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The ritual lens: Student success and community colleges
No full textA college degree is vital to the economic and social well-being of the entire nation and its citizens. Yet, community colleges—who serve half of all students in higher education—have low graduation rates. With declining resources and increasing pressures, community college leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed.Ac co The Ritual Lens: Student Success and Community Colleges The Ritual Lens: Student Success and Community Colleges The Ritual Lens: Student Success and Community Colleges The Problem The Problem The Conceptual Model: The Conceptual Model: The Conceptual Model: The Ritual Lens The Ritual Lens
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Yet, community being of the entire nation and its citizens. Yet, community being of the entire nation and its citizens. Yet, community being of the entire nation and its citizens. Yet, community colleges colleges —who serve half of all students in higher who serve half of all students in higher who serve half of all students in higher who serve half of all students in higher who serve half of all students in higher who serve half of all students in higher who serve half of all students in higher who serve half of all students in higher who serve half of all students in higher who serve half of all students in higher who serve half of all students in higher who serve half of all students in higher who serve half of all students in higher who serve half of all students in higher who serve half of all students in higher who serve half of all students in higher education education —have low graduation rates. With declining have low graduation rates. With declining have low graduation rates. With declining have low graduation rates. With declining have low graduation rates. With declining have low graduation rates. With declining have low graduation rates. With declining have low graduation rates. With declining have low graduation rates. With declining have low graduation rates. With declining have low graduation rates. With declining have low graduation rates. With declining have low graduation rates. With declining resources and increasing pressures, community college resources and increasing pressures, community college resources and increasing pressures, community college resources and increasing pressures, community college resources and increasing pressures, community college resources and increasing pressures, community college resources and increasing pressures, community college resources and increasing pressures, community college resources and increasing pressures, community college resources and increasing pressures, community college resources and increasing pressures, community college resources and increasing pressures, community college resources and increasing pressures, community college resources and increasing pressures, community college resources and increasing pressures, community college resources and increasing pressures, community college leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed. leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed. leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed. leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed. leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed. leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed. leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed. leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed. leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed. leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed. leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed. leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed. leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed. leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed. leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed. leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed. leaders are in need of new ways to help students succeed.
Rituals are a part of every culture. In schools, in churches, and Rituals are a part of every culture. In schools, in churches, and Rituals are a part of every culture. In schools, in churches, and Rituals are a part of every culture. In schools, in churches, and Rituals are a part of every culture. In schools, in churches, and Rituals are a part of every culture. In schools, in churches, and Rituals are a part of every culture. In schools, in churches, and Rituals are a part of every culture. In schools, in churches, and Rituals are a part of every culture. In schools, in churches, and Rituals are a part of every culture. In schools, in churches, and corporations, they are used to explain, celebrate, challenge, corporations, they are used to explain, celebrate, challenge, corporations, they are used to explain, celebrate, challenge, corporations, they are used to explain, celebrate, challenge, corporations, they are used to explain, celebrate, challenge, corporations, they are used to explain, celebrate, challenge, corporations, they are used to explain, celebrate, challenge, transform, and to heal. Can they help students succeed? What do theories of transform, and to heal. Can they help students succeed? What do theories of transform, and to heal. Can they help students succeed? What do theories of transform, and to heal. Can they help students succeed? What do theories of transform, and to heal. Can they help students succeed? What do theories of transform, and to heal. Can they help students succeed? What do theories of transform, and to heal. Can they help students succeed? 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What rituals and student success have in common, how do they differ? What rituals and student success have in common, how do they differ? What rituals and student success have in common, how do they differ? What rituals and student success have in common, how do they differ? What rituals and student success have in common, how do they differ? What rituals and student success have in common, how do they differ? What rituals and student success have in common, how do they differ? What rituals and student success have in common, how do they differ? What can ritual theories teach us about institutional practices? And, finally, how can ritual theories teach us about institutional practices? And, finally, how can ritual theories teach us about institutional practices? And, finally, how can ritual theories teach us about institutional practices? And, finally, how can ritual theories teach us about institutional practices? And, finally, how can ritual theories teach us about institutional practices? And, finally, how can ritual theories teach us about institutional practices? And, finally, how can ritual theories teach us about institutional practices? And, finally, how can ritual theories teach us about institutional practices? And, finally, how can ritual theories teach us about institutional practices? And, finally, how can ritual theories teach us about institutional practices? And, finally, how can ritual theories teach us about institutional practices? And, finally, how can ritual theories teach us about institutional practices? And, finally, how can ritual theories teach us about institutional practices? And, finally, how can ritual theories teach us about institutional practices? And, finally, how might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student might the answers to these questions help institutions improve student success? success? Implications For Practitioners Implications For Practitioners Implications For Practitioners
Jennifer Jennifer Luddy Luddy
The Graduate School The Graduate School The Graduate School
University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD The Evidence: Literature The Evidence: Literature The Evidence: Literature The Evidence: Literature The Evidence: Literature
Critical Interpretive Synthesis (Dixon Critical Interpretive Synthesis (Dixon Critical Interpretive Synthesis (Dixon Critical Interpretive Synthesis (Dixon Critical Interpretive Synthesis (Dixon Critical Interpretive Synthesis (Dixon Critical Interpretive Synthesis (Dixon Critical Interpretive Synthesis (Dixon Critical Interpretive Synthesis (Dixon Critical Interpretive Synthesis (Dixon -Woods et al., 2006)Woods et al., 2006) Woods et al., 2006) Woods et al., 2006) Woods et al., 2006) Woods et al., 2006) Woods et al., 2006) Research Question
1. What are the different theories of student success in What are the different theories of student success in What are the different theories of student success in What are the different theories of student success in What are the different theories of student success in What are the different theories of student success in What are the different theories of student success in What are the different theories of student success in What are the different theories of student success in What are the different theories of student success in What are the different theories of student success in What are the different theories of student success in What are the different theories of student success in What are the different theories of student success in What are the different theories of student success in What are the different theories of student success in community colleges? community colleges? community colleges?community colleges?community colleges? community colleges?
2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which 2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which 2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which 2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which 2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which 2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which 2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which 2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which 2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which 2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which 2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which 2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which 2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which 2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which 2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which 2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which 2. What are the different theories of ritual, and which most relevant to student success? most relevant to student success? most relevant to student success? most relevant to student success? most relevant to student success? most relevant to student success? most relevant to student success? most relevant to student success? most relevant to student success? most relevant to student success? most relevant to student success?
3. How might ritual theories and student success 3. How might ritual theories and student success 3. How might ritual theories and student success 3. How might ritual theories and student success 3. How might ritual theories and student success 3. How might ritual theories and student success 3. How might ritual theories and student success 3. How might ritual theories and student success 3. How might ritual theories and student success 3. How might ritual theories and student success 3. How might ritual theories and student success 3. How might ritual theories and student success 3. How might ritual theories and student success 3. How might ritual theories and student success 3. How might ritual theories and student success 3. How might ritual theories and student success 3. How might ritual theories and student success intersect to provide insights into strategies for college intersect to provide insights into strategies for college intersect to provide insights into strategies for college intersect to provide insights into strategies for college intersect to provide insights into strategies for college intersect to provide insights into strategies for college intersect to provide insights into strategies for college intersect to provide insights into strategies for college intersect to provide insights into strategies for college intersect to provide insights into strategies for college intersect to provide insights into strategies for college intersect to provide insights into strategies for college intersect to provide insights into strategies for college leaders to promote student success? leaders to promote student success? leaders to promote student success? leaders to promote student success? leaders to promote student success? leaders to promote student success?leaders to promote student success? leaders to promote student success? leaders to promote student success? leaders to promote student success? leaders to promote student success? leaders to promote student success? Method Implications For Scholars Implications For Scholars
The Ritual Lens: The Ritual Lens:The Ritual Lens: The Ritual Lens: The Ritual Lens: The Ritual Lens:The Ritual Lens: The Ritual Lens:
Student Success and Community Colleges Student Success and Community Colleges Student Success and Community Colleges Student Success and Community Colleges Student Success and Community CollegesStudent Success and Community Colleges Student Success and Community Colleges Student Success and Community CollegesStudent Success and Community CollegesStudent Success and Community CollegesStudent Success and Community Colleges Student Success and Community CollegesStudent Success and Community CollegesStudent Success and Community Colleges Student Success and Community CollegesStudent Success and Community Colleges Student Success and Community Colleges Student Success and Community Colleges
Ritual Theories
Student Success Theories
Student
Culture
Success
Durkheim
Van GennepVan Gennep
TurnerTurner
Goffman
Goody Goody
Bell
TintoTinto
Kuh
Rendon
Duckworth
Dweck
Robinson and Bornholt Robinson and Bornholt Robinson and Bornholt Robinson and Bornholt
Validation Motivation Obedience/Power Compliance Validation Motivation Obedience/Power Compliance Validation Motivation Obedience/Power Compliance Validation Motivation Obedience/Power Compliance Validation Motivation Obedience/Power Compliance Validation Motivation Obedience/Power Compliance Validation Motivation Obedience/Power Compliance Validation Motivation Obedience/Power Compliance Validation Motivation Obedience/Power Compliance Communication Order Conflict Resolution Self Communication Order Conflict Resolution Self Communication Order Conflict Resolution Self Communication Order Conflict Resolution Self Communication Order Conflict Resolution Self Communication Order Conflict Resolution Self -Determination Determination Determination Attachment Solidarity Celebration Sanctity Engagement Attachment Solidarity Celebration Sanctity Engagement Attachment Solidarity Celebration Sanctity Engagement Attachment Solidarity Celebration Sanctity Engagement Attachment Solidarity Celebration Sanctity Engagement Attachment Solidarity Celebration Sanctity Engagement Attachment Solidarity Celebration Sanctity Engagement Pride Initiation Pride Initiation Pride Initiation Pride Initiation Passage Accomplishment
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Tinto’s Tinto’s Tinto’s Interactionalist Interactionalist Interactionalist Interactionalist InteractionalistTheory referred to Theory referred to Theory referred to Theory referred to Theory referred to Theory referred to Theory referred to Theory referred to Theory referred to ritologists ritologists ritologists ritologistsEmile Durkheim and Arthur Van Durkheim and Arthur Van Durkheim and Arthur Van Durkheim and Arthur Van Durkheim and Arthur Van Gennep . .
