Initial Studies Considered for Inclusion .......................................................................... 27 Table 3 Examples of Employee Voice. ......................................................................................... 60 Table 4 Voice Mechanisms for LGBT Employees. ...................................................................... 61 Table 5 Affirming Organizational Policies Evaluated by Button( 2001). .................................... 66 Table 6 Cox’s Six-Dimensional Adaptation of Gordon's framework. .......................................... 73 Table 7 Evaluative Criteria from the Assessment Instrument. ..................................................... 90 Table 8 Herek’s Scale of Attitudes toward Lesbians and Gay Men. ............................................ 98 Table 9 Support for Research Q1 ................................................................................................ 133 Table 10 Support for Research Q2…………………………………………………………….. 137 Table 11 U.S. States that Had Sexual Orientation Antidiscrimination Laws as of 2016. .......... 154 Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE v List of Figures Figure 1.The four sources of evidence in evidence-based management ...................................... 23 Figure 2. PRISMA diagram representing the flow of citations reviewed before exclusion.. ....... 27 Figure 3.Typology of negative deviant workplace behavior. ....................................................... 41 Figure 4: Muller’s Conceptual Framework of Organizational Types and Other Factors in Managing Diversity ...................................................................................................................... 91 Figure 5: Human rights commissions and public policy ............................................................ 116 Figure 6. Supports for the Development of Workplace Equality. ............................................. 150 Figure 7: Factors that Help to Sustain Workplace Equality. ...................................................... 152 Figure 8: Conceptual Framework. .............................................................................................. 153 Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE vi Abstract This dissertation responded to a perceived need for organizational development of the inclusion of gay men and lesbians in the workplace and examined reasons for an inclusive organizational culture. The purpose of this dissertation was to examine the relationship between antidiscrimination policies and an inclusive workforce. This dissertation also focused on antidiscrimination workplace policies that, if enforced by management, might be responsible for the development of inclusive work environments. Also examined in this dissertation was compliance with workplace policies for the purpose of improving productivity and morale, particularly in regard to gay and lesbian employees. In this dissertation, gays and lesbians were considered one group since the Systematic Review of the Literature showed that gay men and lesbians were often exposed to similar types of exclusive discrimination in the workplace. Concepts and practices such as organizational change, management approaches, techniques, workplace behavior, sexual orientation disclosure, and out-group identification were addressed to help establish their relationship to the implementation of workplace antidiscrimination policies focused on gay men and lesbians. Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE vii Dedication This dissertation is devoted to anyone who has ever experienced isolation, hostility, and discrimination -- covert or otherwise -- based on who they are. It is my hope that one day fellow man will learn to live with and love one another regardless of economic status, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, religion - or anything else about us humans that may seem to set us apart. This dissertation is also dedicated to my steadfast supporters. The other Mrs. Nichols-Holmes - Vanessa, and my sweet Sylvester -- who were both there throughout this journey. This work is also dedicated to my son Damien who is learning to navigate this life, and who in turn will help others to find their way as well. Above all else, Thank You to God - I have never had a doubt that You have been here with me all along. Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE viii Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge everyone for their support and help throughout the life of this project. Drs. James Gelatt and Kay Edwards, thank you for your time and dedication to this project. I feel honored to have been a recipient of such invaluable advice. Cynthia Thomes, who always seemed to be available when I had library related research questions. Cynthia's research tips were indispensable and applicable to innumerous projects. I would also like to thank Dr. Thomas Mierzwa who helped to lay the foundation for this dissertation and whose recommendations can be seen throughout. Tom inspired me to keep going and I am forever grateful for his advice and commitment to the Doctor of Management Program and students like me. Monica Graham, my longtime colleague and friend, thank you for all your support DM related and beyond! Finally, I would be remiss if I did not thank those who supported me by providing feedback that helped to shape this work. Pastor Dwayne Johnson, Mr. Kareem Murphy, Dr. Koehne - THANK YOU. Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE Chapter One: Introduction and Overview of Relevant Literature This dissertation utilized an evidence based approach to examine the inclusion of gay men and lesbians in the workplace from the perspectives of compliance with antidiscrimination policies, management practices, workplace behavior, social and structural justice, organizational culture and change, and sexual orientation disclosure. Its purpose was to examine the relationships between antidiscrimination policies and an inclusive workforce in the United States. Due to a gap in research of gay and lesbian workers in the US, this dissertation also utilized relevant scholarly literature published between the years 1970 and 2015, from Australia, Canada, Sweden, and the UK, and also included studies that represented workers from other minority groups. Problem Context (Statement and significance of the problem) Preceding the high profile issues surrounding equality for lesbians and gays in the United States and other countries, the lack of organizational justice leading to the discrimination of minorities, including blacks, women, and persons with disabilities, was -- and still is -- a great concern to organizations because of their impact on organizational culture, productivity, and innovation. According to Greenberg (2009) organizational justice is the perceived fairness of how resources are distributed, the equity relative to how procedures are applied in decision making, and how organizational outcomes and procedures are communicated throughout the workplace. According to Cropanzano, Bowen, and Gilliland (2007), in the presence of organizational justice both the organization and the employee benefit through “greater trust and commitment, improved job performance, more helpful citizenship behaviors, improved customer satisfaction, Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 2 and diminished conflict” (p. 34). The presence or lack of organizational justice may be contingent on an organization’s culture. According to Klie (2008), organizational culture may affect workplace behavior because it influences outcomes related to productivity, profit, morale, and behavior, and provides the backdrop for how norms develop. Klie (2008) contended that in some cases it is necessary to reconstruct the culture in order to create a sense of equality for all workers, and that in order to change the culture, management might first examine the whole organization as well as successes or failures within the context of previous changes that have been attempted. Nag, Corley, and Gioia argued that “organizational identity, knowledge, and practice” stunts the acquisition of new knowledge and the possibility of strategic transformation, therefore diverse methods to change the culture may be needed (2007, p. 821). Organizational culture and change will be further examined in the systematic literature chapter of this dissertation. Antidiscrimination policies may be implemented for the purpose of helping to change organizational culture. Since at least 1972 to the present day (2016), equal employment opportunity legislation has been developed in the United States to decrease instances of discrimination against minority groups and to help foster social justice. Social justice can be defined as compassion, social equality, harmony within diversity, and inclusion (Normore & Jean-Marie, 2008). Much has been studied and written about management, diversity management, and social justice relative to gender, race, and disability. Studies are not as prevalent on similar issues surrounding discrimination policies that might encourage or prevent lesbians and gays from being included in the workplace (Button, 2004; Tuten and August, 2006; Colgan, Creegany, McKearney, and Wright, T. 2007). Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 3 This dissertation was based on the assumption that there is a research gap in the U.S. literature with reference to lesbian and gay workers in regard to policy development, and/or management’s compliance with and implementation of antidiscrimination policies. Further, there was not an abundance of research found that examined the importance of management practices that helped to represent this group as part of the effort to foster an inclusive workplace. For the latter reason, this dissertation also utilized studies that represented workers from other minority groups in Australia, Canada, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. This dissertation examined the inclusion of gay and lesbian workers in organizations, and how the enforcement and compliance of antidiscrimination policies by management may be able to help to achieve the goal of reducing discrimination toward this group. Along with affirming management practices, this dissertation sought to determine if there was a cogent connection between antidiscrimination policy enforcement and compliance by management, and the inclusion of gay and lesbian employees in the workplace. Again, to fill the gap in gay and lesbian employee related literature, other studies were used to show the types of management practices that have been shown to be effective in the integration of minority groups into organizations. Importance to Management Gay and lesbian workplace discrimination has been observed to be on a continuum, both in recognition and antidiscrimination laws that seek to address it. Burge (2009) claimed that gay and lesbian workers are probably the most stigmatized demographic in the United States. Hedgepeth (1979) said that U.S. courts would not entertain discrimination cases up to the 1970s, including those based on same sex gender preference because the courts affirmed that government and private sector employers had a right to “eliminate immoral influences in the workplace” (p. 67). According to Levine and Leonard (1984) gay men and lesbians claimed that Running head: EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE 4 they were terminated, not hired or refused job mobility within their organizations because of their sexual orientation. As of 2016, gay and lesbian employees in the U.S. were not protected from discrimination by federal laws and 29 states did not prohibit sexual orientation discrimination (Human Rights Campaign, 2015). Even beyond lack of protection against workplace discrimination and inequitable work experiences for gay and lesbian employees, there are strong arguments for developing a diverse and inclusive workforce. According to Roberson (2006), psychological barriers, such as inequitable treatment, can keep employees from contributing to work teams and their organization, whereas workplace inclusion can help remove these barriers. Allen and Montgomery (2001) applied Lewin-Schein’s change model to illustrate the qualities of strategic organizational change. One of their findings was that the more diverse the staff of an organization is encouraged to be,

How telework programs enable affective organizational commitment

Author: Lenehan Sean Thomas
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2016
Field of study