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• Incoming student psychology Incoming student psychology Incoming student psychology Incoming student psychology Incoming student psychology Incoming student psychology Incoming student psychology Incoming student psychology Incoming student psychology
• Incoming student characteristics Incoming student characteristics Incoming student characteristics Incoming student characteristics Incoming student characteristics Incoming student characteristics Incoming student characteristics Incoming student characteristics Incoming student characteristics Incoming student characteristics
• Institutional climate Institutional climate Institutio
Trust development mechanisms in virtual teams: A comparison of the scholarly evidence and practitioner-focused literature
No full textThis presentation examines trust-development mechanisms in virtual teams by comparing scholarly evidence and practitioner perspectivesLaura D’Antonio
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Managerial communication competencies that enhance employee performance: A systematic review
No full textResearchers have long acknowledged the centrality of managerial communication to employee performance. In recent decades, the dyadic communication between managers and employees has been disrupted or complicated by organizational, cultural, and technological changes (e.g., the proliferation of technology-mediated communication channels). The purpose of this study was to make practical sense of the extensive and complex body of research on managerial communication competencies. Using a systematic review methodology (an essential tool of evidence-based research), this study answered the research question: “Which managerial communication competencies are associated with positive employee performance outcomes?” Empirical evidence was acquired by searching databases and websites, mining reference lists, and consulting subject matter experts. The titles and abstracts of 2,237 records were screened against specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. The quality and relevance of 30 studies were appraised using the transparency, accuracy, purposivity, utility, accessibility, relevance, and specificity (TAPUPAS) framework. The final dataset included 27 studies conducted between 1961 and 2015 in the United States, India, Australia, Lithuania, and Taiwan. Data were analyzed and synthesized using frequency vote counting and thematic synthesis procedures. The result is a conceptual model of nine behavioral communication competencies of managers that are empirically associated with employee performance. The model includes four content-focused competencies (communicating a vision of the future, communicating direction, providing performance feedback, and articulating meaning), three exchange-focused competencies (creating an open communication environment, encouraging participation in dialogue, and communicating emotional support), and two delivery-focused competencies (expressing ideas clearly and active listening). These findings offer actionable knowledge to 21 st century managers. For example, communicating a vision of the future helps employees align their behaviors and decisions with the organization’s vision, which is particularly important in decentralized organizations where employees are the decision markers. The nine communication competencies will help managers enhance employee performance. Moreover, they will help organizations hire or promote managers based not only on tenure or technical competencies, but also on effective communication competencies. Finally, they represent a parsimonious model that will help academic institutions design effective communication curricula for students.Running Head: MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCIES 1
Managerial Communication Competencies That Enhance Employee Performance:
A Systematic Review
Edward J. Priola
A Dissertation
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Dr. John Sherlock
Dr. Walter C. Cason
December 11, 2016
MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCIES 2
Abstract
Researchers have long acknowledged the centrality of managerial communication to employee
performance. In recent decades, the dyadic communication between managers and employees
has been disrupted or complicated by organizational, cultural, and technological changes (e.g.,
the proliferation of technology-mediated communication channels). The purpose of this study
was to make practical sense of the extensive and complex body of research on managerial
communication competencies. Using a systematic review methodology (an essential tool of
evidence-based research), this study answered the research question: “Which managerial
communication competencies are associated with positive employee performance outcomes?”
Empirical evidence was acquired by searching databases and websites, mining reference lists,
and consulting subject matter experts. The titles and abstracts of 2,237 records were screened
against specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. The quality and relevance of 30 studies were
appraised using the transparency, accuracy, purposivity, utility, accessibility, relevance, and
specificity (TAPUPAS) framework. The final dataset included 27 studies conducted between
1961 and 2015 in the United States, India, Australia, Lithuania, and Taiwan. Data were analyzed
and synthesized using frequency vote counting and thematic synthesis procedures. The result is
a conceptual model of nine behavioral communication competencies of managers that are
empirically associated with employee performance. The model includes four content-focused
competencies (communicating a vision of the future, communicating direction, providing
performance feedback, and articulating meaning), three exchange-focused competencies
(creating an open communication environment, encouraging participation in dialogue, and
communicating emotional support), and two delivery-focused competencies (expressing ideas
clearly and active listening). These findings offer actionable knowledge to 21st century
MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCIES 3
managers. For example, communicating a vision of the future helps employees align their
behaviors and decisions with the organization’s vision, which is particularly important in
decentralized organizations where employees are the decision markers. The nine communication
competencies will help managers enhance employee performance. Moreover, they will help
organizations hire or promote managers based not only on tenure or technical competencies, but
also on effective communication competencies. Finally, they represent a parsimonious model
that will help academic institutions design effective communication curricula for students.
Keywords: communication, employee performance, managerial competencies, systematic
review
MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCIES 4
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my wife, Larisa C. Cioaca, who does not take no for an
answer.
MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCIES 5
Acknowledgements
Working on this dissertation has been an eye-opening experience, one that would not
have been possible without the support of many people. Many heartfelt thanks go to the
members of my dissertation committee, Dr. John Sherlock and Dr. Walter Cason, for their
patience and guidance throughout this long process. I would also like to thank the members of
my panel of subject matter experts, Dr. Stephen D. Gantz, Ms. Andrea M. Greenan, Dr.
Kehbuma Langmia, Dr. Jacqueline Rowley Mayfield, and Dr. Margaret A. Walthall, for sharing
their extraordinary expertise and constructive feedback. Finally, I would like to thank my
parents, Mary P. and Robert J. Priola, for supporting and encouraging me without reservations,
always.
MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCIES 6
Table of Contents
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... 10
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... 11
List of Appendices ........................................................................................................................ 13
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................. 14
Background ....................................................................................................................... 14
Problem Statement ............................................................................................................ 19
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................... 22
Significance of the Study .................................................................................................. 23
Research Question ............................................................................................................ 24
Research Methodology ..................................................................................................... 25
Definitions of Key Terms ................................................................................................. 25
Assumptions ...................................................................................................................... 28
Scope and Delimitation ..................................................................................................... 30
Overview of the Study ...................................................................................................... 32
Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 33
Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................... 33
General systems theory ......................................................................................... 34
Human communication theory .............................................................................. 36
Leader-member exchange theory .......................................................................... 39
Motivating language theory .................................................................................. 41
Goal-setting theory of motivation ......................................................................... 44
Organizational support theory ............................................................................... 45
MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCIES 7
Communication Competence ............................................................................................ 45
Skills and behavioral perspectives ........................................................................ 47
Cognitive perspective............................................................................................ 49
Communication Competencies ......................................................................................... 49
Multidimensional approaches ............................................................................... 50
Unidimensional approaches .................................................................................. 51
Inventory approaches ............................................................................................ 52
Multicultural approaches ...................................................................................... 54
Preliminary Conceptual Framework ................................................................................. 57
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 58
Chapter 3: Research Methodology................................................................................................ 60
Evidence-Based Research ................................................................................................. 60
Evidence-Based Management ........................................................................................... 61
Systematic Review Methodology ..................................................................................... 65
Data Collection and Screening .......................................................................................... 68
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 73
Data extraction and coding ................................................................................... 73
Quality and relevance appraisal ............................................................................ 79
Data Synthesis ................................................................................................................... 82
Frequency vote counting ....................................................................................... 83
Thematic synthesis ................................................................................................ 85
Expert Stakeholder Feedback ........................................................................................... 88
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 90
MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCIES 8
Chapter 4: Results ......................................................................................................................... 91
Dataset Characteristics ...................................................................................................... 91
Dataset Findings ................................................................................................................ 92
Overall communication competence. .................................................................... 93
Cognitive and affective communication competencies. ....................................... 95
Behavioral communication competencies. ........................................................... 96
Revised Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................... 124
Active listening ................................................................................................... 124
Articulating meaning .......................................................................................... 126
Communicating a vision of the future ................................................................ 128
Communicating direction.................................................................................... 129
Communicating emotional support ..................................................................... 130
Creating an open communication environment .................................................. 132
Encouraging participation in dialogue ................................................................ 132
Expressing ideas clearly ...................................................................................... 133
Providing performance feedback ........................................................................ 134
Comparison with Other Models ...................................................................................... 135
Summary ......................................................................................................................... 137
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ................................................................................... 139
Integrated Empirical Model ............................................................................................ 139
Implications for Management Practice ........................................................................... 142
Manager selection and promotion ....................................................................... 142
Training program evaluation ............................................................................... 143
MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCIES 9
Manager training and development .................................................................... 143
Manager self-development.................................................................................. 144
College communication curricula development ................................................. 145
Implications for Management Research ......................................................................... 146
Contextual Contingencies ............................................................................................... 148
Individual differences ......................................................................................... 148
Organizational differences .................................................................................. 152
Cultural differences ............................................................................................. 154
Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 155
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 157
References .................................................................................................................................. 159
MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCIES 10
List of Tables
Table 1. Communication Characteristics of In-Group Exchanges .............................................. 40
Table 2. Key Elements of a Systematic Review .......................................................................... 66
Table 3. Data Collection Results ................................................................................................. 71
Table 4. Attributes Coded for Each Source Classification .......................................................... 75
Table 5. Data Extraction Nodes ................................................................................................... 76
Table 6. Critical Appraisal Checklist ........................................................................................... 81
Table 7. Descriptive Themes for Managerial Communication Competencies ............................ 98
Table 8. Descriptive Themes for Employee Performance Outcomes ........................................ 102
Table 9. Correlations Between Managerial Communication Competencies and Employee
Performance Outcomes ................................................................................................... 104
Table 10. Interpretation of Statistically Significant Predictive Models ..................................... 113
Table 11. Demographics for Dataset Studies that Contributed Evidence to the Present Study . 150
MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCIES 11
List of Figures
Figure 1. The multi-dimensional construct of competence includes knowledge, skills, abilities,
behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics. ............................................................ 27
Figure 2. The theoretical framework employed in the present study includes general systems
theory, human communication theory, leader-member exchange theory, motivating
language theory, goal-setting theory of motivation, and organizational support theory. . 35
Figure 3. The transactional model of human communication illustrates the seven essential
elements of human communication: sender, receiver, channel, message, feedback, noise,
and environment or context. ............................................................................................. 38
Figure 4. Motivating language theory recognizes three types of leader oral communication: (a)
meaning-making language, (b) direction-giving language, and (c) empathetic language.
.......................................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 5. The preliminary conceptual framework identifies seven managerial communication
competencies that are expected to be associated with positive employee performance
outcomes: (a) expressing ideas clearly, (b) active listening, (c) using meaning-making
language, (d) using direction-giving language, (e) using empathetic language, (f)
communicating a vision of the future, and (g) creating an open communication
environment. ..................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 6. The present study followed a six-step discovery process. ............................................ 62
Figure 7. Evidence-based management occurs at the intersection of four elements: (a) external
evidence; (b) stakeholders, preferences, or values; (c) context, organizational actors, and
circumstances; and (d) practitioner experience and judgements. ..................................... 64
MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCIES 12
Figure 8. The dataset supported nine managerial communication competencies as predictors of
employee performance outcomes: (a) active listening, (b) articulating meaning, (c)
communicating a vision of the future, (d) communicating direction, (e) communicating
emotional support, (f) creating an open communication environment, (g) encouraging
participation in dialogue, (h) expressing ideas clearly, and (i) providing performance
feedback. ......................................................................................................................... 119
Figure 9. A subset of the dataset studies showed that partially mediated predictors of employee
performance outcomes include (a) creating an open communication environment, (b)
communicating a vision of the future, and (c) communicating emotional support. ....... 120
Figure 10. The revised conceptual framework of the present study includes nine managerial
communication competencies that have been empirically associated with positive
employee performance, either directly or through mediators. ........................................ 125
Figure 11. The triangle of managerial communication competencies that enhance employee
performance in the 21st century includes (a) content-focused competencies, (b) delivery-focused
competencies, and (c) exchange-focused competencies. .................................. 141
MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCIES 13
List of Appendices
Appendix A. Search Keywords and Strings .............................................................................. 193
Appendix B. Sources of Evidence ............................................................................................. 194
Appendix C. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ............
A generic service-oriented cost model for student admissions registration
No full textState support of community colleges has been reduced in recent years and is not expected to recover to previous levels, even though costs continue to rise. While many colleges have increased tuition in response to this situation, students cannot afford endless increases in tuition. While predicting the future is difficult, it is likely that community colleges will continue to be expected to do more with less. Facing declining revenue and increasing costs, institutions of higher learning must become more efficient and self-sustaining, and college administrators need tools to help bridge the gap between revenues and costs. A first step is for administrators to understand the processes they manage and their associated costs. The present study presents a model approach for the creation of such a tool—a generic, service-oriented cost model for a student’s admission to the college. Why examine the student admission registration processes? Every student entering college goes through an admission registration process. By entering all the potential components and tasks in the admissions process into a matrix, users can identify the admission registration tasks used at their college and build a cost model of admission tasks specific to their schools. This can help them to consider whether cost efficiencies are available. The cost model developed in this dissertation includes component definitions, calculation techniques, tasks, and cost assignment matrices. The researcher concluded that while the creation of such models is complex, it can be accomplished. Moreover, the model can be modified to fit other institutions and examine costs of other supportive services.A Generic Service-Oriented Cost Model for Student Admissions Registration
By
Philip Edward Peña
Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School
of the University of Maryland University College, in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
of Doctor of Management
in Community College Policy and Administration
2017
Dissertation Advisors
Dr. Charlene R. Nunley
Dr. Susan M. McMaster
A Generic Service-Oriented Cost Model for Student Admissions Registration ii
Abstract
State support of community colleges has been reduced in recent years and is not expected
to recover to previous levels, even though costs continue to rise. While many colleges have
increased tuition in response to this situation, students cannot afford endless increases in tuition.
While predicting the future is difficult, it is likely that community colleges will continue to be
expected to do more with less. Facing declining revenue and increasing costs, institutions of
higher learning must become more efficient and self-sustaining, and college administrators need
tools to help bridge the gap between revenues and costs. A first step is for administrators to
understand the processes they manage and their associated costs. The present study presents a
model approach for the creation of such a tool—a generic, service-oriented cost model for a
student’s admission to the college. Why examine the student admission registration processes?
Every student entering college goes through an admission registration process. By entering all
the potential components and tasks in the admissions process into a matrix, users can identify the
admission registration tasks used at their college and build a cost model of admission tasks
specific to their schools. This can help them to consider whether cost efficiencies are available.
The cost model developed in this dissertation includes component definitions, calculation
techniques, tasks, and cost assignment matrices. The researcher concluded that while the creation
of such models is complex, it can be accomplished. Moreover, the model can be modified to fit
other institutions and examine costs of other supportive services.
A Generic Service-Oriented Cost Model for Student Admissions Registration iii
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my wonderful family. I would like to thank my wife,
Cathy; my children, Megan, Katie, PJ, Alan; my son-in-law, Matt; and my grandkids, Michael
and Lil. You were there when I needed you through thick and thin and always with lots of love. I
am thankful for my parents: my dad, for his work ethic; my mom, for sharing her love of
learning and making nothing seem impossible. I love you all!
A Generic Service-Oriented Cost Model for Student Admissions Registration iv
Acknowledgments
A number of individuals were instrumental to me in working on this dissertation. I would
like to thank Dr. Michael Evanchik who worked to focus my topic and Dr. Susan McMaster for
her invaluable assistance and advice. Dr. McMaster’s English skills and ability to pull ideas from
her advisees and suggest better ways to explain difficult concepts were amazing. If it wasn’t for
Dr. Charlene Nunley, this dissertation would not exist and I would have remained ABD forever.
Her expertise, guidance, encouragement, and massive efforts to keep me on-track were
instrumental in this effort. No words can say how much gratitude I have for Dr. Nunley.
I am also grateful for the faculty at University of Maryland University College, who
changed the way I think about and look at the world. I am appreciative of the staff who supports
the DMCCPA program for all they do, especially Monica Graham—you rock! I am thankful for
all the advice and feedback from my expert panel reviewers. Cohort 3, what can I say? Your
companionship, support, and great sense of humor made the program more than just grad school.
You all are my brothers and sisters.
Lastly, to my great family, particularly my wife, your cajoling to finish my dissertation
and, mostly, your encouragement and love saw me through this whole process. I love you all
very much. Cathy, I guess I have run out of excuses for not getting things done around the house.
And yes, I know, no more degrees!
A Generic Service-Oriented Cost Model for Student Admissions Registration v
© Copyright by
Philip Edward Peña
2017
A Generic Service-Oriented Cost Model for Student Admissions Registration vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................. 1
Context of the Problem .................................................................................................... 3
Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................... 5
Activity-based Costing......................................................................................... 6
Lean Accounting .................................................................................................. 7
Cost Allocation .................................................................................................... 8
Contingency Theories and Adaptive Leadership ................................................. 8
Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 12
Significance of the Study ................................................................................................. 13
Statement of Purpose ....................................................................................................... 16
Definition of Terms.......................................................................................................... 18
Summary .......................................................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................. 20
Overview .......................................................................................................................... 20
Demands for Efficiency in Higher Education .................................................................. 20
The Admissions Registration Process .............................................................................. 24
Admissions Policies in Missouri ...................................................................................... 26
Cost-accounting Methods ................................................................................................ 27
Total Cost Management ................................................................................................... 29
Data Warehousing ................................................................................................ 31
Transactional Accounting ................................................................................................ 32
Activity-based Costing Method ....................................................................................... 33
Benefits of ABC ................................................................................................... 37
Higher Education Applications of ABC .............................................................. 39
Other Accounting Methods .............................................................................................. 41
Literature Review Summary ............................................................................................ 42
CHAPTER THREE: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .............................................................. 43
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 43
Model Assumptions ......................................................................................................... 43
Justification for Use of the Generic Model ...................................................................... 44
Elements Included in Generic Model Inputs to the Model .............................................. 46
Governing Board Policy and Procedures ............................................................. 46
Process Management ........................................................................................... 47
Cost-accounting Methods .................................................................................... 48
Generation of Student Admissions Registration Cost Model .......................................... 51
Model Outputs—Suggested Uses .................................................................................... 51
Model Limitations ............................................................................................................ 53
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 53
A Generic Service-Oriented Cost Model for Student Admissions Registration vii
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY................................................................. 54
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 54
Research Design............................................................................................................... 55
The Systematic Review of Literature .............................................................................. 56
Keywords ............................................................................................................. 58
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ...................................................................................... 59
Systematic Review of Findings ....................................................................................... 60
Use of Subject Matter Experts ......................................................................................... 66
Case Study Description .................................................................................................... 68
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 76
CHAPTER FIVE: FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS ...................................................................... 78
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 78
Analysis of Subject Matter Expert Review ...................................................................... 81
Relevance and Contribution to the Practice of Management............................... 81
Scholarly References ........................................................................................... 82
Scope of Research ................................................................................................ 83
Conceptual Model ................................................................................................ 83
Writing Quality .................................................................................................... 83
Overall Comments and Recommendations .......................................................... 84
Changes to the Study Based on Expert Feedback ................................................ 84
Findings of the Systematic Literature Review ................................................................. 85
Case Study Findings ........................................................................................................ 89
Definition of Table Headings............................................................................... 89
Cost Driver Tasks Tables ..................................................................................... 90
Challenges in Implementing the Activity-based Accounting Model ...............................103
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................104
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS ...........................106
Overall Conclusion ..........................................................................................................106
Implications for Management ..........................................................................................107
Summary of the Findings .................................................................................................109
Limitations and Areas for Future Research .....................................................................113
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................115
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................117
Appendix A – Cost Driver Tasks Tables .....................................................................................126
Appendix B – Costing Totals by Admission Type ......................................................................140
Appendix C – Evaluation Form ...................................................................................................141
A Generic Service-Oriented Cost Model for Student Admissions Registration viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1 Leadership Matrix ............................................................................................................ 10
2 Databases Searched for a Generic Service-oriented Cost Model for Student
Admissions Registration .................................................................................................. 57
3 Keyword Searches for a Generic Service-oriented Cost Model for Student
Admissions Registration .................................................................................................. 58
4 Relevant Literature Review ............................................................................................. 61
5 Evaluation Forms Rating Summaries .............................................................................. 81
6 Cost Driver Tasks Table .................................................................................................. 91
7 General Assumptions ....................................................................................................... 99
8 Average Cost Per Student Type .......................................................................................101
A Generic Service-Oriented Cost Model for Student Admissions Registration ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1 A generic service-oriented model for student admissions registration:
Conceptual model ............................................................................................................ 45
2 East Central College registration process ........................................................................ 75
A Generic Service-Oriented Cost Model for Student Admissions Registration 1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
Community colleges today are being asked to do more with less as they face diminished
state funding, flattening property values as a tax base, and an underlying lower-value perception
of higher education (Not what it used to be; Higher education, 2012). While declining public
funding for community colleges is a national phenomenon, this dissertation focuses on one state,
the state of Missouri, in particular to develop a model that applies to one institution in that state.
This model can then be generalized to apply to other community colleges in the United States.
In Missouri, community colleges are in peril due to a decrease in state appropriations.
State appropriations went from a high of 134,077,781
in FY 2012 (July, 2011-June, 2012), constituting a drop of 329,367,378 below FY 2009’s level (Missouri
Department of Revenue, 2014). For fiscal years 2013 through 2016, the situation has improved
(Missouri Department of Revenue, 2016). However, FY 2017 has seen former Governor Dixon
cut 456 million shortfall (Associated
Press, 2017). Shortly after taking office in January 2017, Governor Greitens cut 424 million from the 2012 appropriation.
The days of relying on augmented government support, rising property values, and
drastic tuition increases are over for community colleges. According to the most recent
information from the U.S. Census Bureau (2010), overall state tax collections totaled 781.6 billion collected in FY 2008. FY 2010 saw
overall state tax collection at its lowest since FY 2008 at 761.8 and 846.2 billion (U.S. Census Bureau,
2014). The years of downturn were due, in part, to the economic downturn, the drastic decline in
property values, and dwindling personal incomes.
For community college administrators, these economic conditions require that they
become more efficient and work towards enhanced self-sufficiency. However, community
college administrators who are engaged in support service functions can do little to raise
revenues. Furthermore, the only way to contribute increased funding to academics is by
controlling costs or increasing enrollment, which is unlikely since the number of high school
graduates was in slight decline in years 2012 through 2014 and appeared to be leveling off in
2015 (U.S. Department of Education, 2017). Thus, to manage colleges effectively, community
college administrators must understand how costs are incurred in school operations. By
examining the procedures and tasks that compose each operational process, administrators can
create a cost model of the operation that will assist them in making reliable, informed decisions.
Yet by 2011, only minimal cost modeling had been introduced in higher education management
practices. “Costing remains at a developmental stage for most higher education institutions”
(Adams, Robichaux, & Guarino, 2010, pp. 1-16). Therefore, the problem is that declining
revenues are forcing colleges to make difficult resource allocation decisions; colleges do not
have adequate approaches to make sure that these decisions are made in a quality way.
Brinkman (1990) discussed the difficulties of cost analysis in higher education.
Conventional wisdom holds that higher education institutions do not minimize costs and have no
A Generic Service-Oriented Cost Model for Student Admissions Registration 3
fundamental, abiding interest in minimizing them. Those who work in higher education,
particularly faculty, are concerned primarily with creating and transmitting knowledge. At times,
cutting costs can have utility for them, but never in the direct manner in which cost savings
benefit a profit-seeking venture. In addition, even if the motivation to cut costs was present,
faculty would still find it difficult to minimize cost due to a lack of knowledge about the overall
environment outside of the classroom (Hoenack & Collins, 1990).