Technology, globalization, intense competition and human capital dimensions fuel the growth of telework programs. Reliable, high speed and low cost technology enables telework. The ability to deploy the best available talent capable of working when and where they are most productive is part of telework program design. Yet, telework research is thinly and widely scattered across contexts and study disciplines. Most research tends to focus on telework adoption or program elements while overlooking a critical factor, organizational outcomes- and more specifically, organizational commitment. The current research informs this management problem. Organizational commitment has a strong and consistent relationship with key organizational outcomes such as satisfaction, retention and performance. The current research will adapt Allen and Meyer’s organizational commitment model and focus on affective organizational commitment. Using an evidence based approach and a systematic research methodology, the current research explores telework research to reveal patterns, trends and themes. The results are analyzed and configured into a conceptual model based on trust, results orientation and telework program motivation. These dimensions have the strongest relationships with organizational commitment. The relationships between these variables and affective organizational commitment offer significant theoretical management and practical implications for telework programs such as MBOs, trust behaviors and telework selection criteria. The research concludes with suggestions for future research and exploration.i Title of Dissertation: ABSTRACT HOW TELEWORK PROGRAMS ENABLE AFFECTIVE ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT Sean Thomas Lenehan, Doctor of Management, 2016 Dissertation Directed by: Dr. Thomas J. Mierzwa and Dr. Denise A. Breckon, Doctor of Management Technology, globalization, intense competition and human capital dimensions fuel the growth of telework programs. Reliable, high speed and low cost technology enables telework. The ability to deploy the best available talent capable of working when and where they are most productive is part of telework program design. Yet, telework research is thinly and widely scattered across contexts and study disciplines. Most research tends to focus on telework adoption or program elements while overlooking a critical factor, organizational outcomes- and more specifically, organizational commitment. The current research informs this management problem. Organizational commitment has a strong and consistent relationship with key organizational outcomes such as satisfaction, retention and performance. The current research will adapt Allen and Meyer’s organizational commitment model and focus on affective organizational commitment. Using an evidence based approach and a systematic research methodology, the current research explores telework research to reveal patterns, trends and themes. The results are analyzed and configured into a conceptual model based on trust, results orientation and telework program motivation. These dimensions have the strongest relationships with organizational commitment. The relationships between these variables and affective organizational commitment offer significant theoretical management and practical implications for telework programs such as MBOs, trust behaviors and telework selection criteria. The research concludes with suggestions for future research and exploration. Keywords: Telework, Organizational Commitment, ICT, HRMii HOW TELEWORK PROGRAMS ENABLE AFFECTIVE ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT by Sean Thomas Lenehan Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management 2016 Advisory Committee Dr. Thomas J. Mierzwa Dr. Denise A. Breckon iii © Copyright by Sean Thomas Lenehan 2016 iv Acknowledgements This space and my words cannot adequately express my gratitude and appreciation to those who have been part of my journey. Faculty and my cohort as well as professional colleagues and personal friends and family each played an important role. My dissertation advisors, Tom Mierzwa and Denise Breckon, literally provided years of guidance and support. The doctoral faculty were simply amazing: Nancy Glenn, Sharon Hadary, Deborah Wharff, Richard Milter, Kri Watson, John Sherlock and Subash Bijlani. My cohort family was supportive yet challenging. My initial cohort of Brenda Shore, JoAnne Kovaros, Steve Deck, Jamie Padmore, Penny Reese, Cami Fawzy, Robert Sterneck and Jessica Fernandes were complemented by a latter cohort including Mark Livingston, Joe Glowitz, Don Roomes and Katherine Freeley. The on-campus residencies were always better than the previous one and were expertly organized by Monica Graham and Marina Caminis. To each of these wonderful people individually as well as collectively, thank you. I appreciate the support and guidance offered at Southern Management Association and Academy of Management conferences as well as the Engaged Management Scholarship Conference doctoral consortium. In addition to academic and scholarship support, I was similarly overwhelmed with support from my personal universe. I gratefully acknowledge my family and friends for their patience and understanding during this journey. Major holidays as well as typical weeknights were consumed with reading and research and consumed my time, energy and focus. I am grateful for the opportunity and ability to pursue this challenge- and am well aware I did not accomplish this entirely on my own. v Table of Contents Acknowledgements………………………………………………….... iv Table of Contents……………………………………………………... v List of Tables and Figures……………………………………………. viii List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………. ix Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Problem …….…………… 1 Background…………………………………………………………… 1 Problem statement……………………………………...…………….. 4 Literature that informs the problem……………………...….……….. 5 Research questions………….……………………………………….... 12 Purpose of the study…………………………………………………... 13 Significance of the study…..…………………………………………. 14 Scope and limitations…………………………………………………. 16 Organization of study……………………………………...…………. 17 Chapter 2: Literature Review………………………………………. 19 Introduction……………………………………………………..…….. 19 Multiple perspectives on telework literature…………………….…… 19 Organizational and motivational influences on telework programs….. 21 Societal influences on telework programs………………………… 22 Regulatory influences on telework……………………….……….. 24 HRM influences on telework………………..…………………..… 27 Telework program design…………….………………………….…… 30 Design aspects of flexible work arrangements……………….…… 33 Changing types and roles of telework…………………………….. 36 Patterns and themes within telework literature……………………….. 36 Trust in the telework environment ………………………………... 37 Influence of isolation in a telework environment ………………… 40 Telework program support and teleworker support………….……. 43 Measuring telework performance and feedback……………..……. 45 Employee development in a telework environment……………..... 48 Employee motivations for selecting telework…………………….. 50 Work relationship dynamics: Teleworkers and non-teleworkers…. 52 Flexibility of telework arrangements……………………………… 54 Relationship of themes in telework literature……………….…….. 56 Measuring telework outcomes.......................................................... 57 Organizational culture and telework organizational commitment …… 61 Telework literature links to organizational commitment…….……….. 65 Summary observations…………………………………………..……. 66 Summary of propositions ………………………………………….…. 68 Conceptual framework and conceptual model……………………….. 69 Narrative of the conceptual model………………..………………. 71 Individual and organization forces………………….…………..… 73 Telework variables from individual perspective………………...…… 74 Telework variables from organizational perspective……………….… 77 vi Applicability of the conceptual model………………………………... 78 Limitations of the conceptual model…………………………………. 79 Development of thesis statements…..………………………………... 80 Chapter 3: Research Methods …………………………………...… 81 Traditional literature review and systematic review approaches…..… 81 Research question and thesis statements ………………………….…. 84 Systematic review methodology……………………………………… 84 Systematic review protocol…………………………………………… 87 Data collection………………………………………………….…….. 88 Search strings and keywords……………………………………...….. 93 Process for analysis and synthesis…………………………….……… 94 Screening criteria……………………………………………………... 96 PRISMA diagram…………………………………………………….. 97 Evaluation criteria and weight of evidence……………………..……. 99 Limitations of systematic reviews……………………………………. 100 Summary of results………………………………………….………... 103 Chapter 4: Findings…………………………………………………. 104 Thesis statements……………………………………………..………. 104 Fit of findings with thesis statements………………………….……... 105 Process description: Synthesis as part of SR protocol………………... 106 Process description: Configurative synthesis and realist approach…... 107 Process description: Context, mechanism, outcome………………….. 108 Synthesis approach…………………………………………………… 109 Synthesis of findings: Motivation…………………………………..… 110 Types of telework motivation: HRM influences…………..……… 112 Individual level motivations for telework…………………………. 113 Societal and legal motivations for telework………………………. 114 Productivity motivation for telework………………………….…... 116 Synthesis of findings: Trust…………………………………..………. 117 Evidence of trust within telework…………………………………. 118 Trust in support of stakeholder relationships…………………..…. 119 Teleworker trust and organizational commitment………………… 122 Synthesis of findings: Results orientation………………………….... 123 Outcomes of telework programs……..…………………..…..…… 124 Telework program design influences on outcomes…………..…… 124 Use of MBOs as an evaluation approach in telework programs….. 126 Limitations of findings interpretations……………………………….. 127 Summary of findings…………………………………………………. 130 Chapter 5: Implications of findings………………………...……… 132 Implications for practice……………………………………………… 132 Suggestions for future research………………………………….…… 138 References……………………………………………………..……... 140 Appendix………………………………………..…………….……… 156 Appendix A: Keyword search strings……………………………... 156 Appendix B: Publication date range for sources………………….. 157 vii Appendix C: PRISMA diagram………………….…..…………… 158 Appendix D: List of journals used in the research……...………… 159 Appendix E: Evidence coverage of main themes……….………… 160 Appendix F: Evidence summary by source……………….………. 161 Appendix G: Work in progress document sent to SME…...……… 169 Appendix H: Subject matter expert comments ..………….………. 174 viii List of Tables Table 1. Management theories and their contribution to research problem……………….. 8 Table 2. Summary of propositions…………………………………………………………. 68 Table 3. Data collection…………..……………………………………………………….. 88 Table 4. Search strings and keywords………………………..……………………………. 93 Table 5. Screening criteria …………………………………………………………...…… 96 Table 6. Weight of evidence checklist…………………………………………………...… 100 Table 7. Coding framework……………………………………………………………...… 109 Table 8. Motivation evidence support……………...………….………………………...… 111 Table 9. Trust evidence support……………………………………………………………. 117 Table 10. Results orientation evidence support …………………………………………… 123 Table 11. Suggestions for telework practice……………………………………………….. 137 List of Graphs and Figures Figure 1. Conceptual model…………………………….…………………………………. 70 Figure 2. PRISMA diagram research process …….…………….…………………...…… 98 Figure 3. Limitations extract……………………………………………………………….. 128 ix List of Abbreviations ADA: Americans with Disability Act of 1990 CMO: context, mechanism, outcome EBR: evidence-based research FWA: flexible work arrangement GAO: US Government Accountability Office HRM: human resource management ICT: information and communication technology IP: intellectual property ISP: internet service provider IT: information technology MBO: management by objective OC: organizational commitment OPM: US Office of Personnel Management OSHA: US Occupational Safety & Health Administration PTO: US Patent and Trademark Office R&D: research and development Title IX: a section of amendments in the Equal Opportunity in Education Act of 1972 WofE: weight of evidence WLB: work-life balance WFC: work-family conflict WTO: World Trade Organization 1 Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Problem Background Telework is a contemporary management strategy. The growing use and acceptance in the workplace suggest a high and growing level of relevance for management practitioners. The technology that enables current telework approaches is more affordable and more reliable than earlier remote worksite tools. Reliable, high-speed, high-capacity and relatively low cost internet connections are widely available in most parts of the United States. The hardware costs to organizations and individuals are more affordable and less speculative investments compared to previous versions of technology. Additionally, contemporary organizations and individuals possess the knowledge, skill and ability to effectively and efficiently use telework technology. Digital natives, who have been raised using technology in most aspects of daily life, are becoming significant contributors within many organizations. As telework program become more widely adopted in public and private sector organizations, managers can leverage awareness and research to better analyze telework risk and uncertainty. Telework activity influences a wide range of organizational dimensions and behaviors including trust, motivation, organizational structures, leadership, strategy and performance metrics. As such, the risks, disadvantages and costs associated with telework are attracting diverse disciplinary assessment and evaluation. The current research recognizes the study problem and offers a focused analysis of key concepts that lead to an essential outcome for management practitioners: organizational commitment. 2 The contemporary operating environment fosters telework behavior. A flattened global marketplace, workplace and workforce provide additional drivers of telework practice and adoption. The flattened global marketplace can include numerous dimensions relevant to the current research question and management problem of telework. Thomas Friedman (2012) suggested the availability of personal computers is a “flattener” (p. 363). Flatness weakens geographic limitations and barriers, which telework also addresses. In addition to technology advancements, international trade is another flattening characteristic and trade agreements can foster trade and investment. The World Trade Organization observed regional trading agreements have become “increasingly prevalent since the early 1990’s” and 379 regional trade agreements are in force (Regional Trade Agreements, 2013). Telework may enable regional and cross national trade by addressing spatial, temporal and team composition challenges. Telework has wide ranging implications for stakeholders such as employees, families, clients and suppliers, non-teleworkers in the organization, supervisors and managers as well as the broader society. These relationships share a dynamic landscape of relationships and cascading implications. Generally, telework can mitigate limitations of geography, time or physical presence (Offstein, Morwick, & Koskinen, 2010, p. 32) and these benefits are attractive to many organizations. The scope of telework is significant as 31% of all federal employees are eligible for telework (U.S. OPM, 2012, p. 37) while about 20% of the total American adult working population telework (Leybovich, 2012). Eighty-one percent of all Americans use the internet while there are more than two billion mobile broadband subscriptions in the world (ICT, 2013, p. 6). Technology fluency, adoption, acceptance and integration may suggest telework is not a temporary fad or phenomenon, rather is becoming more accepted and integrated across organizations, industries, regions and contexts. 3 Innovative technology has enabled organizations to deploy telework strategies and tactics. A range of desired outcomes and approaches have been explored within telework research. Organizations could use telework strategies and mechanisms to attract and retain workers from a global talent pool. As telework might not be spatially centralized or geographically concentrated, teleworkers may be drawn from areas, regions or countries that may otherwise may not have been feasible. Telework teams could be comprised of niche experts. In addition to tactical and operational dimensions, telework may be a source of competitive advantage for some organizations. Telework may facilitate attraction, retention and integration of a global talent pool. Telework could allow an organization to embed team members within a supplier or partner network. The human resource and collaboration benefits of telework could be a competitive advantage if other organizations lack comparable operations. Alternatively, if an organization lacks telework components while competitors or other actors in the business environment operate successful telework programs, normative forces could support an effort to devise and implement a telework program. As telework continues to gain acceptance into the American workplace, complex organizational changes may occur. Behaviors, structures, relationships and tactics may shift or morph as telework dimensions become more embedded within the organization. Some aspects may provide an advantage or deliver a benefit while other aspects may be a disadvantage or incur costs. For example, a telework team could be composed of individuals with deep expertise but are located in multiple time zones so coordination hurdles may emerge. The team could be collocated to eliminate the time zone challenges while trading individual and collective experience. This simple example portrays the continual analysis of the forces of telework within an organization and the individual. The dimensions include perspectives and emotions which 4 could be difficult to measure and quantify. Both metrics include subjective approaches which may vary between individuals and organizations. For example, one employee may enjoy the flexibility of a telework program while another employee in the same organization may dislike a perceived lack of supervisory direction. The goal of the following research will examine the causal relationships of telework to organizational commitment. Specifically, what will be the implications of telework on organizational commitment? Management literature provides several definitions of organizational commitment relevant to a telework program. Organizational commitment addresses a person’s attitudes towards the organization while job satisfaction includes a person’s attitudes towards her job (Madlock, 2012, p. 201). Classical organizational commitment factors include normative (obligation), affective (desire) and continuance (need) types of commitment (Allen & Meyer, 1990, p. 1). In addition, organizational commitment may be characterized by a strong belief in and acceptance of an organization’s goals and values including a willingness, desire and attachment. Organizational commitment might factor into job satisfaction, role stress, empowerment, individual performance as well as organizational performance, employee turnover and attraction. Problem statement Studies on telework have been scattered among diverse disciplines such as computer science, economics, education, information technology and sociology (Brittany & MacDonnell, 2012, p. 603). Each field or industry may have varied critical success factors or different desirable outcomes. Are specific industries or job roles more compatible with telework compared to other industries, organizational structures, job types or roles? Telework may require a change in performance measurement from a process-oriented to a results-oriented approach. This shift 5 will be analyzed within the following examination but provides a specific example of disciplinary specific frameworks. The relationship of organizational commitment to job satisfaction is an important dynamic for individuals and management. The current research explores these dimensions. Does job satisfaction drive organizational commitment or will lack of any relationship be observed? When the causal relationship is viewed from a lens influenced by telework, the management implications could be uniquely challenging. Madlock (2013) suggests “very little” is known about telework which is an “increasingly popular work arrangement” (p. 198). Additionally, limited academic research has investigated the association between telework and employee commitment (Piper, 2004, p. 48). By examining the individual components, identifying potential links and applying theoretical and practice dimensions, management may better understand the relationship between telework and employee commitment. Literature that informs the problem Telework literature spans a range of perspectives, management theories, industries and contexts. The literature informs different aspects and components of the study problem. Some disciplines may be better suited for telework than other disciplines. These contextual elements will be explored and analyzed within the current research. A changing, evolving workplace and its stakeholders present challenging management issues. Industries are adapting and leveraging telework and information communication technology, or ICT. For example, while telework might be expected within a design process at a computer firm such as Sun Microsystems or as part of a strategy to manage call centers at JetBlue airlines,