“[Higher education is] an industry that has rising costs but no productivity gains”
(Breneman & American Student Assistance, 1993, p. 3). Cost containment is a new concept to
higher education. According to
The role of trust and collaboration toward innovation in outsourced manufacturing supply chains: A systematic review
No full textAs organizations shift more work to outsourced partners, a problem for management is how to accomplish not only short-term/tactical performance but also how to leverage network relationships for long-term/strategic advantage. Outsourced manufacturing supply chains represent a unique context for study as internal and external participants share a common goal for supply chain performance but also have separate and independent goals. Trust and collaboration are among the inputs that can influence supply chain outcomes, but there is a gap in understanding these variables with respect to strategic outcomes like innovation. This research uses systematic review of peer reviewed literature to examine the role of trust and collaboration in outsourced manufacturing supply chains, and specifically the potential for these variables to shape relationships for advancing innovation. Two conditions are found that derive from the presence of trust: 1) willingness to engage, and 2) commitment for long-term relationship and to overcome failures. Three conditions are found that derive from the presence of collaboration: 1) awareness of capability, 2) sharing information, and 3) integration of resources. These conditions shape an underlying mindset that can either advance or diminish innovation, and together create either transactional, operational, serendipitous, or strategic orientations. The conclusion is that a strategic orientation promotes the path for innovation and arises from high willingness, commitment, awareness, sharing, and integration that are shaped by trust and collaboration. The findings have implication for organizations that seek to foster interactions for innovation and to go beyond what is necessary to accomplish short-term operational objectives.Running head: TRUST AND COLLABORATION IN OUTSOURCED SUPPLY CHAINS
The Role of Trust and Collaboration Toward Innovation
In Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains: A Systematic Review
Brian Mallett
University of Maryland University College
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management
Dissertation Advisors:
Richard Milter, Ph.D.
James Gelatt, Ph.D.
University of Maryland University College
December 2017
TRUST AND COLLABORATION IN OUTSOURCED SUPPLY CHAINS 2
© 2017
Brian Mallett
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
TRUST AND COLLABORATION IN OUTSOURCED SUPPLY CHAINS 3
Abstract
As organizations shift more work to outsourced partners, a problem for management is how to
accomplish not only short-term/tactical performance but also how to leverage network
relationships for long-term/strategic advantage. Outsourced manufacturing supply chains
represent a unique context for study as internal and external participants share a common goal
for supply chain performance but also have separate and independent goals. Trust and
collaboration are among the inputs that can influence supply chain outcomes, but there is a gap
in understanding these variables with respect to strategic outcomes like innovation. This
research uses systematic review of peer reviewed literature to examine the role of trust and
collaboration in outsourced manufacturing supply chains, and specifically the potential for these
variables to shape relationships for advancing innovation. Two conditions are found that derive
from the presence of trust – 1) willingness to engage, and 2) commitment for long-term
relationship and to overcome failures. Three conditions are found that derive from the presence
of collaboration – 1) awareness of capability, 2) sharing information, and 3) integration of
resources. These conditions shape an underlying mindset that can either advance or diminish
innovation, and together create transactional, operational, serendipitous, or strategic orientations.
The conclusion is that a strategic orientation promotes the path for innovation and arises from
high willingness, commitment, awareness, sharing, and integration that are shaped by trust and
collaboration. The findings have implication for organizations that seek to foster interactions for
innovation and to go beyond what is necessary to accomplish short-term operational objectives.
Keywords: supply chain, trust, collaboration, innovation, outsourced manufacturing
TRUST AND COLLABORATION IN OUTSOURCED SUPPLY CHAINS 4
Acknowledgements
This dissertation would not have been possible without the on-going support of many
faculty and students at the University of Maryland University College. First among these are my
faculty advisors, Dr. Richard Milter and Dr. James Gelatt, professors Dr. Wanda Wagner and Dr.
Leslie Dinauer, and students Laura D’Antonio and Eric Miller. Each of these contributed
insights and ideas that challenged me and advanced learning. Thank-you!
Most of all, I am grateful for my family and my wife, Elaine Mallett, who share in all my
adventures and inspire me to reach higher, to ask questions, to find answers, to keep climbing,
and to make a difference. I hope this effort will serve as some small bit of evidence of my
attempt to live up to those ideals.
TRUST AND COLLABORATION IN OUTSOURCED SUPPLY CHAINS 5
Table of Contents
Abstract ……………………............................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………. 4
List of Tables ……...………………………………………............................................... 9
List of Figures ……………………………...…………………………………………….. 10
Chapter 1: Introduction ………………………………………………………………….. 11
The Context of Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains ……………………… 11
Management Problem ……………………………………………………………. 13
Significance of the Problem ……………………………………………………… 14
Research Opportunity – Trust and Collaboration ………………………………... 15
Purpose of the Study ……………………………………………………………… 16
Research Question ………………………………………………………………... 17
Organization of the Study ………………………………………………………... 18
Chapter 2: Literature Review ……………………………………………………………. 19
Theoretical Lens ………………………………………………………………….. 19
Commitment-Trust Theory ………………………………………………. 19
Contingency Theory ……………………………………………………… 22
Definitions ………………………………………………………………………... 24
Supply Chain Management ………………………………………………. 24
Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chain ………………………………... 24
Trust ………………………………………………………………………. 25
Collaboration ……………………………………………………………... 26
Operational –vs- Strategic Outcomes ….………………………………..... 27
TRUST AND COLLABORATION IN OUTSOURCED SUPPLY CHAINS 6
Innovation ……………………………………………….……….………. 27
Scoping Review of the Literature ……………………………….……….………. 28
Classical ………………………………………………….……….……… 28
Systems …………………………………………………….……….……. 28
Behavioral ………………………………………………….……….……. 29
Trust ………………………………………………………….……….….. 29
Collaboration ………………………………………………….……….…. 30
Trust and Collaboration in the Operational Domain ………….……….…. 31
Trust and Collaboration in the Strategic Domain …………….……........... 31
Innovation as a Strategic Outcome …………………………….………..... 32
Conceptual Framework ………………………………………………….…….…. 33
Propositions ……………………………………………………………….…….... 35
Summary of Chapter 2 ………………………………………………………….... 35
Chapter 3: Methodology ………………………………………………………….…….... 36
Evidence-Based Management ……………………………………………………. 36
Systematic Review ……………………………………………………………….. 37
Realist Synthesis …………………………………………………………………. 38
Limitations of the Methodology …………………………………………………. 40
Relation of EBR to EBP …………………………………………………………. 40
Outline of Steps for a Systematic Review ……………………………………….. 40
Step 1 – Question Formulation …………………………………………… 42
Step 2 – Locating Studies ………………………………………………… 42
Step 3 – Study Selection and Evaluation (Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria) … 43
TRUST AND COLLABORATION IN OUTSOURCED SUPPLY CHAINS 7
Selection ………………………………………………………….. 43
Evaluation (Quality Assessment - TAPUPAS) ..………………..... 43
Step 4 – Analysis and Synthesis ………………………………………….. 44
Analysis …………………………………………………………... 44
Weight of Evidence Scoring ……………………………… 44
Coding ………………………………………………...….. 45
Synthesis …………………………………………………………. 45
Step 5 – Reporting and Using Results …………………………………… 46
Expert Panel Process ……………………………………………………………... 46
Chapter 4: Results ……………………………………………………………………….. 47
Search Results ………………………………………………………………….... 47
Quality Assessments ……………………………………………………………... 51
Thematic Analysis ………………………………………………………………... 53
Presentation of Findings …………………………………...................................... 61
Trust: Willingness to Engage …………………………………………….. 61
Trust: Commitment for Relationship and to Overcome Failure …………. 63
Collaboration: Awareness of Capability ……………..………………….. 64
Collaboration: Sharing Information ……………………………………… 65
Collaboration: Integration of Resources ……………..………………….. 66
Research Question and Propositions in Light of Findings ……………………….. 67
Innovation Orientations …………………………………………………………... 69
Consideration of Other Views ……………………………………………………. 72
Answering the Research Question ………………………………………………... 73
TRUST AND COLLABORATION IN OUTSOURCED SUPPLY CHAINS 8
Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusion, and Implications …………………………………… 74
Discussion ………………………………………………………………………… 74
Updated Conceptual Model ………………………………………………………. 79
Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………... 81
Implications for Management …………………………………………………….. 82
Limitations of the Study ………………………………………………………….. 83
Future Research …………………………………………………………………... 84
Summary of the Study ……………………………………………………………. 85
References ………………………………………………………………………………… 86
Appendix A: PRISMA Diagram for Search and Selection Strategy of Articles ………… 108
Appendix B: List of Selected Articles Used in this Systematic Review ………………… 110
Appendix C: TAPUPAS Quality Assessment Scoring for Evaluated Articles ………….. 114
Appendix D: Weight of Evidence Scores for Selected Articles in Relation
to Research Variables …………………………………………………….. 118
Appendix E: Expert Panel Feedback Form ……………………………………………… 121
TRUST AND COLLABORATION IN OUTSOURCED SUPPLY CHAINS 9
List of Tables
Table 1. Steps Involved in Realist Synthesis and Relevant Elements for this Study …… 39
Table 2. Thematic Coding of Articles Selected for this Systematic Review ……………. 53
TRUST AND COLLABORATION IN OUTSOURCED SUPPLY CHAINS 10
List of Figures
Figure 1. A Conceptual Framework for the Role of Trust and Collaboration Toward
Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains ……………………. 34
Figure 2. Five Step Process for a Systematic Review ………………………………….... 41
Figure 3. Number of Peer-Reviewed Published Articles in Supply Chain
Management (SCM) ………………………………………………………….... 48
Figure 4. Number of Peer-Reviewed Published Articles on Variables Impacting
Supply Chain Performance ……………………………………………………. 49
Figure 5. Number of Peer-Reviewed Published Articles on Operational and
Strategic Outcomes …………………………………………………………… 50
Figure 6. A Conceptual Model for Innovation Orientations Shaped by Trust
and Collaboration in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains …………….. 69
Figure 7. Updated Conceptual Model for Innovation Orientations Shaped by Trust
and Collaboration in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains …………….. 79
TRUST AND COLLABORATION IN OUTSOURCED SUPPLY CHAINS 11
Chapter 1: Introduction
Supply Chain Management, SCM, is an important constituent to the success of an
enterprise and a growing area of management scholarship (Naslund & Williamson, 2010). A
company must consider how best to advance “a value adding flow from raw material to end
consumer,” and what conditions will contribute to achieving this objective (p. 12). In a recent
survey of over 150 global executives, 52% of respondents judged that SCM is as critical to their
business as sales, marketing, R&D, or product development (Lee, O’Marah, John, & Blake,
2013). Supply chains are described as a network of people and processes that work together to
serve customers and deliver results (Harland, 1996, p. S67; Stock & Boyer, 2009, p. 706).
Supply chains involve integrated interactions and relationships that “provide products, services,
and information … for stakeholders” (Lambert, Cooper, & Pagh, 1998, p. 1). It follows that the
nature of interactions and relationships between participants in a supply chain will impact on
performance.
The Context of Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains
Manufacturing supply chains in the 21st century increasingly have outsourced elements
(Pounder, Bovell, & Pilgrim-Worrell, 2013). In a survey of 806 companies across 15 different
countries, outsourcing as a percentage of activities ranged from 15.8% to 93.3% (Schoenherr,
2010, p. 352). A common reason for outsourcing is the limitation of resources in a base
organization, and the opportunity to use external suppliers to complement internal competencies
(p. 343). Globalization and the rise of digital information systems have changed the basis of
competition from separate companies acting alone to integrated business partners acting as one
end-to-end network (Lambert, Cooper, & Pagh, 1998). Trade policies and the ability to move
materials freely across borders make it possible for companies to employ capabilities from
TRUST AND COLLABORATION IN OUTSOURCED SUPPLY CHAINS 12
outside their own structure (Pounder, Bovell, & Pilgrim-Worrell, 2013, p. 44). Examples of
outsourced supply chains span a wide range of industries and functions – e.g. in the automotive
industry (Ciravegna, Romano, & Pilkington, 2013); pharmaceutical manufacturing (Nagurney, &
Nagurney, 2013); textiles & fashions (Sardar & Lee, 2015); across multiple industries with
international off-shore locations (Wee, Peng, & Wee, 2010); and even for research and
development (Kim & Lee, 2014).
At an organizational level, the internal and external companies in a supply chain share a
common interest in the success of their alliance (Solomon, 1992, p. 26). The internal company
creates value by serving customers, the external company creates value by serving the internal
company, and the success of each is interdependent. In contrast to that arrangement, the internal
and external companies have independent interests. The internal company is paying the bill and
wants to get a return on its investment. The external company wants to succeed in its own right,
and must consider the impact of its actions on individual and collective returns. Disagreements
in “interpretation and application” of governing principles can occur, and influence the progress
of a supply chain chain relationship (Mo, Booth, & Wang, 2012, p. 122).
At an individual level, internal and external participants share information and
transactions to perform the specific functions of a supply chain. The internal participants send
demand signals, the external participants respond with products and services, and the shared
value stream is advanced. In contrast to that premise, an internal participant communicates as a
client, from a position of predominance, which may lead to more directive exchanges rather than
collaborative interactions. An external participant may behave reactively, simply following
orders rather than behaving proactively and working together to achieve goals (Klein & Rai,
TRUST AND COLLABORATION IN OUTSOURCED SUPPLY CHAINS 13
2009). When problems arise, the focus can tend toward finding fault rather than finding
solutions.
Another issue for manufacturing companies with outsourced elements is that they may be
reluctant to share proprietary information with their partners due to competitive concerns, even
when that kind of information sharing may lead to insights and actions that bear on performance
(Fawcett, Magnan, & McCarter, 2008a, p. 42). In a study of 617 manufacturing firms and their
external suppliers, higher levels of information sharing from the base company were associated
with higher levels of learning and performance from the partner company (Huo, Zhao, & Zhou,
2014). Different levels of information sharing may be warranted based on the requirements of a
particular outsourced function.
Management Problem
As organizations shift more work to outsourced partners, a challenge for management is
how to foster relationships between internal and external participants that will result in favorable
outcomes. The conditions for influencing performance in outsourced manufacturing supply
chains may or may not be the same as those involved in internal manufacturing alone. A supply
chain manager may interact with external providers in different ways when compared to
interactions with internal colleagues. A base company may or may not acknowledge the
interests of an external partner in the same way as it does its own interests. Thus, the nature of
outsourced manufacturing relationships can vary across a wide range, and an important
management problem is how to promote “intra- and inter-company” relationships that can
achieve the objectives of a supply chain and thereby contribute to the overall success of a
business (Lambert, Cooper, & Pagh, 1998, p. 1).
TRUST AND COLLABORATION IN OUTSOURCED SUPPLY CHAINS 14
A further challenge is how to manage outsourced network assets to realize not only short-term
tactical objectives but also long-term strategic objectives. In a review of SCM papers
published in 2000 – 2012, Montoya-Torres and Ortiz-Vargas (2014) report that 83% of studies
involve impact on operational metrics like on-time delivery, inventory level and cost. But fewer
studies have addressed the impact of relationship variables on strategic outcomes like
competitive advantage, sustainability and innovation (Jaya Krishna, 2011), or the problem of
how to unlock value represented in outsourced supply chains for achieving strategic goals.
Significance of the Problem
Practitioners need to understand the relationship conditions that facilitate operations and
the interventions that will influence positive outcomes. The benefits of a well-managed supply
chain are reflected in operational measures like on-time delivery, customer satisfaction, product
quality, inventory level and cost (Mandal, 2012). But a broader implication is the impact of
supply chains on overall viability of an enterprise. A study of 25 companies in the Fortune 500
reports a correlation between higher SCM competency and higher revenue (Ellinger,
Natarajarathinam, Adams, Gray, Hofman, & O'Marah, 2011, p. 219). This connection with
financial results makes it imperative to understand the circumstances that shape supply chain
proficiency.
Relationship dynamics in outsourced supply chains are meaningful not only to
operational outcomes and financial performance, but also to competitive advantage. Schoenherr
(2010) asserts that depending on the specific business situation, outsourced relationships have
“become a necessity” for competitiveness (p. 343). An example is Dell Computer Corporation,
which posts more than $50 billion annual revenue and achieves a leading market position from
the strength of its supply chain – building 50,000 customized computers each day and selling
TRUST AND COLLABORATION IN OUTSOURCED SUPPLY CHAINS 15
direct to consumers via a network of outsourced suppliers (Jacobs, 2003; Wieland & Wallenberg,
2013). The CEO, Michael Dell, identifies the “secret sauce” for this model is to “keep your
friends close, and your suppliers closer” (Jacobs, 2003, p. 61). This demonstrates the potential
for supply chains to impact on strategic outcomes. If the problem of how to foster productive
relationships in outsourced supply chains and how to leverage outsourced manufacturing
networks for strategic advantage is not considered, the long-term competitiveness of a firm may
be lost.
Research Opportunity – Trust and Collaboration
Supply chains involve interactions between people, and it follows that the factors driving
performance would include variables related to those interactions. Trust and collaboration are
two variables reported as being among the inputs that can influence supply chain outcomes
(Barratt, 2004; Fawcett, Magnan, & Williams, 2004; Kampstra, Ashayeri, & Gattorna, 2006).
Trust promotes positive relationship exchanges (Brinkhoff, Ozer, & Sargut, 2015), and
collaboration, the cooperative actions of people working together toward a common goal, is
increased in the presence of trust (Naesens, Pintelon, & Taillieu, 2007). A recent review offers
twenty-four studies associating trust and collaboration with improved information sharing and
operational level performance (Almeida, Marins, Salgado, Santos, & Silva, 2015, p. 511).
Outsourced supply chains represent a unique context for studying trust and collaboration.
Internal and external participants share a common goal for supply chain performance but also
have separate and independent goals. Trust and collaboration involve sharing – sharing
commitment, sharing belief in another’s capability, sharing information, sharing resources,
sharing results – but the degree of sharing may vary in outsourced supply chains due to varying
TRUST AND COLLABORATION IN OUTSOURCED SUPPLY CHAINS 16
self-interests. High levels of trust and collaboration may trigger different behaviors and different
outcomes than low levels.
There is also a gap in understanding the role of trust and collaboration with respect to
strategic outcomes … things like competitive strength, sustainability, and innovation (Shamah &
Elsawaby, 2014; Hui, He-Cheng, & Min-Fei, 2015). Trust and collaboration may behave
differently in the strategic domain than in the operational domain, and the context of outsourcing
may affect the expression of trust and collaboration toward long-term, proactive, strategic
objectives. Trust and collaboration may be influential inputs to unlocking value in outsourced
manufacturing assets by delivering more than just operational results but also achieving strategic
goals like innovation.
There are risks in advancing trust and collaboration with external partners – e.g. e
Trust development mechanisms in virtual teams: A comparison of the scholarly evidence and practitioner-focused literature
No full textThis presentation seeks to examine trust-development mechanisms in virtual teams by comparing scholarly evidence and practitioner perspectives.Trust Development Mechanisms in Virtual Teams: A Comparison of the Scholarly Evidence and Practitioner-Focused Literature Laura D’Antonio
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Communication
Personal Info
Sharing
Norms
Social
Relationships
Rewards
Technology
Training
Aware &
Transp
Shared
Similarities
Goal
Clarity
F2F
Meetings
Task Interdependence
Cues
Behavioral Controls
Other Empirical Dataset
Practitioner-focused Dataset
Case Study Dataset
Findings:
Problem: Virtual teams often fail because of a lack of trust.
Purpose:To examine trust-development mechanisms in virtual teams by comparing scholarly evidence and practitioner perspectives.
Assumptions:
•Trust is important for team performance.
•Developing trust is more challenging as team virtualityincreases.
•The effectiveness of trust-development mechanisms in virtual teams varies.
Other findings:
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Suggestions for practice and scholarship:
To foster trust in dispersed teams, managers should:
Establish patterns of frequent and predictable communication
Facilitate a sense of virtual co-presence
Design workflows intentionally to facilitate trust development
Match tools and technology with tasks
Take advantage of the best available technology
Increase normative activity without reducing autonomy.
Additional research is needed in the following areas:
Divergent themes, especially behavioral controls
Understudied themes, such as task interdependence and rewards
Longitudinal studies of industry teams with larger sample sizes
Tool design and tools as trust conduits.
Dissertation Advisors: James Gelatt, PhD, Richard Milter, PhD
•UMUC Online Databases, Google Search and data mining yielded 440 articles reduced to 81
•Final dataset date range: 1999-2017, 75% from last 10yrs
•54% peer-reviewed journals, 23% conf. proc., 7% dissertations, 15% other grey lit
•Trust development as DV or critical outcome
Trust development mechanisms in virtual teams
(81 articles)
Other Empirical
(49)
Practitioner Focused
(17)
Case Studies
(15)
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Thematic Synthesis Results of Combined Datasets
Other Empirical
Case Studies
Practitioner Focused
Methodology: Systematic Review
Scoping Review:
Evidence:
Synthesis:
•Separate thematic syntheses on three datasets using Nvivo
•Coding was deductive (from scoping review) and inductive (emergent themes)
•Cumulative findings developed
•Vote counting used to determine theme ranking within datasets
•Theme rankings analyzed for convergence and divergence between datasets
RQ: What mechanisms enable trust development in virtual teams and how do the findings from academic and practitioner-focused literature compare?
Notes:
•Themes arranged from left to right based on standard deviation of theme ranking
•Dot size indicates theme ranking (largest dot is most important theme within a particular dataset)
•Dot position based on absolute value of divergence from “other empirical” dataset
•Position below “other empirical” baseline indicates a less important theme. Position above indicates more significant theme
Theme
Convergence Divergence
Structural Mechanisms
Norms & Norming Behaviors
Technology
Training
Cues
Social Relationships
Risks & Rewards
Task Interdependence
Seminal Works
Jarvenpaa& Leidner(1999)
Jarvenpaa, Knoll, & Leidner, (1998)
Jarvenpaa, Shaw, & Staples, (2004)
Supporting Theories
Media Richness Theory
Daft & Lengel, (1986)
Social Categorization Theory
Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher& Wetherell(1987)
Trust Framework
Mayer, Davis,& Schoorman(1995)
Themes in italics emerged from the data (inductive coding)
Themes not in italics reflect findings from scoping review (deductive coding
ERM Issues in the Adoption of No-Cost Resources for Students
No full textThis article discusses how the University of Maryland University College adapted no-cost electronic resources, or open educational resources, for course use and how the Library participated in this process. Open educational resources replaced expensive textbooks and related materials, which resulted in tremendous cost savings for the university and students.1
This is a preprint of an article submitted for consideration in the Journal of Electronic Resources Librarianship, 2017, by Melissa Foge, Julie Harding, Stephen D. Miller; Lenore England, Column Editor;
the Journal of Electronic Resources Librarianship is available online at: http://www.tandfonline.com/
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1941126X.2017.1304767
Title of Column: ERM Ideas & Innovations
Column Editor:
Lenore England, Assistant Director for Electronic Resources Management at the University of Maryland, University College Library, [email protected]
From the Column Editor, Lenore England:
My colleagues in the University of Maryland University College Library authored the ERM Ideas and Innovations column for this issue: Melissa Foge, Reference and Instruction Librarian; Julie Harding, Assistant Director, Public Services; and Stephen Miller, Associate Vice Provost. They discuss how the University of Maryland University College adapted no-cost electronic resources, or open educational resources, for course use and how the Library participated in this process. Open educational resources replaced expensive textbooks and related materials, which resulted in tremendous cost savings for the university and students.