The role of nationality in workers' experience with culturally diverse teams: An exploratory case study

Author: Phillips David S.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2016
Field of study

Growing globalization and changing demographics are increasing the occurrences of nationally diverse teams. These diverse teams are an important tool for multinational enterprises and other organizations operating internationally. Diversity on teams has been positively and negatively associated with performance and satisfaction. A number of factors have been shown to influence these associations including the type of diversity, the environment within which the teams operate, the relationship and task conflict, and the perception of cooperative norms. National culture itself affects individual and group behavior in complex ways. Nationally diverse teams must communicate and coordinate even as differing national culture disrupts that very communication and coordination. Individuals from Germany, the United States, and the People’s Republic of China were interviewed and their experiences in similar nationally diverse and nondiverse teams were compared to identify how national diversity was perceived and how it affected their behavior and feelings about the team. Significant differences were suggested in how individuals of different national background are affected by national diversity. Although the participants were aware of the diversity in the international teams, the Peoples Republic Chinese participants ascribed no differences in approach or behavior within the teams because of national culture. Most of the American and German participants were aware of positive and negative influences on the teams from national diversity, the experiences of one of the Americans suggest more difficulty in managing issues of trust and expectation for those of American national culture. Although the influences of national culture can be anticipated and partially understood using comparisons of national culture and observation, the nature of culture’s influence can significantly influence individuals before they are aware of it.i The Role of Nationality in Workers’ Experience with Culturally Diverse Teams: An Exploratory Case Study David S. Phillips A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College In Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Management August 2016 Dissertation Committee: Leslie Dinauer, Ph.D. James Gelatt, Ph.D. ii ABSTRACT Growing globalization and changing demographics are increasing the occurrences of nationally diverse teams. These diverse teams are an important tool for multinational enterprises and other organizations operating internationally. Diversity on teams has been positively and negatively associated with performance and satisfaction. A number of factors have been shown to influence these associations including the type of diversity, the environment within which the teams operate, the relationship and task conflict, and the perception of cooperative norms. National culture itself affects individual and group behavior in complex ways. Nationally diverse teams must communicate and coordinate even as differing national culture disrupts that very communication and coordination. Individuals from Germany, the United States, and the People’s Republic of China were interviewed and their experiences in similar nationally diverse and nondiverse teams were compared to identify how national diversity was perceived and how it affected their behavior and feelings about the team. Significant differences were suggested in how individuals of different national background are affected by national diversity. Although the participants were aware of the diversity in the international teams, the Peoples Republic Chinese participants ascribed no differences in approach or behavior within the teams because of national culture. Most of the American and German participants were aware of positive and negative influences on the teams from national diversity, the experiences of one of the Americans suggest more difficulty in managing issues of trust and expectation for those of American national culture. Although the influences of national culture can be anticipated and partially understood using iii comparisons of national culture and observation, the nature of culture’s influence can significantly influence individuals before they are aware of it. iv Copyright David S. Phillips 2016 v v Dedication I dedicate this dissertation to my son, Steve. He was with us for a short 26 years. He made me feel older, my life richer, and the abyss of eternity nearer. He was a mathematician, musician, artist, entrepreneur, fire performer, card shark, American Henro, friend, grandson, uncle, brother, and son. He was quite something and his memory calls me to a bigger life. vi Acknowledgements I am reminded of Paul’s description of himself in the first letter to the Corinthians as “the least of the apostles” and one “untimely born.” This has been a long road for me, and I have received much help. My parents, Scott and Charlene Phillips, gave me a childhood with experiences at Army posts throughout the south, Colorado, and Germany. I think those were the beginnings of my interest in how culture affects people. My wife, Lesley, and children, Valerie, Steve, and Angela, gave up time and attention for this effort and I did not realize how much time and attention it would be. My colleagues at work, Brenda Bruker and Thomas Kaus, gave me a unique opportunity to work closely with teams in the Americas, Europe, and Asia. My study group (Cate Loes, Lydia Henshaw, Ingrid Fray, and Len Pick) was simply amazing. We learned, suffered, and grew together. I do not think we had the slightest idea what good friendships would come from this program. Finally, I acknowledge my wise, kind, and persistent dissertation advisors, Dr. Leslie Dinauer and Dr. James Gelatt. You helped me think, encouraged me to continue, and stayed with me to the end. I think there should be a medal of some kind for meritorious dissertation advice above and beyond. Thank you. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xiii List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xiii List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................. xiv Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Prologue .................................................................................................................. 1 The Broader Context of the Question ..................................................................... 2 The Volume of International Business Is Increasing .................................. 2 Cross-Cultural Challenges and Opportunities Increase .............................. 3 Research Question .................................................................................................. 7 Scope of This Exploration ...................................................................................... 8 Introduction to Key Terms ...................................................................................... 9 National Culture .......................................................................................... 9 Groups and Teams .................................................................................... 10 Summary ............................................................................................................... 12 Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................ 13 Culture................................................................................................................... 13 How National Cultures Differ ................................................................... 14 Potential Effects of National Culture on Teams ....................................... 18 Social Identity ....................................................................................................... 20 Teams .................................................................................................................... 24 Stages of the Team ................................................................................................ 25 viii Effects of Team Heterogeneity ............................................................................. 31 Diversity Has Mixed Associations with Team Effectiveness ................... 32 Differentiating Types and Effects of Diversity ..................................................... 35 Surface-level and Deep-Level Diversity ................................................... 35 Context ...................................................................................................... 38 Effects of National Diversity on Teams ................................................................ 40 Satisfaction and Performance in Diverse Teams ...................................... 47 Sources of Satisfaction .......................................................................................... 50 Theoretical Model ................................................................................................. 52 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 59 Chapter 3: Methods ........................................................................................................... 61 Research Question ................................................................................................ 61 Research Design .................................................................................................... 61 Participants ............................................................................................................ 65 Comparison of Participant National Cultures ........................................... 67 Limitations ............................................................................................................ 73 Informed Consent.................................................................................................. 73 Confidentiality ...................................................................................................... 74 Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 74 Opening Interview Questions ............................................................................... 76 Topics for Follow-Up ........................................................................................... 77 Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 79 Data Analysis Plan ................................................................................................ 79 ix Coding and Analysis ................................................................................. 79 External Validity ................................................................................................... 82 Conclusion and Summary ..................................................................................... 83 Chapter 4: Results and Analysis ....................................................................................... 84 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 84 Presentation ........................................................................................................... 84 Adam – American ..................................................................................... 84 Nationally diverse team experience .............................................. 84 Nationally nondiverse team experience ........................................ 86 Logistical and relational differences ............................................. 86 Identification with the teams ......................................................... 87 Salience of national diversity ........................................................ 90 Satisfaction.................................................................................... 91 Summary ....................................................................................... 91 Angela – American ................................................................................... 92 Nationally diverse team experience .............................................. 92 Nationally nondiverse team experience ........................................ 93 Logistical and relational differences ............................................. 93 Identification with the teams ......................................................... 94 Salience of national diversity ........................................................ 95 Satisfaction.................................................................................... 95 Summary ....................................................................................... 95 Charles – People’s Republic Chinese ....................................................... 96 x Nationally diverse team experience .............................................. 96 Nationally nondiverse team experience ........................................ 96 Logistical and relational differences ............................................. 96 Identification with the teams ......................................................... 96 Salience of national diversity ........................................................ 98 Satisfaction.................................................................................... 99 Summary ....................................................................................... 99 Colleen – People’s Republic Chinese ....................................................... 99 Nationally diverse team experience .............................................. 99 Nationally nondiverse team experience ...................................... 100 Logistical and relational differences ........................................... 100 Identification with the teams ....................................................... 101 Salience of national diversity ...................................................... 101 Satisfaction.................................................................................. 102 Summary ..................................................................................... 102 Gary – German ........................................................................................ 104 Nationally diverse team experience ............................................ 104 Nationally nondiverse team experience ...................................... 104 Logistical and relational differences ........................................... 104 Identification with the teams ....................................................... 105 Salience of national diversity ...................................................... 107 Satisfaction.................................................................................. 107 Summary ..................................................................................... 108 xi George – German .................................................................................... 108 Nationally diverse team experience ............................................ 108 Nationally nondiverse team experience ...................................... 109 Logistical and relational differences ........................................... 109 Identification with the teams ....................................................... 109 Salience of national diversity ...................................................... 110 Satisfaction.................................................................................. 111 Summary ..................................................................................... 111 Gerald – German ..................................................................................... 111 Nationally diverse team experience ............................................ 111 Nationally nondiverse team experience ...................................... 112 Logistical and relational differences ........................................... 112 Identification with the teams ....................................................... 112 Salience of national diversity ...................................................... 113 Satisfaction.................................................................................. 113 Summary ..................................................................................... 113 Summary ............................................................................................................. 114 Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions and Recommendations .......................................... 117 Summary of the Study ........................................................................................ 117 National Diversity in Teams Required More Effort ............................... 117 Nationally Diverse Teams Had to Work Harder to Communicate Effectively ............................................................................................... 118 xii National Cultures Were Affected by Diversity Within Teams Differently ............................................................................................... 121 The Study in Context .......................................................................................... 123 Recommendations for Practitioners .................................................................... 126 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 129 Epilogue .............................................................................................................. 130 References ....................................................................................................................... 133 xiii LIST OF TABLES 1 Summary of Findings for American Participants .................................................... 88 2 Summary of Findings for People’s Republic Chinese Participants ......................... 98 3 Summary of Findings for German Participants ..................................................... 105 LIST OF FIGURES 1 Theoretical model of team function. ........................................................................ 57 2 Graphical comparison of national cultural practices scores .................................... 68 3 Graphical comparison of national cultural values scores ........................................ 69 xiv LIST OF ACRONYMS CATPAC – (CATegory PACkage) a self-organizing neural network software package used in text analysis EFl – English as a first language ESL – English as a second language EIP – employee involvement programs GLOBE – Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Research Program I–P–O – input–process–output MNE – multinational enterprise SKU – stock keeping unit UNCTAD – United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Prologue Recently, I was tasked with communicating the needs of some Australian customers to my firm’s German customization group. We were on the verge of winning a