My colleagues provide a unique perspective about the use of open access electronic resources in a library environment, which is applicable for all libraries. The university administration mandated the use of open access resources in courses, which my colleagues and all Library staff fully supported while adapting to certain requirements and challenges. Most importantly, they explain how they strategically planned projects to develop open access electronic resources for our patrons’ use in an online learning environment, utilizing their expertise on information literacy and how both open access resources and Library proprietary electronic resources subscriptions are important to learning. That approach is invaluable to the university. I was involved more in the back end of procuring electronic resources, both proprietary and open 2
access, and learned a great deal from their column about how they managed a very complex process very well. Through hard work, they curated a critical and extensive set of electronic resources to support all of our curricular needs now and certainly for the foreseeable future, as they continue to assess electronic resources as courses are revised and developed.
Title of Contribution:
ERM Issues in the Adoption of No-Cost Resources for Students
Column authors:
Melissa Foge
Reference and Instruction Librarian
University of Maryland University College Library
3501 University Boulevard East
Largo, Room 1260
Adelphi, Maryland 20783
[email protected]
Julie Harding
Assistant Director, Public Services
University of Maryland University College Library
3501 University Boulevard East
Largo, Room 1267
Adelphi, Maryland 20783
[email protected]
Stephen Miller
Associate Vice Provost
University of Maryland University College Library
3501 University Boulevard East
Largo, Room 1265
Adelphi, Maryland 20783
[email protected]
Running head:
ERM Ideas and Innovations
Abstract: 3
Between 2013 and 2016, the University of Maryland University College (UMUC) undertook a major project to replace traditional textbooks with online open educational resources (OERs), which changed electronic resources management (ERM) at the university. The curation and selection of electronic resources at UMUC is now primarily curriculum-based, including ERM in the Library. UMUC librarians in all functional areas (reference and instruction, access, and ERM) are working much more closely with faculty, subject matter experts, and instructional designers to ensure high quality licensed Library electronic resources are available to complement OERs and meet course objectives.
Keywords:
Open educational resources, OERs, open access, electronic resources management, reference and instruction, University of Maryland University College Library
ERM Issues in the Adoption of No-Cost Resources for Students
Introduction
Between 2013 and 2016, the University of Maryland University College (UMUC) undertook a major project to replace traditional textbooks with online open educational resources (OERs), which changed electronic resources management (ERM) at the university. The move from fee-based textbooks to no-cost OERs for UMUC students had a distinct impact on the UMUC Library (Library) and ERM staff strategically updated workflow and processes in order to 4
support this initiative and efficiently evolve both over time (England et al., 2016). The curation and selection of electronic resources at UMUC is now primarily curriculum-based, including ERM in the Library. Further, UMUC librarians in all functional areas (reference and instruction, access, and ERM) are working much more closely with faculty, subject matter experts, and instructional designers to ensure high quality licensed Library electronic resources are available to complement OERs and meet course objectives.
About UMUC
UMUC is one of the 17 institutions in the University System of Maryland (USM) and is a separate institution from the University of Maryland, College Park main campus. Focusing on the online education of non-traditional, working adult students, UMUC enrolls over 85,000 students and employs thousands of adjunct and collegiate faculty worldwide. In 2014, UMUC enrolled more students than any other four-year, degree granting public university in the United States, and enrollments have increased by more than 40 percent in the past ten years. The Maryland Board of Regents projects that UMUC's student headcount will grow 24 percent by 2024. UMUC provides more than 90 undergraduate and graduate degrees, certificates, and specializations, as well as two distinct Doctor of Management programs, with more than 975 distinct courses. In spring 2014, approximately 75 percent of undergraduate students enrolled in UMUC's stateside programs were working full-time. More than half of UMUC stateside students are working parents and UMUC currently enrolls 52,000 active-duty military and veteran students (UMUC, 2016).
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In order to serve UMUC’s worldwide students and faculty, the Library’s resources and services are almost 100% online. The Library has a core collection of 101 research databases, as well as the use of discovery and cross-linking tools. There are 11 librarians and nine staff members who serve a three-part mission: Library and information literacy education; partnering with UMUC’s schools and faculty; and worldwide Library resources and services. Librarians staff a virtual reference desk 72 hours per week, and in fiscal year (FY) 2016 answered more than 12,300 reference questions. Librarians also conducted dozens of embedded instruction sessions for both graduate and undergraduate courses. The Library filled thousands of electronic reserves and interlibrary loan requests and participated in many university-wide initiatives including the OERs project. Librarians also worked on projects to help provide scalable assistance to students, including stand-alone research guides and course guides, and a searchable FAQ/knowledge base for after-hours use.
The Rising Cost of Textbooks
The cost of conventional print-based textbooks has been on the rise for a long time. Recent studies have shown the cost of textbooks over time rising 181% from 1998-2016, while the consumer price index, reflecting consumer prices across all product categories, rose only 48% (Perry, 2016). This means that a 140 in 2016, while a standard consumer product costing 74. Textbooks priced between 400 are now commonplace (Perry, 2016), and the average undergraduate student now spends over 1,300 per year on books and supplies (The College Board, 2016). This trend in textbook pricing creates financial hardships for students, who are 6
more and more often using student loan funds to purchase textbooks, exacerbating the increase in student loan debt and decreasing college affordability overall (Senack & Donoghue, 2016).
In UMUC’s experience, students have been known to drop classes due to financial issues caused by course materials costs. Students were also found to be increasingly putting off purchasing textbooks for courses, either delaying their purchase to “wait and see” if the book would be used extensively in the course, or outright refusing to purchase books. As Naomi S. Baron (2015, para. 3) notes, “Increasingly, students are opting not to purchase these books -- not even rent them. Digital formats (and rentals of any kind) tend to be less expensive than buying print, though frequently the decision is not to acquire the materials at all.” Obviously, in most courses, not having access to the required materials will have a major impact on student success. Although the student-purchased resources model worked for colleges and universities in the past, rising textbook costs, the dramatic increase in student loan amounts, and changes in student behavior are causing the model to break down as an effective method of supplying course resources.
These trends and unanticipated behaviors lead to less than optimal outcomes for students and the universities they attend, resulting in poorer grades and dropped or failed classes, thereby increasing their educational costs and time to degree completion. Further, the trend towards higher prices is self-reinforcing: “As students buy fewer books, publishers do smaller print runs, resulting in higher prices, which in turn reinforces the spiral of lower sales” (Baron, 2015, para. 11). Thus, a way needed to be found to break the cycle and find an alternative way to provide the materials that students need for their classes. 7
No-Cost to Students
In 2013, UMUC undertook an initiative to replace student-purchased textbooks for undergraduate courses with OERs and similar open access materials, provided at no cost to the students. The goal was to have all undergraduate courses using such materials by fall 2015, with graduate courses following in fall 2016 (Cini, 2015).
The primary objective to shift from fee-based textbooks to OERs was highly ambitious. UMUC’s strategy for OERs was driven by two overarching goals for implementation: One, to make use of the explosion of new, free, and open education and learning resources that had become available on the internet, and two, to dramatically reduce student's educational costs (Van Dam, 2016). Large amounts of open textbooks, learning objects, and other kinds of OER content produced by academics, educators, publishers, and other enthusiasts had become widely available via portals such as MERLOT and OER Commons and from projects like MIT Open Courseware and Saylor.org, as well as many other online sources. As a result, vast quantity of “raw materials” were readily available and made such a project at UMUC possible. UMUC also drew on existing proprietary Library electronic resource subscriptions and internally created custom modules authored by faculty and subject matter experts.
The process of replacing student-purchased textbooks was a vast and complex project, with resource selection at the heart of the process. The selection process began with needs identification, including academic and technical review, and time-consuming modifications to 8
syllabi and teaching guides (Cini, 2015). Academic programs needed to review course outcomes and instructional needs to ensure that replacement resources were appropriate. The end result was to have a course structured around the learning objectives, with resources supporting those objectives, rather than a course structured around the textbook. The processes put in place for The Undergraduate School led to lessons learned that would change the process for The Graduate School conversion.
The Undergraduate School Project
The plan put into place in 2013 was to replace the use of student-purchased textbooks and other materials entirely with OERs and/or Library-provided proprietary and other electronic resources, at no cost to the student, by fall of 2015. There were 400 courses to analyze and find resources for within an 18-month period. The Library played a major role in this implementation, and assisted in the conversion of these courses.
The initial process was team-based, and focused on each course individually. Each team included an academic director, subject-matter expert, Library liaison, and instructional designer. The team would meet to discuss the course objectives and determine search strategies. The subject matter expert, usually an adjunct faculty member, was paid a stipend for their time spent in the process. The subject matter expert would help determine search terms, and the librarian would then spend about eight hours searching for OERs and Library resources that would meet the needs of the course. The librarian entered suggested resources into a spreadsheet that was later vetted by the academic director and the subject matter expert. During this process, UMUC staff created a list 9
of Creative Commons OER websites, which librarians used as a checklist when searching for electronic resources. The Library staff eventually evolved the list into a LibGuide and categorized the OER websites by subject area. The Library’s participation, overseen by the assistant director for public services, added up to 18 months of working time for 9 librarians, plus the working time for the assistant director for public services. Instructional designers worked to revise the content of each course to reflect the inclusion of the new resources, maintain quality control over the number of resources, and make sure all of the links to the resources worked properly.
The Graduate School Project
Taking lessons learned by The Undergraduate School into consideration, and with a faster turnaround time needed, The Graduate School embarked on their project with a revised plan in January 2016. In only 90 days, over 200 graduate level courses would move from fee-based textbooks to embedded OERs and Library resources. The university’s Learning Design & Solutions group hired temporary employees to search for OERs for each course, while librarians worked solely on searching for Library resources. Because of the quick turnaround required, this became an “all hands on deck” project. All Library staff and faculty, including the Library director, participated in searching for Library resources for these courses. The academic directors and instructional designers then vetted the resources.
Project Management
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The assistant director for public services managed the Library’s involvement in both projects. The project manager for the university-wide initiative used the Trello dashboard tracking system to monitor all departments’ involvement in the project. Once the project manager added a course to the Trello Board, it went through a series of departments, and when it was ready for a librarian to begin searching for sources, a notification was sent to the email address for the assistant director for public services in the Library. Librarians were assigned courses to search, and were given a Google spreadsheet to record and share their work. This spreadsheet included course objectives, suggested search terms, and a list of the resources previously used in the course. A Google Site (internal to the Library) with instructions was created and revised as needed, and an Excel spreadsheet was used to track librarian’s progress and historical information as to which courses had been searched. Librarians could refer to the spreadsheet as a reminder of which courses they were assigned, and to make a notification of completion. The project ran very smoothly and all work was completed and submitted on time for both projects.
UMUC Requirements
The projects were conducted under several constraints and requirements decided on during the planning phase and were then modified as the projects went on. These included:
● Creative Commons-licensed materials were favored. Because linking to resources on the internet that are outside of the institution’s control invariably leads to materials changing or disappearing unexpectedly, the project favored materials that could be captured, downloaded, and stored on the university’s servers for delivery through the course 11
management system. Therefore, materials that authors had placed online using creative commons licenses, except for those that specified that no derivative works can be made, were favored for the materials selected. The university avoided seeking copyright permissions or making copyright payments in order to avoid additional costs. More information on Creative Commons Licensing is discussed in the next section.