1 million tender in Australia. The order hinged on our ability to add an additional service access panel to 10 units of one of our products comprising a small part of the overall project. Our customization group had a reputation for being difficult. Somehow, the things that the German sales team wanted could be done, but the modifications requested by the non-European customers were not possible. However, this was a very simple task and the importance to the company was great, so I did not anticipate any difficulties. After we gathered in a small, stand-up, conference room, the representative for the customization group, pointed out that the modification was not allowed on the European versions of the product. He went on to explain how the best way forward would be to explain to the Australians how what they wanted was not a good idea and that they should purchase the unmodified German design. I explained that the modification was actually the standard approach in Australia and that it was even required in the Australian national standards for this type of product. Furthermore, as a global supplier it was to be expected that we would need to modify our offerings for different markets. The representative reiterated the German view of the Australian approach. After reminding him that the Australians might care more about compliance with Australian standards than German standards, I presented my most compelling argument. I told him that a larger order valued at over

1 million relied on our ability to provide this modification. I 2 said that it was very unlikely that our leadership would allow us to decline this order without a very compelling reason. I explained that, even if we decided not to do the modification, the sales teams in Australia would escalate the issue high enough so that, eventually, our upper management would call us back together and tell us to do it. Why not just move to determining how to do this order, rather than wasting time thinking that we had a choice? He paused and finally said he would have to discuss this with head of the customization group. A week later the head of the

Playing with fire: Constructive power of conflict

Author: Freeley Katarzyna D.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2016
Field of study

Conflict is inescapable in the current workplace and managers spend a significant amount of their time managing and mediating disagreements. Additionally, due to changing internal and external factors, conflict will intensify in the next decade. The following trends will fuel the pace of conflict: faster pace of business, globalization, workforce diversity, misunderstandings driven by communication technology growth, and increased interdependency between coworkers. In the early management scholarship, conflict was perceived as destructive and unnecessary in organizational life. However, currently it has been stressed that moderate levels of task conflict increase productivity, creativity, innovation, and effectiveness. Conflict, just like fire, can be either destructive or constructive: the challenge is how to harness the beneficial side of task conflict effectively and diminish undesirable personal conflict within organizations. Therefore, this study determines how an organization’s culture influences constructive conflict management in nonunion organizations. This study used evidence-based, thematic research synthesis and analyzed 50 empirical studies. Furthermore, the main theses of this research study propose that an overall collaborative culture, motivational and inspirational leadership, structure that promotes flatter reporting hierarchies and open communication processes support constructive conflict management. Furthermore, leadership’s conflict style preference, organizational culture, and structure form an overall conflict culture. Therefore, leaders who inspire and motivate followers to work cooperatively toward a goal create a collaborative conflict culture. Additionally, constructive conflict management is enhanced by organizational learning.PLAYING WITH FIRE: CONSTRUCTIVE POWER OF CONFLICT By Katarzyna D. Freeley Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management 2015 Advisory Committee: Dr. Thomas J. Mierzwa Dr. Denise A. Breckon ii © Copyright by Katarzyna D. Freeley 2015 iii iv Abstract Conflict is inescapable in the current workplace and managers spend a significant amount of their time managing and mediating disagreements. Additionally, due to changing internal and external factors, conflict will intensify in the next decade. The following trends will fuel the pace of conflict: faster pace of business, globalization, workforce diversity, misunderstandings driven by communication technology growth, and increased interdependency between coworkers. In the early management scholarship, conflict was perceived as destructive and unnecessary in organizational life. However, currently it has been stressed that moderate levels of task conflict increase productivity, creativity, innovation, and effectiveness. Conflict, just like fire, can be either destructive or constructive: the challenge is how to harness the beneficial side of task conflict effectively and diminish undesirable personal conflict within organizations. Therefore, this study determines how an organization’s culture influences constructive conflict management in nonunion organizations. This study used evidence-based, thematic research synthesis and analyzed 50 empirical studies. Furthermore, the main theses of this research study propose that an overall collaborative culture, motivational and inspirational leadership, and structure that promote flatter reporting hierarchies and open communication processes support constructive conflict management. Furthermore, leadership’s conflict style preference, organizational culture, and structure form an overall conflict culture. Therefore, leaders who inspire and motivate followers to work cooperatively toward a goal create a collaborative conflict culture. Additionally, constructive conflict management is enhanced by organizational learning. Keywords: conflict management, leadership, organizational culture, organizational structure v Acknowledgments I acknowledge and am thankful for the direction and support of the following people. Specifically, I want to express my gratitude for the contributions of: My dissertation advisors, Dr. Thomas Mierzwa and Dr. Denise Breckon, for their ongoing guidance, mentoring, and encouragement to reach the end of this doctoral journey, and our teaching assistant, Dr. Wagner; The other professors and staff at UMUC, especially Dr. Claudine Schweber who instilled conflict management in me, and Cynthia Thomes who tirelessly helped me with the puzzles of online searches; My cohort friends, who helped me through the ups and downs of classwork as well as the dissertation process, and always provided me with consolation during difficult times; The subject matter experts who provided me with their expertise and encouraged me to stretch my horizons; and The doctoral program at UMUC for creating a program that enabled a working professional to pursue the educational journey to a doctoral degree. vi Dedication I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my family, as this effort is not an individual undertaking and this took the whole Freeley and Witkowska Family to achieve this degree. To my great husband, James Patrick, for believing in me and his ongoing help with family affairs, taking our kids to all the birthday parties and remembering parent-teacher conferences. To my wonderful children, Claire and Andrew, I hope that I was able to give you an example that education is the most precious thing that you can accomplish in life and that one never stops learning. To my super in-laws, Drs. Mary Ellen and Jim Freeley, for their continuous mentoring and motivation. To my loving mother, Wacka, for her never-ending care and encouragement. To my beloved father, Andrzej, for his inspiration and everlasting protection; and for his memory to live on forever in my work that attempts to bridge management and law. I am so grateful to be your wife, mother, daughter-in-law, and daughter. I love you all. vii Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... v Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... xii List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. xiii Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Problem .............................................................................. 1 Problem Domain ......................................................................................................................... 2 Research Gap and Opportunity ................................................................................................... 4 Scope .......................................................................................................................................... 5 Limitations ................................................................................................................................. 5 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................... 6 Significance to Management ....................................................................................................... 6 Research Question ..................................................................................................................... 10 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 11 Chapter 2: Literature Review and Conceptual Model .................................................................. 12 Critical Analysis of Literature Themes ..................................................................................... 13 Organizational Culture .............................................................................................................. 13 Leadership ................................................................................................................................ 16 Structure ................................................................................................................................... 18 Conflict in Organizations .......................................................................................................... 20 Cooperation and Competition Theory ....................................................................................... 21 viii Cooperation ........................................................................................................................... 22 Problem Solving .................................................................................................................... 22 Principled Negotiation ........................................................................................................... 23 Competition ........................................................................................................................... 24 Dual Concern Theory ................................................................................................................ 25 Conflict Cultures ....................................................................................................................... 28 Formal Employee Voice Mechanisms ...................................................................................... 30 Organizational Learning Theory ............................................................................................... 33 Theses and Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................... 35 Research Theses ........................................................................................................................ 38 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 38 Chapter 3: Method ........................................................................................................................ 39 Research Design ........................................................................................................................ 39 Research Process ....................................................................................................................... 41 Review Question and Methodology .......................................................................................... 43 Search Strategy and Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria ..................................................................... 45 Description of Study Characteristics ......................................................................................... 49 Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis ................................... 52 Identification ............................................................................................................................. 53 Screening .................................................................................................................................. 53 Eligibility .................................................................................................................................. 53 Included .................................................................................................................................... 53 Considerations From the Subject Matter Expert Panel ............................................................. 54 ix Summary of Results .................................................................................................................. 55 Synthesis of Results .................................................................................................................. 56 Word Tag Cloud ........................................................................................................................ 59 Validity ..................................................................................................................................... 60 Limitations ............................................................................................................................... 61 Using Reviews.......................................................................................................................... 62 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 62 Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ................................................................................................. 63 Organizational Culture .............................................................................................................. 64 Collaboration in Conflict Management ................................................................................. 64 Trust in Conflict Management ............................................................................................... 66 Problem Solving in Conflict Management ............................................................................ 67 Conflict Effects on Job Satisfaction and Well-Being ............................................................ 68 Diversity Considerations in Conflict Management ............................................................... 69 Leadership and Conflict Management ...................................................................................... 70 Leader’s Personal Conflict Management Style ..................................................................... 70 Emotional Intelligence and Power ......................................................................................... 73 Ongoing Feedback as a Conflict Management Mechanism .................................................. 74 Transformational (Motivational) Leadership ........................................................................ 75 Organizational Structure ........................................................................................................... 76 Collaborative Conflict Management ..................................................................................... 77 Power Structure and Conflict Management ........................................................................... 78 Alternative Viewpoints and Conflict Management ............................................................... 79 x Conflict Cultures Within Conflict Management ....................................................................... 80 Organizational Learning Facilitates Conflict Management ...................................................... 84 Creating Constructive Conflict in Organizations ...................................................................... 89 Collaborative (Cooperative) Conflict Culture ....................................................................... 90 Formal and Informal Voice Mechanisms .............................................................................. 92 Formal voice mechanism ....................................................................................................... 92 Informal voice mechanism .................................................................................................... 93 Postsynthesis Conceptual Model ............................................................................................... 95 Limitations of Interpretation of This Study............................................................................... 97 Summary of Findings ................................................................................................................ 98 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 99 Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ................................................................................... 100 Overall Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 100 Implications for Management Practice ................................................................................... 102 Embrace Conflict as a Constructive Force .......................................................................... 102 Foster Collaborative Conflict Cultures ................................................................................ 105 Encourage Inspiring and Motivating Leadership ................................................................ 108 Design Flatter, Less Bureaucratic Structures ...................................................................... 112 Facilitate Organizational Learning ...................................................................................... 114 Employ training. .................................................................................................................. 115 Encourage organizational change. ....................................................................................... 116 Establish and Advertise Formal Voice Mechanisms ........................................................... 117 Framework for Conflict Management Practitioners................................................................ 119 xi Additional Considerations ....................................................................................................... 121 Implications for Future Research ............................................................................................ 123 Summary Observations ........................................................................................................... 126 References .................................................................................................................................. 128 Appendix A ................................................................................................................................ 144 UMUC One Search Databases Listings ...................................................................................... 144 Appendix B ................................................................................................................................ 145 Extraction Form and Quality Assessment Matrix ....................................................................... 145 Appendix C ................................................................................................................................ 151 Descriptive Statistics ................................................................................................................... 151 Appendix D ................................................................................................................................ 156 Themes Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 156 Appendix E ................................................................................................................................ 158 Expert Panel Feedback ................................................................................................................ 158 Appendix F................................................................................................................................. 160 Study Finding Related to Review Themes.................................................................................. 160 xii List of Tables Table 1. Keyword Searches .......................................................................................................... 47 Table 2. Rationale for Including/Excluding Articles in the Systematic Review .......................... 49 Table 3. Quality Appraisal Ratings ............................................................................................... 51 Table 4. Theme/Subtheme Codes Overview ................................................................................ 52 Table 5. Journal Breakdowns by Discipline ................................................................................. 52 Table 6. Breakdown of Studies by Methodology ......................................................................... 53 Table 7. Selections of Expert Panel Members Credentials ........................................................... 55 xiii List of Figures Figure 1. Conceptual Model of Organizational Culture and its Influence on Constructive Conflict Management .................................................................................................... 37 Figure 2. Common Stages of the Systematic Review ................................................................... 43 Figure 3. The Number of Articles Published Per Year 1961–2014 .............................................. 48 Figure 4. PRISMA Diagram of Preferred Reporting for Systematic Reviews ............................. 54 Figure 5. Number of Articles Per Theme ...................................................................................... 58 Figure 6. Factors Facilitating Conflict Management ....................................................................

Corporate culture's influence on employee charitable giving and volunteering

Author: Todd Russell W.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2016
Field of study

Charitable giving and volunteering by employees are influenced by corporate culture. In this study, the researcher examined employee charitable giving and volunteering, using stakeholder theory as a lens, and using evidence-based research as its methodology. Using the research question, the researcher (a) asked how a corporate culture created barriers or facilitators to employee charitable giving and volunteering; and (b) in examining the evidence to answer the research question, revealed that corporate culture set the tone for an organization’s employee behavior; and (c) that those behaviors included barriers and facilitators of employee charitable giving and volunteering. It was found that corporate culture, in conjunction with the employee’s desire to be altruistic, could foster or influence employee charitable giving and volunteering, and that corporate leadership was a key factor in employee engagement or disengagement with charitable giving and volunteering in the workplace. Successful engagement and implementation of employee giving and volunteering could provide the firm with the opportunity to help guide employees’ behavior, aligning them with stakeholder interests. Understanding these organizational facilitators and barriers could aid management’s ability to integrate stakeholder goals within the corporate social responsibility (CSR) strategies. Although it was only one aspect of the CSR strategies, employee charitable giving and volunteering could help the organization to develop effective community ties, which might further the firm’s image and reputation.Corporate Culture’s Influence on Employee Charitable Giving and Volunteering By Russell W. Todd A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College in Partial Fulfillment of the The Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management Study Committee Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D. James P. Gelatt, Ph.D. December 2015 Employee Charitable Giving and Volunteering ii Corporate Culture’s Influence on Employee Charitable Giving and Volunteering By Russell W. Todd A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College in Partial Fulfillment of the The Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management Study Committee Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D. James P. Gelatt, Ph.D. December 2015 ABSTRACT Charitable giving and volunteering by employees are influenced by corporate culture. In this study, the researcher examined employee charitable giving and volunteering, using stakeholder theory as a lens, and using evidence-based research as its methodology. Using the research question, the researcher (a) asked how a corporate culture created barriers or facilitators to employee charitable giving and volunteering; and (b) in examining the evidence to answer the research question, revealed that corporate culture set the tone for an organization’s employee behavior; and (c) that those behaviors included barriers and facilitators of employee charitable giving and volunteering. It was found that corporate culture, in conjunction with the employee’s desire to be altruistic, could foster or influence employee charitable giving and volunteering, and that corporate leadership was a key factor in employee engagement or disengagement with charitable giving and volunteering in the workplace. Successful engagement and implementation of employee giving and volunteering could provide the firm with the opportunity to help Employee Charitable Giving and Volunteering iii guide employees’ behavior, aligning them with stakeholder interests. Understanding these organizational facilitators and barriers could aid management’s ability to integrate stakeholder goals within the corporate social responsibility (CSR) strategies. Although it was only one aspect of the CSR strategies, employee charitable giving and volunteering could help the organization to develop effective community ties, which might further the firm’s image and reputation. Keywords: employee charitable giving, corporate culture, volunteering, stakeholder theory, corporate social responsibility Copyright© Russell W. Todd 2015 v Dedication This dissertation is dedicated, To my wife Annette who gave up five years of time together, while I pondered this subject. vi Acknowledgements Thanks to the Lord Jesus Christ, for His sustaining mercy and wisdom that He granted, while allowing me to accomplish this journey. All praise be to Him forever. Thanks to my loving wife Annette who has stood beside me, supporting, sacrificing, and showing extreme patience during my doctoral education. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my study advisory committee, Dr. Kathleen Edwards and Dr. James Gelatt, for their support, mentorship, guidance, and continued enthusiasm about this research. Thank you to Dr. Edwards, my primary advisor, without your encouragement and honest feedback, I would still be mired in the muck of scholarly research with no study completed. Dr. Gelatt, thank you for your encouraging comments and mentoring. I would like to thank Dr. Katherine Stipicevic for advice and guidance about charitable giving. Your guidance provided valuable suggestions, which helped my journey along the pathway of scholarly pursuits. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Introduction and Context ........................................................................................ 1 Significance of the Problem .................................................................................... 4 Importance to Management .................................................................................... 7 Research Question .................................................................................................. 8 Propositions............................................................................................................. 8 Definitions............................................................................................................... 9 Organization of the Study ..................................................................................... 10 Chapter 2: Systematic Review of the Literature ............................................................... 13 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 13 Theoretical Basis ................................................................................................... 15 Summary of Scholarly Literature Linkages and Stakeholder Theory ...... 28 Employee Charitable Giving................................................................................. 28 Summary of Employee Charitable Giving Section ................................... 51 Employee Volunteering Literature ....................................................................... 52 Summary of Volunteering Literature ........................................................ 74 CSR and Volunteering Literature ......................................................................... 75 Summary of Corporate Social Responsibility and Volunteering Literature ................................................................................................... 90 Two Corporate Perspectives on Charitable Giving .............................................. 91 viii Summary of Chapter 2 .......................................................................................... 97 Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework ................................................................................... 99 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 99 Conceptual Model ................................................................................................. 99 Integration of Scholarship into the Framework .................................................. 101 Summary of Chapter 3 ........................................................................................ 103 Chapter 4: Methodology ................................................................................................. 104 Introduction to and Organization of the Chapter ................................................ 104 Evidence-Based Research Methodology ............................................................ 104 Evidence-Based Management ............................................................................. 105 Literature Sources and Selection ........................................................................ 107 Research Question and Propositions ................................................................... 108 Systematic Literature Search .............................................................................. 109 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ......................................................................... 110 Inclusion Criteria .................................................................................... 110 Exclusion Criteria ................................................................................... 110 Examination and Selection of Research ............................................................. 111 Weight of Evidence............................................................................................. 112 Article Relevance Appraisal ............................................................................... 114 Analysis and Synthesis of the Selected Research ............................................... 116 Examination of Research Results ....................................................................... 123 Full Text Screening of Documents ......................................................... 124 Results of Search Strategy ...................................................................... 125 Thematic Content Analysis ................................................................................. 126 ix Reliability of the Findings .................................................................................. 130 Subject Matter Experts ........................................................................................ 131 Summary of Chapter 4 ........................................................................................ 131 Chapter 5: Analysis and Discussion ............................................................................... 132 Introduction to Chapter ....................................................................................... 132 Presentation and Summary of Findings .............................................................. 133 Theoretical Basis and the Systematic Review .................................................... 134 View of Facilitator and Barrier Themes ................................................. 136 Research Question and Propositions in Light of Findings ................................. 147 The Relationship of Stakeholder Theory and Employee Charitable Giving and Volunteering: Proposition 1 ................................................. 149 Corporate Culture Sets the Tone of an Organization’s Employees’ Behavior: Proposition 2 .......................................................................... 151 Corporate Culture Fosters Employees’ Desire to Be Altruistic: Proposition 3 ........................................................................................... 155 Corporate Leadership Influences Corporate Culture: Proposition 4 ....... 156 Thematic Content Analysis ................................................................................. 158 Proposition 1: Stakeholder Theory and Charitable Giving and Volunteering ........................................................................................... 158 Proposition 2: Corporate Culture Barriers and Facilitators .................... 163 Proposition 3:Altruism and Workgroup Influence on Charitable Activities ................................................................................................. 167 Proposition 4: Leaders as a Key Factor Influencing Charitable Activities ................................................................................................. 168 x Summary of Thematic Content Analysis ................................................ 172 Summary of Findings and Conclusions .............................................................. 173 Considerations of Other Points of View ............................................................. 173 Summary of Chapter 5 ........................................................................................ 175 Chapter 6: Conclusions and Implications ....................................................................... 177 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 177 Overall Conclusions ............................................................................................ 177 Implications for Management ............................................................................. 180 Emerging Trends ................................................................................................. 183 Limitations of Study ........................................................................................... 185 Future Research Opportunities ........................................................................... 186 Summary of Chapter 6 ........................................................................................ 188 Summary of Study .............................................................................................. 188 References ....................................................................................................................... 197 Appendix A: Selected Comments from Expert Panel..................................................... 191 Appendix B: Brief Bio-sketches of Subject Matter Panel .............................................. 193 Appendix C: Stakeholder Word Frequency All Sources ................................................ 194 Appendix D: Facilitator and Barrier Word Frequency All Sources ............................... 195 Appendix E: Leadership Influence Charitable Giving and Volunteering Word Count .. 196 xi LIST OF TABLES 1 Definitions.................................................................................................................. 9 2 Survey Respondents Distribution by Opinion Leader Category .............................. 25 3 Percentage of Participants from 24 Companies ....................................................... 32 4 Houston Model 1...................................................................................................... 37 5 Houston Model 2...................................................................................................... 38 6 Industry Participants ................................................................................................ 46 7 Benefits for Employees’ Volunteering .................................................................... 54 8 Incentives for Employee Volunteering .................................................................... 54 9 Volunteer Function Inventory Factors ..................................................................... 59 10 Motivation Categories .............................................................................................. 89 11 Criteria Relevance Article Scoring Tool ................................................................ 114 12 Research Inclusion Review .................................................................................... 115 13 Sample of Full Text Entries Reviewed via Evidence Based Research Measures .. 118 14 Facilitator Themes and Associated Authors and Years ......................................... 138 15 Facilitator Themes Observed in 22 Articles Systematically Reviewed ................. 140 16 Barrier Themes in Regards to Employee Charitable Giving and Volunteering and Associated Authors/Years ............................................................................... 143 17 Facilitator Themes Observed in Articles Systematically Reviewed ...................... 145 18 Stakeholder Sample Word Count from Appendix C ............................................. 162 19 Altruism Word Count ............................................................................................ 167 20 Leadership’s Influence on Charitable Giving and Volunteering ........................... 169 21 Mini-Case Word Count Table ................................................................................ 171 xii LIST OF FIGURES 1 Conceptual Model, Employee Charitable Giving and Volunteering ..................... 100 2 Search Results. ....................................................................................................... 125 3 Analysis Schema .................................................................................................... 126 4 Coded Themes and References .............................................................................. 128 5 Word Cloud 5,000 Word Minimum Count ............................................................ 129 6 Word Cloud 1,000 Word Minimum Count for Charitable Giving Barriers .......... 130 7 Theories Utilized in Research Articles Included in this Systematic Review of the Literature .......................................................................................................... 136 8 Barriers and Facilitators ......................................................................................... 147 9 Stakeholder Theory in Relation to All Sources ..................................................... 159 10 Stakeholder Relationships Using Cluster Analysis Using the Sorenson Similarity Coefficient............................................................................................. 160 11 Stakeholder Dendrogram Using the Sorenson Similarity Coefficient. .................. 161 12 Linked Concepts of Barriers and Facilitators for Corporate Culture Word Cloud 164 13 Facilitator and Barriers’ Relationships in Corporate Culture Using a Cluster Analysis and the Sorenson Similarity Coefficient ................................................. 165 14 Dendrogram Facilitators and Barriers Terms Similarity ....................................... 166 15 Leadership’s Influence on Charitable Giving and Volunteering ........................... 170 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Introduction and Context In Western countries, companies increasingly extend their corporate social responsibility (CSR) through the actions of their employees in charitable giving and volunteering. Consumers and stakeholders of the company assume that organizations act in a socially responsible manner (de Gilder, Schuyt, & Breedijk, 2005). These stakeholder and societal impressions of the company can create a corporate culture that engages the organization and its employees in philanthropic activities. The opposite is also true; for example, Kenneth Lay, the chief executive officer (CEO), and other leaders misled the public about Enron, and the organizational culture was self-serving (Bryce, 2002). Employee charitable giving might include payroll deductions, donation of time (volunteering), and the donation of services (Payton & Moody, 2008). These actions of employees, in conjunction with their employer’s support, are considered philanthropic actions, and employee involvement in giving back to the community might demonstrate the company’s commitment to communities and social causes (Haski-Leventhal, 2012). The purpose of this study was to examine the role of corporate culture’s influence on employee charitable giving and volunteering. As a philanthropic strategy that flows from CSR, encouraging employee charitable giving and volunteering might link the firm to the community by extending the firm’s impact on various social issues. Volunteering, which originates from employees, might be influenced by organizations’ corporate culture (Henning, 2009). These employee philanthropic efforts might help shape the image of the firm in the eyes of the community and set the tone for future strategic interactions between stakeholders. The immersion of the employee in the corporate 2 culture through his or her usual work functions builds a common set of goals for the employee (Husted & Allen, 2008). Charitable giving and volunteering encourage employees to exercise their philanthropic interests, which might parallel corporate strategies that are a part of a firm’s commitment to CSR. Exploring the impact of corporate culture on employees’ charitable giving through stakeholder theory provides a perspective on the various barriers or facilitators to employee giving within an organization (Agle et al., 2008; Freeman & Reed, 1983). In examining CSR, Clarkson (1995) noted that stakeholder relationships could help guide management strategies that addressed social issues in the community. Agle et al. (2008) maintained that stakeholder theory could provide a framework for examining how an organization could embrace profitability while focusing on social issues. Stakeholders influence companies to sup