● ADA and Section 508 compliance was required. Course developers in the Learning Design and Solutions group reviewed materials for ADA and Section 508 compliance by reviewing each item with a usability checklist and testing it using screen-reader software. All videos were required to have text transcriptions.
● Library materials meeting certain requirements could be used. Like most academic libraries, the UMUC Library provides a large number of online research databases licensed from vendors. The Library undertook a review of vendor license agreements to determine which Library resources could legally be used under the agreements. Some resources were limited due to the number of simultaneous users – only resources that an unlimited number of users could access at the same time were utilized. Also, only collections which allowed linking via a permanent URL (PURL) could be utilized and the use of PURLs was the primary way that the Library resources were linked to from the classrooms.
Creative Commons Licensing
12
All OERs used in the projects had to fall under Creative Commons Licensing. For searching purposes, librarians only needed to look for the Creative Commons License seal, but once linking in courses began, proper use needed to be enforced. There are four different types of licenses, as described below. Note that the creator of the content selects the type of license(s) before publishing their work (Creative Commons, 2017).
1. Attribution - requires attribution, or permission, whenever the work is used, or a derivative made of it.
2. ShareAlike - the user may copy, distribute, display, perform, or modify the work, as long as it is distributed on the same terms. Derivative works must be licensed under the same original license type.
3. Non-Commercial - allows for copy, distribution, display, and modification for non-commercial use without permission.
4. No Derivatives - allows for copying, distribution, and display of original copies of work only. No modifications are allowed without permission.
OERs and Library Electronic Resources
A broad range of sources were searched while looking for materials to support the learning outcomes of courses. OERs were the first resources searched for to supplement the learning 13
outcomes; some of the main OER collections used were Boundless, Saylor, OpenStax, and Open Textbook Library. Other OER Collections used or searched were collected and listed in a LibGuide created to help facilitate resource searching; it is located at http://libguides.umuc.edu/oer. Links to OERs were also added to more subject specific LibGuides to further support open educational and learning resources and support research. After OER searching, Library resources were searched for articles and ebooks that would help support the learning outcomes.
The Library has a broad range of databases with electronic resources to support the research of students and faculty, but the UMUC requirements for potential course materials determined which Library electronic resources could and could not be used in this project. Like OER materials, Library resources needed to be able to be used by an unlimited number of users and be able to be downloaded, not just used on the internet. This requirement eliminated Library ebooks through Books24x7, as they cannot be downloaded - only read through their online interface, and also eliminated many ebooks in the Library’s eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) that can only be used by a limited number of users at a time. The main Library electronic resources used for this project included ebrary (now Ebook Central), encyclopedia databases like Gale Virtual Reference Library, Oxford Reference, and SAGE Knowledge: SAGE Reference eBook Collection, and various other databases for articles.
Lessons Learned
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All undergraduate courses were using OERs by fall 2015, with a savings of 17 million to students for that year, and a projected 96. For the 15 courses that were sampled in the internal study, the savings exceeded $1.6 million (Cini, 2016).
With any success comes challenges. All staff members involved in the project had to be educated to ensure materials being used were actual open source and adaptable. Copyright and technical restrictions had to be dealt with, as well as the maintenance and support of the content.
Gender: Beyond Binary
No full textThis paper will argue that gender goes beyond traditional binary terms which has long-time been the overarching belief in Western cultures. Referencing empirical research, medical testimonies, and personal narratives, this paper supports the role of gender as a fluid concept rather than a male and female binary definition. Further, this paper will address problematic gendered language and its impact on transgendered peoples, limitations of a binary definition, societal expectations and how including beyond binary genders into daily language and life can lead to a more inclusive and accepting society.Running Head: GENDER: BEYOND BINARY 1
Gender: Beyond Binary
Lindy S. Pata
University of Maryland University College
Major: Psychology
[email protected]
GENDER: BEYOND BINARY 2
Table of Contents
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………………..3
Gender: Beyond Binary…………………………………………………………………………….........4
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………4
Limitations of Biological Sex Binaries…………………………………………………………………..4
Problematic Gendered Language………………………………………………………………………...5
Societal Expectations…………………………………………………………………………………….6
Supporting Progression…………………………………………………………………………………..7
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………….8
References………………………………………………………………………………………………..9
GENDER: BEYOND BINARY 3
Abstract
This paper will argue that gender goes beyond traditional binary terms which has long-time been the overarching belief in Western cultures. Referencing empirical research, medical testimonies, and personal narratives, this paper supports the role of gender as a fluid concept rather than a male and female binary definition. Further, this paper will address problematic gendered language and its impact on transgendered peoples, limitations of a binary definition, societal expectations and how including beyond binary genders into daily language and life can lead to a more inclusive and accepting society.
Keywords: gender, binary, non-conformity, trans, transgender, language,
GENDER: BEYOND BINARY 4
Gender: Beyond Binary
Introduction
Gender has long been accepted as binary in many Western cultures including the United States. While the traditional view of binary gender has been deeply rooted into American culture and societal norms, there is an argument that gender no longer fits within a binary scale but rather encompasses far beyond two options. This paper argues that gender extends beyond traditional binary terms and with empirically supported evidence and research in favor of applying beyond binary terms. Additionally, this paper addresses the implications of gendered language, limitations of biological binaries, and societal expectations and their negative impacts which are driven by a binary definition of gender. Further, this paper considers wellness and acceptance as a societal outcome if gender is recognized beyond binary terms, encouraging the development of a more inclusive and supporting society for those who are considered non-conforming genders. Of importance, transgender and transsexual individuals, often used interchangeably in social science definitions, and the role of trans lives in society today. The intent of this paper is to provide sufficient evidence of the need for recognition of gender terminology to extend beyond binary options to elicit a change in societal beliefs and norms.
Limitations of Biological Sex Binaries
There are many clinical terms and medical occurrences that support the argument for more than two gender options. Intersex is a term used to describe more than 70 differences in biological sex and is relevant to biological binary limitations because as many as 1 in 2,000 individuals are born intersex (Lenning, 2009). One example is Turner Syndrome, a chromosomal condition that affects females and causes a loss of ovarian function, lack of puberty, and most likely infertility (Turner Syndrome, 2017). Genetically, unaffected females have two X chromosomes and males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome, which determines the sex of the infant. It is important to note that sex and gender are two different distinctions as each represent a different aspect of one’s biological makeup. Turner GENDER: BEYOND BINARY 5
Syndrome occurs when only one X chromosome is present affecting genetic development (Turner Syndrome, 2017). Biologically, women suffering from Turner Syndrome are an example of an intersex case which lead to one feeling less feminine and more inclined towards masculine tendencies and possible disassociation to one’s given sex. Conversely, males can be genetically impacted by Klinefelter Syndrome, a chromosomal condition that affects testosterone production, can lead to incomplete puberty, breast enlargement, and infertility (Klinefelter Syndrome, 2017). These chromosomal conditions can be categorized as intersex births, defying traditional binary chromosomal definitions and contributing to gender displacement. When compounded with societal bureaucracy that calls for sex assignment at birth, the original gender assignment can be considered arbitrary (Lorber, 1996).
Problematic Gendered Language
The United States has traditionally enforced a dichotomous understanding of gender which has led to many limitations in language. Much of the scientific community refers to gender as one’s biological sex which limits recognition of nonconforming genders and their social acceptance (Lenning, 2009). The LGBTQ Community consists of an array of gender identities that do not fit on a binary scale and the lack of acknowledgment can cause further harm and discomfort to such individuals. Misidentification and a lack of proper language can cause distance in individuals who do not associate with their assigned sex, often leading to confusion and identity uncertainty (Rankin, & Beemyn, 2012). Research conducted for the 2011 book, The Lives of Transgender People, compiled data from 3,500 surveys and 400 interviews with gender-nonconforming people in the United States and found that gender was becoming more diverse, especially in young people (Rankin, & Beemyn, 2012). The findings also found that heterosexual female-to-male transgender individuals thought of themselves as butch lesbians, a term used to describe a masculine female homosexual, while male-to-female transgender individuals thought they were cross-dressers, in part due to a lack of proper GENDER: BEYOND BINARY 6
terminology and recognition from the scientific and social communities (Rankin, & Beemyn, 2012).
Language is largely political in nature and in a study aimed to prompt a discussion on problematic gendered language, 249 individuals who identified as transgender and 55 individuals in committed relationships with transgender people spoke about the intricacies of appropriate language and critical analysis of currently used vocabulary in defining non-gender conforming individuals (Lenning, 2009). Through these empirical studies, the results found that more confusion and uncertainty can arise for the affected individuals when a lack of proper language is identified for genders that are outside understood American dichotomy.
Societal Expectations
While American society has largely annotated gender and sex to be binary, recent changes in social acceptance have occurred prompting an argument for fluid gender and beyond binary genders. Considering the digital age individuals are immersed in today, a monumental change was enacted through the world’s largest social media network, Facebook, in 2014 (Cleves, 2014). Facebook revised gender selection options to include over fifty custom labels, allowing users to choose or create the label that suits them best. This change signifies the prevalence of gender fluidity and the increasingly acceptable notion of genders beyond binary categorization, allowing for nonbinary gender expression and social inclusivity. It has largely been society’s understanding that one who is female portrays female characteristics and behaviors such as crossing of the legs or applying makeup, but these social norms have been constructed by people and can be changed. Gender depends on the audience and social construct that recognizes specific gender cues and associations (Lenning, 2009). One can argue the social construct continually changes; however, one thing stays constant; society’s control over presentation and acceptance of proper gender roles. Heterosexuality has been the unremitting norm signaling if anything extends outside of heteronormativity than it is defiant in nature (Lorber, 1996). Yet, society has the power to alter the role of presentation and acceptance in gender attribution through GENDER: BEYOND BINARY 7
altering the way labels are placed on one’s perceived gender (Lenning, 2009). Moreover, the way one perceives one’s gender affects the way one relates to another person so by altering that perception, society can alter that relation in a positive trajectory (Lenning, 2009).
Gender itself consists of feminine and masculine behaviors that construct impressions of the self and of others that attempts to attribute many complex dimensions of gender that cannot be described solely as male or female (Lenning, 2009). Notwithstanding, as long as social scientists and researchers continue to attribute gender to simple binary terms, characteristics and behaviors will not be provided opportunity to allocate for gender. Society has believed male and female to be normal descriptors but as long as normal excludes non-conforming genders, socialization and social control remain in complete control over language, acceptance, and growth (Lorber, 1996). As it currently stands, social institution determines gender rather than science. A social institution establishes patterns of expectations built into social organization, making gender an entity itself and allowing little room for deviation or growth (Lorber, 1996).
Supporting Progression
Today, many opportunities to seek higher education and literacy rates are higher than they have ever been in the last two centuries, which highlights the importance of continuing educational growth (Roser, & Ortiz-Ospina, 2016). Part of future education needs to consider gender beyond a binary perception recognizing individuals who no longer fit into a two-coded dichotomy of labeling created by society and reinforced through societal expectations. In a survey of more than 3,500 gender-nonconforming individuals aimed at studying the lives of gender-nonconforming youth, there were more than one hundred different terms self-identified to describe their gender identity (Rankin, & Beemyn, 2012). Developments and research findings convey the importance of broadening current understandings of gender beyond what has been recognized and accepted from the past in order to bridge the gap into the future (Cleves, 2014). While it may not be an easy feat, the value in identifying GENDER: BEYOND BINARY 8
gender expression differences and adapting an accepting society cannot be understated. Further, in recognizing gender as larger than simply male and female, social norms, expectations, and language can create a cohesive and positive social community. This helps alleviate misunderstandings of individuals differing from dichotomous genders, proving beneficial for humanity.