Too hot, too cold, and then just right: Balancing form and function in biophilic designed office workspaces

Author: Holloway Cripps Kaisa Geraldine
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2016
Field of study

Organizations are increasingly implementing biophilic design, or design which uses or mimics natural elements, into the office workspace with limited understanding of its effects. This dissertation seeks to address a paradigm shift in the academic and practitioner understanding of the influence of nature integration into workspace design. Further, research is nascent concerning the influences of biophilic design on office employees. This study utilizes a systematic review with a realist synthesis approach and a theoretical lens incorporating biophilia, environmental stimulation, attention restoration, and system theories in addition to the savanna hypothesis. Thirty-one existing studies are configured to identify how biophilic design affects employees. The dissertation identifies how the forms introduced through biophilic design application to the workspace should balance with office employee tasks and functions to produce outcomes related to positive physiological, psychological, and cognitive functioning. Consequently, these effects may address issues with the way the workspace affects employee satisfaction, well-being, performance, productivity, and organizational costs. Balancing form with function through continual environmental risk assessments and appraisal of a proposed biophilic design hierarchy of needs (BHON) are recommended for several levels of practitioners as well as employees to ensure biophilic design elements are positively influencing the office employee.TOO HOT, TOO COLD, AND THEN JUST RIGHT: BALANCING FORM AND FUNCTION IN BIOPHILIC DESIGNED OFFICE WORKSPACES By Kaisa Geraldine Holloway Cripps Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland University College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management 2016 Advisory Committee: Dr. Denise A. Breckon Dr. Deborah M. Wharff © Copyright by Kaisa Geraldine Holloway Cripps 2016 This dissertation may contain copyrighted material. This material was used to advance research and it is the dissertation authors belief that this constitutes a “fair use” of any such copyrighted material as provided for in Section 107 of the U.S. Copyright Law. i ABSTRACT Title of Dissertation: TOO HOT, TOO COLD, AND THEN JUST RIGHT: BALANCING FORM AND FUNCTION IN BIOPHILIC DESIGNED OFFICE WORKSPACES Dissertation Author: Kaisa Geraldine Holloway Cripps Doctor of Management University of Maryland University College, 2016 Dissertation Advisors: Dr. Denise A. Breckon and Dr. Deborah M. Wharff Organizations are increasingly implementing biophilic design, or design which uses or mimics natural elements, into the office workspace with limited understanding of its effects. This dissertation seeks to address a paradigm shift in the academic and practitioner understanding of the influence of nature integration into workspace design. Further, research is nascent concerning the influences of biophilic design on office employees. This study utilizes a systematic review with a realist synthesis approach and a theoretical lens incorporating biophilia, environmental stimulation, attention restoration, and system theories in addition to the savanna hypothesis. Thirty-one existing studies are configured to identify how biophilic design affects employees. The dissertation identifies how the forms introduced through biophilic design application to the workspace should balance with office employee tasks and functions to produce outcomes related to positive physiological, psychological, and cognitive functioning. Consequently, these effects may address issues with the way the workspace affects employee satisfaction, well-being, performance, productivity, and organizational costs. Balancing form with function through continual environmental risk assessments and appraisal of a proposed biophilic design hierarchy of needs (BHON) are recommended for several levels of practitioners as well as employees to ensure biophilic design elements are positively influencing the office employee. Keywords: Biophilic design, workspace design, evidence-based management, organizational theory, offices ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... i TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................ ................................ ................................ .... ii LIST OF TABLES ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. iv LIST OF FIGURES ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. v CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH PROBLEM ................................ ... 6 Background ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 9 Problem Statement ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 15 Purpose of the Study ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 19 Importance to Management and Research ................................ ................................ ... 20 Research Question ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 23 Themes and Concepts ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 23 Scope and Limitations ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 24 Definitions and Terminology ................................ ................................ ........................ 24 Organization of Dissertation ................................ ................................ ......................... 25 CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL MODEL ....................... 27 Discussion of Theoretical Framework ................................ ................................ .......... 27 Theoretical framework ................................ ................................ ................................ . 35 Workspace Design and Employee Behaviors ................................ ............................... 36 Biophilic Design as a Workspace Intervention ................................ ............................. 38 Employee Physiological Functioning in the Office ................................ ...................... 48 Employee Psychological Functioning in the Office ................................ ..................... 49 Employee Cognitive Functioning in the Office ................................ ............................ 50 Conceptual Model ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 52 Thesis Statement ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 55 Chapter Summary ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 55 CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY ................................ ................................ .................... 57 Evidence-based Management ................................ ................................ ....................... 57 Search Strategies ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 65 Quality Appraisal of Literature ................................ ................................ ..................... 76 Synthesis Methodology ................................ ................................ ................................ 78 Data Extraction ................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 79 Expert Panel Review ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 94 Chapter Summary ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 97 CHAPTER 4 – ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS ................................ ................................ .. 98 Findings ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 101 Updated Conceptual Model ................................ ................................ ........................ 124 Alternative Perspectives ................................ ................................ ............................. 127 Limitations ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 130 Chapter Summary ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 132 CHAPTER 5 – CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ................................ .............. 133 Implications and Recommendations ................................ ................................ .......... 133 Implications and Recommendations for Practitioners ................................ ................ 134 Implications and Recommendations for Researchers ................................ ................ 143 Future Research ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 145 iii Conclusion ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 148 Chapter Summary ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 152 Concluding Remarks ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 153 APPENDIX A ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 154 APPENDIX B ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 155 APPENDIX C ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 156 APPENDIX D ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 157 APPENDIX E................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 160 APPENDIX F ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 161 APPENDIX G ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 162 APPENDIX H ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 163 APPENDIX I ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 164 APPENDIX J ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 165 APPENDIX K ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 169 APPENDIX L................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 170 APPENDIX M ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 174 REFERENCES ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 178 iv LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Systematic Review process ................................ ................................ ......................... 65 Table 2: Synonym Terms and Keywords for Search Terms ................................ ...................... 67 Table 3: Subject Areas Searched ................................ ................................ ............................... 68 Table 4: Inclusion and exclusion criteria ................................ ................................ .................. 70 Table 5: Search Statistics Summary ................................ ................................ .......................... 74 Table 6: Quality Appraisal Risk of Bias Summary (number of evidence, n=31) ..................... 77 Table 7: Evidence Categorization By Quality (n=31) ................................ .............................. 77 Table 8: Provisional Codes ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 81 Table 9: Synthesized Data Extraction Results Matrix ................................ .............................. 82 Table 10: Sample Sizes by Intervention (Total known sample n = 3,846) ............................... 86 Table 11: Studies With Number of Biophilic design Elements Examined ............................... 87 Table 12: Connections between Mechanisms and Primary Outcomes ................................ ..... 88 Table 13: Connections between Mechanisms and Interventions ................................ .............. 90 Table 14: Primary Outcomes Relationships to Interventions ................................ ................... 91 Table 15: Primary Outcomes Relationships to Sub Outcomes ................................ ................. 92 Table 16: Intervention and Sub Outcome Frequencies ................................ ............................. 93 Table 17: Expert Panel and Feedback ................................ ................................ ....................... 96 Table 18: Summary of Analysis ................................ ................................ .............................. 101 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Theoretical Framework ................................ ................................ ............................. 36 Figure 2. Midsommarkransen, Sweden circa 1930s ................................ ................................ 43 Figure 3. Ideas office, Sweden, circa 2015 ................................ ................................ ............... 43 Figure 4. Conceptual Model. ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 53 Figure 5. Social Science Citation Index Search ................................ ................................ ........ 68 Figure 6. PRISMA diagram. ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 75 Figure 7. Evidence by Geography ................................ ................................ ............................ 83 Figure 8. Evidence by Year of Publication ................................ ................................ ............... 84 Figure 9. Type of Evidence by Research Method ................................ ................................ ..... 85 Figure 10. Evidence by Intervention ................................ ................................ ......................... 87 Figure 11. Evidence by Mechanism ................................ ................................ .......................... 89 Figure 12. Evidence by Primary Outcome ................................ ................................ ................ 90 Figure 13. Evidence by Sub-Outcome ................................ ................................ ...................... 93 Figure 14. Adapted CIMO logic ................................ ................................ ............................... 98 Figure 15. Comfort Control Primary Relationships with Interventions and Outcomes ......... 103 Figure 16. Pleasure and Aesthetics Primary Relationships to Intervention and Outcomes .... 109 Figure 17. Nature Affiliation and Interventions and Outcomes Primary Relationships ........ 115 Figure 18. Primary Cognitive Relationships ................................ ................................ ........... 120 Figure 19. Potential Contextual Effects of Biophilic design on Employees ........................... 123 Figure 20. Updated Conceptual Model ................................ ................................ ................... 126 Figure 21. Biophilic design hierarchy of needs (BHON) conceptual model .......................... 136 Figure 22. Process of risk assessment ................................ ................................ ..................... 143 Figure 23. Edith Green – Wendell Wyatt Federal Building, US ................................ ............. 146 Figure 24. Maggie's Lanarkshire, UK ................................ ................................ ..................... 146 Figure 25. Commerzbank, Germany ................................ ................................ ....................... 150 6 CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH PROBLEM In the 21st-century workspace, nature may play a strategic role in generating a positive physical environmental influence on office employees. Integrating nature into workspace design can affect employees and organizational performance, including employee satisfaction, organizational costs, and productivity. For example, studies have concluded that employees with views of trees out of windows have lower annual sick leave rates than those without nature views (Elzeyadi, 2011) and call center employees with access to greenery in their workspace are more productive than their peers (Heschong et al., 2003). However, how does this research inform and benefit practitioners and academic researchers? These studies measure the influence of biophilic design on employees in office workspaces and present outcomes on changes to employee physiological, psychological, and cognitive functioning, which may be of significance to practitioners and researchers alike. Biophilic design is an emerging field in architectural design as reflected in popular and management publications. Biophilic design focuses attention on the effects of natural features such as greenery, natural lighting, natural air, and water in the workspace (Kellert et al., 2008). Biophilic design is not about placing employees into nature, for example, out of an urban area and into a rural one. Instead, biophilic design is the application of natural features to the workspace. When used as an intervention, biophilic design has the potential of influencing employees and outcomes, including organizational costs and employee performance. Biophilic design integration can be detrimental to employee satisfaction, performance, and well-being without an understanding of employee and workspace needs (Ng and Akasah, 2013). A long-accepted fact in management studies is that many organizational factors affecting results cannot be controlled by the office manager, despite their responsibility for them (McGregor, 1960). While this may be true concerning some influences, modern managers do 7 exert control over the physical workspace design. Managers can design the workspace to foster an enhanced and productive experience for employees. This control includes the addition of biophilic design elements into the workspace, which assesses the impression nature and the environment have on humans (Cooper, 2014). Modern companies, such as Google, are purposefully integrating biophilic design principles into their workspaces with the intended outcome of better productivity and performance (Clancy, 2014). If managers wish the form of the workspace to follow the desired function of better organizational results, an awareness of the effects of biophilic design on employees could benefit practice. Employees neither want their office to be too hot nor too cold, but just right; balancing the form of the workspace with the employee and organizational functions. Biophilic design affects the individual employee in the workspace in several ways; architectural design aesthetics directly influence employees through their interactions in, and with, the physical environment (Hutchison, 2014; Kellert et al., 2008; Wilson, 1984). By design of its form, the workspace can induce both psychological effects (Bergstrom et al. 2015) and physiological effects (Veitch, 2011). Biophilic design, when applied to the workspace, also affects cognitive functioning (Gray & Birrell, 2014). Empirically, employee cognition has been shown to affect organizational performance (Cooke & Meyer, 2007; Thomas & Clark, 1993) and employee productivity (Sullivan, Baird & Donn, 2013). These effects can directly influence organizational results, as employee performance is a driver of organizational performance (Bhalla et al., 2011). This incorporation of biophilic design into the office presents a changing paradigm in workspace design, and practitioners, as well as researchers, would benefit from knowledge and understanding of the effects of biophilic design on employees. Biophilic design research in the management field is emerging, but still nascent in its development. In practice, these effects of workspace design on employees are neither always 8 considered nor understood (Bitner, 1992; Gruber et al., 2015). Practitioners do not always address these effects, as well (Cohen, 2007; Davis, 1984). Biophilic design has behavioral mediating effects on employee interactions with the physical environment (Kellert, 2005). When used as an intervention, biophilic design induces effects which may mitigate the negative and enhance the positive employee functioning in the office (Gray & Birrell, 2014). Knowledge is increasing on the application of biophilic design as an intervention into the workspace, which is creating an opportunity to further explore and synthesize existing research to benefit the management profession. This d

Training programs in the federal government: A systematic review of how effectiveness is evaluated

Author: Hypes Brinkley R.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2016
Field of study

Billions of taxpayer dollars are spent every year on training and development programs in the Federal government with little to no evidence synthesis that connects the dollar to the results. New legislation over the past few years has required greater accountability of training and development funding that has increased primary research in the field, but no evidence synthesis for the field. This study fills that void and provides a rigorous examination of the entire body of evidence for use in both policy formation and practice. In particular, this study uses a systematic review methodology, an essential tool of Evidence-Based Management (EBMgt), to critically examine the scholarly literature by answering: (a) how do Federal government agencies evaluate the effectiveness of their training and development programs, (b) what methods and types of evaluation are being employed, (c) how often are programs being evaluated and at what level, and (d) what barriers exist that impede evaluating training for effectiveness. By thematically synthesizing the scholarly evidence, the findings include: (a) Federal government agencies are, overall, not evaluating for training effectiveness on a regular and recurring basis; (b) those that are evaluating their programs with training effectiveness measures are using only the Kirkpatrick or the Phillips model; (c) the majority of Federal agencies are only evaluating for effective training (reaction and learning levels) while evaluating for training effectiveness occurs on a much less frequent basis (behavior and results levels); and (d) eight barriers impede evaluating for training effectiveness, including time limitations, limited managerial support, low employee interest, specialized skillset needed, limited funding, fear of publishing results, technology, and limited resources/coverage. Implications for practice include: (a) using the findings as a barrier analysis tool, (b) creating a training evaluation position, (c) developing a cyclic reporting system, (d) using the training evaluation listserv, and (e) fostering a culture of Evidence-Based Research (EBR). Implications for research include: (a) empirically testing the relationships provided in the new conceptual model, (b) identifying the cultural and socio-political factors that contribute to training evaluation in the Federal government, and (c) using a variety of models to evaluate for training effectiveness.Running head: TRAINING PROGRAMS IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 1 Training Programs in the Federal Government: A Systematic Review of How Effectiveness is Evaluated Brinkley R. Hypes Dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management 2016 Dissertation Committee: Dr. John Sherlock Dr. Walter Cason TRAINING PROGRAMS IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 2 Abstract Billions of taxpayer dollars are spent every year on training and development programs in the Federal government with little to no evidence synthesis that connects the dollar to the results. New legislation over the past few years has required greater accountability of training and development funding that has increased primary research in the field, but no evidence synthesis for the field. This study fills that void and provides a rigorous examination of the entire body of evidence for use in both policy formation and practice. In particular, this study uses a systematic review methodology, an essential tool of Evidence-Based Management (EBMgt), to critically examine the scholarly literature by answering: (a) how do Federal government agencies evaluate the effectiveness of their training and development programs, (b) what methods and types of evaluation are being employed, (c) how often are programs being evaluated and at what level, and (d) what barriers exist that impede evaluating training for effectiveness. By thematically synthesizing the scholarly evidence, the findings include: (a) Federal government agencies are, overall, not evaluating for training effectiveness on a regular and recurring basis; (b) those that are evaluating their programs with training effectiveness measures are using only the Kirkpatrick or the Phillips model; (c) the majority of Federal agencies are only evaluating for effective training (reaction and learning levels) while evaluating for training effectiveness occurs on a much less frequent basis (behavior and results levels); and (d) eight barriers impede evaluating for training effectiveness, including time limitations, limited managerial support, low employee interest, specialized skillset needed, limited funding, fear of publishing results, technology, and limited resources/coverage. Implications for practice include: (a) using the findings as a barrier analysis tool, (b) creating a training evaluation position, (c) developing a cyclic reporting system, (d) using the training evaluation listserv, and (e) fostering a culture of Evidence-Based Research (EBR). Implications for research include: (a) empirically testing the relationships provided in TRAINING PROGRAMS IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 3 the new conceptual model, (b) identifying the cultural and socio-political factors that contribute to training evaluation in the Federal government, and (c) using a variety of models to evaluate for training effectiveness. Keywords: employee development, federal government, systematic review, training effectiveness, and training evaluation TRAINING PROGRAMS IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 4 Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my wife, Katelyn, who has stood by my side through the long nights and arduous work of this academic pursuit. It was her love, support, and enduring encouragement that helped me through this journey to the accomplishment of this lifelong dream. Thank you, dear, and I hope to spend the rest of my life helping you achieve your dreams. TRAINING PROGRAMS IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 5 Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to acknowledge my subject matter expert panel, Dr. Paulette Holmes, Dr. Jim Kirkpatrick, and Dr. Jack Phillips, whose support and guidance early in the research process encouraged me to move forward. As respected leaders within their fields, I appreciate the time, counseling, and guidance they provided me to make this research come into fruition. I would also like to express my sincerest thanks to my dissertation committee Dr. John Sherlock and Dr. Walter Cason for their guidance and support over the years. They have both served as exceptional role models from both an academic and practitioner perspective. It has truly been an honor to be their student and, most importantly, their mentee. Lastly, I would like to thank the University of Maryland University College for their dedication to military students, veterans, and their families by providing me the opportunity to earn my doctorate, a lifelong dream, while working full-time. TRAINING PROGRAMS IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 6 Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... 2 Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... 4 Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ 5 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... 10 List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... 11 Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................. 12 Background and Problem Context ............................................................................................ 12 Research Gap and Relevance .................................................................................................... 17 Study Purpose ............................................................................................................................ 18 Significance of Study ................................................................................................................ 19 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 19 Study Scope ............................................................................................................................... 20 Study Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 21 Key Terms ................................................................................................................................ 21 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 24 Chapter 2: Literature Review and Conceptual Framework .......................................................... 25 History of Federal Government Training Evaluation ............................................................... 25 Influence of Program Evaluation .............................................................................................. 30 Early Forms of Evaluation ................................................................................................... 31 Growth of Evaluation as a Profession .................................................................................. 32 Current Trends in Program Evaluation ................................................................................ 32 Philosophical Views on Program Evaluation ............................................................................ 33 TRAINING PROGRAMS IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 7 Logical Positivism ................................................................................................................ 34 Post Positivism ..................................................................................................................... 34 Constructivist Paradigm ....................................................................................................... 34 Transformative Paradigm ..................................................................................................... 35 Training Evaluation Models ...................................................................................................... 35 Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of Evaluation Model ................................................................... 36 Phillips' Five Levels of Evaluation Model ........................................................................... 38 Stufflebeam's CIPP Model ................................................................................................... 40 Additional Models ................................................................................................................ 41 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................. 42 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 45 Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 46 Purpose and Rationale ............................................................................................................... 46 Study Purpose ....................................................................................................................... 46 Importance of Chosen Methodology .................................................................................... 48 Value to Evidence-Based Management ............................................................................... 49 Identifying Relevant Evidence .................................................................................................. 51 Search Strategy ..................................................................................................................... 51 Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria ................................................................................................. 53 Data Extraction and Study Characteristics ........................................................................... 56 Quality and Relevance Appraisal ......................................................................................... 57 Synthesizing Evidence .............................................................................................................. 59 Approach to Synthesis .......................................................................................................... 60 TRAINING PROGRAMS IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 8 Use of SMEs ......................................................................................................................... 61 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 63 Chapter 4: Findings ....................................................................................................................... 64 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 64 Findings .................................................................................................................................... 67 RQ: What Methods and type of evaluation are being employed? ........................................ 68 RQ: How Often are Programs Being Evaluated and at What Level? .................................. 69 RQ: What barriers Exist That Impede Evaluating for Training effectiveness? .................... 70 Barriers to Evaluating for Training effectiveness ...................................................................... 70 Time Limitation .................................................................................................................... 70 Limited Managerial Support ................................................................................................ 71 Low Employee Interest ........................................................................................................ 72 Specialized Skillset Needed ................................................................................................. 72 Limited Funding ................................................................................................................... 73 Fear of Publishing Results .................................................................................................... 73 Technology ........................................................................................................................... 73 Limited Resources/Coverage ............................................................................................... 74 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 74 Chapter 5: Implications for Management ..................................................................................... 76 Implications for Practice ........................................................................................................... 76 Barrier Analysis Tool ........................................................................................................... 76 Training Evaluation Position ................................................................................................ 79 Cyclic Reporting .................................................................................................................. 80 TRAINING PROGRAMS IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 9 Training Evaluation Listserv ................................................................................................ 81 Fostering a Culture of EBR .................................................................................................. 82 Implications for Research .......................................................................................................... 83 Test the Relationships of the Conceptual Model ................................................................. 83 Impact of Cultural and Socio-Political Factors .................................................................... 84 Evaluate Using a Variety of Models .................................................................................... 84 Limitations ............................................................................................................................... 85 Areas for Future Research ......................................................................................................... 86 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 87 References .................................................................................................................................... 88 Appendix A: PRISMA Diagram ................................................................................................... 96 Appendix B: Studies Included for Synthesis: Description Characteristics .................................. 97 Appendix C: Quality and Relevance Appraisal ........................................................................... 98 Appendix D: Themes Identification Chart ................................................................................... 99 Appendix E: Word Frequency ................................................................................................... 100 Appendix F: Coded Text ............................................................................................................ 101 TRAINING PROGRAMS IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 10 List of Tables Table 1. Workforce growth frequency table, by age level, 2004 to 2014.................................... 16 Table 2. Workforce growth mean length of service, by years of service, 2004 vs. 2014 ............ 17 Table 3. Chronological list of major training and development authorities ................................ 26 Table 4. Chronological list of OPM's training and development guidelines ............................... 30 Table 5. Phillips' five-level ROI calculation of training programs .............................................. 39 Table 6. Stufflebeam's CIPP model for evaluation ...................................................................... 40 Table 7. Development of the search strategy ............................................................................... 55 Table 8. Study contribution matrix .............................................................................................. 66 Table 9. Thematically synthesized findings ................................................................................. 67 Table 10. Implications for practice .............................................................................................. 78 Table 11. Barrier Analysis Tool................................................................................................... 78 Table 12. Implications for research ............................................................................................. 83 Table 13. Limitations and areas for future research .................................................................... 85 TRAINING PROGRAMS IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 11 List of Figures Figure 1. Federal spending on education and training contracts, 2004 to 2014 .......................... 13 Figure 2. Kirkpatrick business partnership model for training evaluations ................................. 37 Figure 3. Model of influence for training evaluation in the Federal government ........................ 43 Figure 4. Conceptual framework for training effectiveness in the Federal government ............. 44 Figure 5. The four elements of EBMgt ........................................................................................ 51 Figure 6. Revised conceptual framework for training effectiveness in the Federal government 69 TRAINING PROGRAMS IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 12 Chapter 1: Introduction According to the 2013 state of the industry report by the Association for Training Development (ATD), the U.S. private sector spent an estimated

164.2 billion on employee training during the 2012 calendar year (Miller, 2013, p. 41). Similarly, the U.S. Office of Management and Budget (U.S. Office of Management and Budget [OMB], 2014) reported that the Federal government spent an estimated

4.14 billion on education and training contracts that same year and slightly less, $3.52 billion, the following year (Figure 1). Unfortunately, organizations in the private sector and in the Federal government continue to struggle with connecting actual business results and needs to the billions of dollars spent on training and development (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2013, p. 18). This means that the Federal government, in particular, is spending billions of taxpayer dollars on training and development each year with little evidence documenting the effectiveness of those expenditures. Background and Problem Context The concept of training evaluation is not new to the Federal government and dates back to the Government Employees Training Act (GETA) of 1958 that provided the origi

Professional training of department chairs to help faculty improve teaching-learning process in community-colleges.

Author: Gedlu Kelemsis
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 24/06/2016
Field of study

Faculty and others who become department chairs are often inadequately prepared to assume the complex leadership role of department chairs; department chairs must be given the appropriate training and preparation to effectively implement the mission of the community college.PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF DEPARTMENT CHAIRS TO HELP FACULTY IMPROVE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF DEPARTMENT CHAIRS TO HELP FACULTY IMPROVE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF DEPARTMENT CHAIRS TO HELP FACULTY IMPROVE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF DEPARTMENT CHAIRS TO HELP FACULTY IMPROVE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF DEPARTMENT CHAIRS TO HELP FACULTY IMPROVE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF DEPARTMENT CHAIRS TO HELP FACULTY IMPROVE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF DEPARTMENT CHAIRS TO HELP FACULTY IMPROVE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF DEPARTMENT CHAIRS TO HELP FACULTY IMPROVE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF DEPARTMENT CHAIRS TO HELP FACULTY IMPROVE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF DEPARTMENT CHAIRS TO HELP FACULTY IMPROVE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF DEPARTMENT CHAIRS TO HELP FACULTY IMPROVE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF DEPARTMENT CHAIRS TO HELP FACULTY IMPROVE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF DEPARTMENT CHAIRS TO HELP FACULTY IMPROVE TEACHING -LEARNING PROCESS IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES LEARNING PROCESS IN COMMUNITY COLLEGESLEARNING PROCESS IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES LEARNING PROCESS IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES LEARNING PROCESS IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES Problem Statement Problem Statement • Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, Training can help chairs to become more efficient managers, supervisors, and more effective leaders. supervisors, and more effective leaders. supervisors, and more effective leaders. supervisors, and more effective leaders. supervisors, and more effective leaders. supervisors, and more effective leaders. supervisors, and more effective leaders. supervisors, and more effective leaders. supervisors, and more effective leaders. supervisors, and more effective leaders. supervisors, and more effective leaders. supervisors, and more effective leaders. supervisors, and more effective leaders. • The theories of learning blended with the leadership The theories of learning blended with the leadership The theories of learning blended with the leadership The theories of learning blended with the leadership The theories of learning blended with the leadership The theories of learning blended with the leadership The theories of learning blended with the leadership The theories of learning blended with the leadership The theories of learning blended with the leadership The theories of learning blended with the leadership The theories of learning blended with the leadership The theories of learning blended with the leadership The theories of learning blended with the leadership The theories of learning blended with the leadership The theories of learning blended with the leadership envision the theoretical framework for training department envision the theoretical framework for training department envision the theoretical framework for training department envision the theoretical framework for training department envision the theoretical framework for training department envision the theoretical framework for training department envision the theoretical framework for training department envision the theoretical framework for training department envision the theoretical framework for training department envision the theoretical framework for training department envision the theoretical framework for training department envision the theoretical framework for training department envision the theoretical framework for training department envision the theoretical framework for training department envision the theoretical framework for training department envision the theoretical framework for training department chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student chairs to help faculty improve teaching boost student learning learning . Implications for Practitioners Implications for Practitioners Implications for Practitioners Kelemsis GedluKelemsis Gedlu Kelemsis Gedlu The Graduate School The Graduate School The Graduate School The Graduate School The Graduate School The Graduate School University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD -Summer 2016 Summer 2016 Summer 2016 Research Questions 1. What elements need to be included in a training program prepare What elements need to be included in a training program prepare What elements need to be included in a training program prepare What elements need to be included in a training program prepare What elements need to be included in a training program prepare What elements need to be included in a training program prepare What elements need to be included in a training program prepare What elements need to be included in a training program prepareWhat elements need to be included in a training program prepare What elements need to be included in a training program prepare What elements need to be included in a training program prepareWhat elements need to be included in a training program prepare What elements need to be included in a training program prepare What elements need to be included in a training program prepare What elements need to be included in a training program prepare What elements need to be included in a training program prepare What elements need to be included in a training program prepare department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promotedepartment chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promotedepartment chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote department chairs to effectively lead academic departments and promote the faculty teaching the faculty teaching the faculty teaching the faculty teaching -learning process? learning process? learning process? learning process? learning process? 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering 2.What models of training strategies represent best practices in empowering department chairs to supervise faculty teaching? department chairs to supervise faculty teaching? department chairs to supervise faculty teaching? department chairs to supervise faculty teaching? department chairs to supervise faculty teaching? department chairs to supervise faculty teaching? department chairs to supervise faculty teaching? department chairs to supervise faculty teaching?department chairs to supervise faculty teaching? department chairs to supervise faculty teaching? department chairs to supervise faculty teaching? department chairs to supervise faculty teaching? department chairs to supervise faculty teaching? 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs 3.What leadership and learning theories can be helpful to department chairs as they lead faculty to improve student learning outcomes? as they lead faculty to improve student learning outcomes?as they lead faculty to improve student learning outcomes? as they lead faculty to improve student learning outcomes? as they lead faculty to improve student learning outcomes? as they lead faculty to improve student learning outcomes? as they lead faculty to improve student learning outcomes? as they lead faculty to improve student learning outcomes? as they lead faculty to improve student learning outcomes? as they lead faculty to improve student learning outcomes? as they lead faculty to improve student learning outcomes? as they lead faculty to improve student learning outcomes? as they lead faculty to improve student learning outcomes? as they lead faculty to improve student learning outcomes? Methodology Learning Theories Learning TheoriesLearning Theories • Learning as a process and product (Piaget) Learning as a process and product (Piaget) Learning as a process and product (Piaget) Learning as a process and product (Piaget) Learning as a process and product (Piaget) Learning as a process and product (Piaget) Learning as a process and product (Piaget) Learning as a process and product (Piaget) Learning as a process and product (Piaget) Learning as a process and product (Piaget) Learning as a process and product (Piaget) Learning as a process and product (Piaget) Learning as a process and product (Piaget) • Community of Inquiry Community of Inquiry Community of Inquiry Community of InquiryCommunity of Inquiry Community of Inquiry Community of Inquiry -Engagement and Collaboration regarding Engagement and Collaboration regarding Engagement and Collaboration regarding Engagement and Collaboration regarding Engagement and Collaboration regarding Engagement and Collaboration regarding Engagement and Collaboration regarding Engagement and Collaboration regarding Engagement and Collaboration regarding learning learning Main Theories of Leadership Main Theories of Leadership Effective Department Chairs’ Effective Department Chairs’ Effective Department Chairs’ Responsibilities • Followership Theory of Leadership Followership Theory of Leadership Followership Theory of Leadership Followership Theory of Leadership Followership Theory of LeadershipFollowership Theory of Leadership Followership Theory of Leadership Followership Theory of Leadership Followership Theory of Leadership • Servant Theory of Leadership Servant Theory of Leadership Servant Theory of Leadership Servant Theory of Leadership Servant Theory of LeadershipServant Theory of Leadership Servant Theory of Leadership Servant Theory of Leadership Servant Theory of Leadership • Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student Coaches, supports, and motivates supervisees fosters good student relations (Thomas & Schuh, 2004) relations (Thomas & Schuh, 2004) relations (Thomas & Schuh, 2004) relations (Thomas & Schuh, 2004) relations (Thomas & Schuh, 2004) relations (Thomas & Schuh, 2004) relations (Thomas & Schuh, 2004) relations (Thomas & Schuh, 2004) relations (Thomas & Schuh, 2004) relations (Thomas & Schuh, 2004) relations (Thomas & Schuh, 2004) relations (Thomas & Schuh, 2004) • Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, Serves as faculty developer, manger, leader, and scholar (McArthur, 2002) • Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) Represents their department at college meetings (Craig, 2005) • Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community Serves as liaisons among the staff, administration, and community (Lindholm, 1999) (Lindholm, 1999) (Lindholm, 1999)(Lindholm, 1999) (Lindholm, 1999) (Lindholm, 1999). • Helps set the tone for department (Academic Senate California Helps set the tone for department (Academic Senate California Helps set the tone for department (Academic Senate California Helps set the tone for department (Academic Senate Californi

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