Conclusion
The term “beyond the binary” was quoted by Derrida and often criticized in feminist and queer literature beginning in 1980s until the term acquired its own definition as a descriptor to expression of sex and gender that do not align with that of male or female genders (Cleves, 2014). The term represents the beginning of the need for recognition and understanding nonconforming genders. “Beyond the Binary” requires further research and study to provide a clear picture of the multitude of gender descriptors available today. In part, limitations of biological sex have been established which support the role of gender extended outside traditional binary categories according to genetic mutations (Lenning, 2009). Further, the need for expanding gendered language shows the importance and impact language has on gender-nonconforming individuals and showcases the hardships they endure simply due to a lack of growth and progressive diction. Possibly the strongest factor in non-binary gender recognition is derived from the role society and social status play in determining what is widely accepted as normal genders. Social norms have dictated gender definitions in the past, but as society progresses forward into the future, interpretations developed and demonstrated that gender is a matter of consciousness of a group (Lorber, 1996). As Judith Butler wrote in Gender Trouble (1990), ‘‘if gender is not tied to sex, either causally or expressively, then gender is a kind of action that can potentially proliferate beyond the binary limits imposed by the apparent binary of sex.’’ (Cleves, 2014). As society learns and grows in knowledge, so should societal and scientific beliefs of once unquestionable theories. Gender may have been considered binary in the past but it is clear today that gender falls on a spectrum and is decided by the individual rather than a group of individuals. GENDER: BEYOND BINARY 9
References
Cleves, R. H. (2014). Beyond the Binaries in Early America. Early American Studies, An Interdisciplinary Journal, 12(3), 459-468
Klinefelter Syndrome. (2017). U.S. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved from https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/klinefelter-syndrome
Lenning, E. (2009). Moving Beyond the Binary: Exploring the Dimensions of Gender Presentation and Orientation. International Journal Of Social Inquiry, 2(2), 39-54
Lorber, J. (1996). Beyond the Binaries: Depolarizing the Categories of Sex, Sexuality, and Gender. Sociological Inquiry, 66(2), 143-159
Rankin, S., & Beemyn, G. (2012). Beyond a Binary: The Lives of Gender-Nonconforming Youth. About Campus, 17(4), 2-10
Roser, M., & Ortiz-Ospina, E. (2016). Global rise of education. OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from https://ourworldindata.org/global-rise-of-education
Turner Syndrome. (2017). U.S. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved from https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/turner-syndrome#gene
Mindfulness: A practice for improved middle manager decision making
No full textThe field of management’s growing interest in mindfulness appears to stem from the increasing need for new ways to deal with the complexities of ambiguous and uncertain environments. This dissertation examined the context of middle managers faced with the heavy burden of making an increasing number of decisions under difficult conditions and the intervention of mindfulness for improved decision outcomes. By means of a systematic review, with a realist synthesis approach, evidence-based research was carried out to address the research question: How does mindfulness affect middle managers for improved decision making? The findings identified the middle manager context as one characterized by a lack of knowledge, involvement, and understanding of the firm strategy. They are expected to act with strategic agency without awareness of strategic plans. This leads not only to frustration but a reliance on intuition rather than reasoning for decision making. The mindfulness findings showed increased cognitive [mindful] awareness and increased cognitive flexibility enabling a highbred mindful rationality, where increased strategic awareness and reduced negative affect improved decision making. The implications from this research suggest mindfulness may provide both the cognitive and emotional states necessary for middle managers to improve their decision making.Running head: MINDFULNESS AND DECISION MAKING 1
Mindfulness:
A Practice for Improved Middle Manager Decision Making Carolynn Larson-Garcia
A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
University of Maryland University College In Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirement for the Degree of
Doctorate of Management Eric B. Dent Ph.D. Deborah M. Wharff DM. MINDFULNESS AND DECISION MAKING 2
Abstract
The field of management’s growing interest in mindfulness appears to stem from the increasing need for new ways to deal with the complexities of ambiguous and uncertain environments. This dissertation examined the context of middle managers faced with the heavy burden of making an increasing number of decisions under difficult conditions and the intervention of mindfulness for improved decision outcomes. By means of a systematic review, with a realist synthesis approach, evidence-based research was carried out to address the research question: How does mindfulness affect middle managers for improved decision making? The findings identified the middle manager context as one characterized by a lack of knowledge, involvement, and understanding of the firm strategy. They are expected to act with strategic agency without awareness of strategic plans. This leads not only to frustration but a reliance on intuition rather than reasoning for decision making. The mindfulness findings showed increased cognitive [mindful] awareness and increased cognitive flexibility enabling a highbred mindful rationality, where increased strategic awareness and reduced negative affect improved decision making. The implications from this research suggest mindfulness may provide both the cognitive and emotional states necessary for middle managers to improve their decision making.
Keywords: cognitive flexibility, decision making, middle managers, mindful awareness, mindfulness, systematic review MINDFULNESS AND DECISION MAKING 3
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank: G-d, my wife (Helen), my sisters (Cindy and Gina), my family, my dissertation advisors (Dr. Dent and Dr. Wharff) and academic advisor Marina Caminis. Additionally, I would like to thank my friends for their support: Liz, Sonja and Meg. Finally, a special note of gratitude to Dr. Jessica Evers Killebrew for her support in my mindfulness inquiry. MINDFULNESS AND DECISION MAKING 4
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 3
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. 7
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ 8
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of Relevant Literature ................................................. 9
Significance of the Problem .................................................................................................... 11
Importance to Management .................................................................................................... 11
Study Purpose .......................................................................................................................... 13
Research Question ................................................................................................................... 13
Study Scope .............................................................................................................................. 13
Discussion of Terms and Theories .......................................................................................... 13
Middle manager ..................................................................................................................... 13
Decision making .................................................................................................................... 14
Mindfulness ........................................................................................................................... 16
Chapter Summary and Dissertation Structure ..................................................................... 18
Chapter 2: Literature Review .................................................................................................... 20
Review of Study Background .................................................................................................. 21
Discussion of Theoretical Framework .................................................................................... 21
Bounded rationality theory .................................................................................................... 22
Dual processing theory .......................................................................................................... 23
Literature Review .................................................................................................................... 24
Middle Managers and Decision Making ................................................................................ 25
Wooldridge and Floyd (1990)................................................................................................ 25
Torres, Drago, and Aqueveque (2015) .................................................................................. 28
Jaaskelainen and Luukkanen (2016) ...................................................................................... 29
Mantere (2008) ...................................................................................................................... 31
Glaser, Stam, and Takeuchi (2016) ....................................................................................... 33
Nooraie (2008) ....................................................................................................................... 34
Caza (2008) ........................................................................................................................... 36
Osterman (2009) .................................................................................................................... 37
McKenzie, Woolf, van Winkelen, and Morgan (2008) ......................................................... 38
Curseu and Schruijer (2012) .................................................................................................. 39
Reeves, Walsh, Tuller, and Magley (2012) ........................................................................... 40
Konito, Lundgren-Laine, Kontio, Korvenranta, and Salantera (2013) .................................. 41
Al Saifi, Dillion, and McQueen (2016) ................................................................................. 42
Middle Managers and Mindfulness ........................................................................................ 43
Roche, Haar, and Luthans (2014) .......................................................................................... 43
Frizzel, Hoon, and Banner (2016) ......................................................................................... 44
Shonin, Van Gordon, Dunn, Singh, and Griffiths (2014) ...................................................... 46
Ly, Asplund, and Andersson (2014) ...................................................................................... 47
Żołnierczyk-Zreda, Sanderson, and Bedyńska (2016) .......................................................... 48
Han and Zhang (2011) ........................................................................................................... 49
King and Haar (2017) ............................................................................................................ 50
REB, Narayanan, and Chaturvedi (2014) .............................................................................. 52
Hulsheger, Alberts, Feinholdt, and Lang (2012) ................................................................... 53
Mindfulness and Decision Making ......................................................................................... 55
Hafenbrack, Kinias, and Barsade (2014) ............................................................................... 55 MINDFULNESS AND DECISION MAKING 5
Ruedy and Schweitzer (2010)................................................................................................ 59
EnginDeniz, Ari, Akdeniz, and Ozteke (2015) ..................................................................... 61
Greenberg, Reiner, and Meriran (2012) ................................................................................ 63
Donovan, Guss, and Nasland (2015) ..................................................................................... 65
Van Vugt and Jha (2011) ....................................................................................................... 67
Shapiro, Jazaieri, and Goldin (2012) ..................................................................................... 68
Kiken and Shook (2011) ........................................................................................................ 70
Ostafin and Kassman (2012).................................................................................................. 71
Kirk, Gu, Sharp, Hula, Fonagy, and Montague (2011) ......................................................... 73
Kalafatoglu and Turgut (2017) .............................................................................................. 74
Laureiro-Martinez (2014) ...................................................................................................... 75
Jo, Hinterberger, Wittmann, and Schmidt (2015) ................................................................. 76
Middle Manager, Mindfulness and Decision Making........................................................... 77
Wilson, Talsma, and Martyn (2011) ...................................................................................... 78
Wasylkiw, Holton, Azar, and Cook (2015) ........................................................................... 79
Kier, McMullen, and Kuratko (2015) .................................................................................... 80
Marsh (2013) ......................................................................................................................... 82
Raney (2014) ......................................................................................................................... 84
Herring, Roche, and Masters (2016) ..................................................................................... 86
Lewis and Ebbeck (2014) ...................................................................................................... 88
Hutzschenreuter, Kleindienst, and Schmitt (2014) ................................................................ 88
Discussion of Literature Interpretive Model ......................................................................... 90
Summary.................................................................................................................................. 91
Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................. 93
Rationale for Methodology ..................................................................................................... 93
Evidence-Based Management ................................................................................................. 94
Systematic Review.................................................................................................................... 95
Quality Appraisal of Literature .............................................................................................. 97
Relevance .............................................................................................................................. 98
Quality and Rigor .................................................................................................................. 98
Synthesis Methodology ............................................................................................................ 99
Expert Panel Review .............................................................................................................. 100
Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................. 102
Chapter 4: Findings: Analysis and Discussion ....................................................................... 103
Overview of Purpose and Significance ................................................................................. 103
Finding 1 .............................................................................................................................. 103
Cognitive awareness ............................................................................................................ 103
Cognitive flexibility ............................................................................................................. 104
Discussion........................................................................................................................... 106
Finding 2 .............................................................................................................................. 106
Cognitive awareness ............................................................................................................ 106
Cognitive Flexibility ............................................................................................................ 107
Discussion........................................................................................................................... 108
Finding 3 .............................................................................................................................. 110
Strategic Awareness ............................................................................................................ 110
Negative Affect ................................................................................................................... 111
Discussion........................................................................................................................... 112
Finding 4 .............................................................................................................................. 113
Training ............................................................................................................................... 113
Discussion........................................................................................................................... 114 MINDFULNESS AND DECISION MAKING 6
Conclusion for answering the RQ ....................................................................................... 114
Conceptual Model .................................................................................................................. 115
Synthesis of the Findings ....................................................................................................... 116
Theoretical View .................................................................................................................... 119
Discussion of Conceptual Framework.................................................................................. 120
Summary................................................................................................................................ 121
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ............................................................................... 122
Management Problem ........................................................................................................... 122
Research Question ................................................................................................................. 123
Overall Study Conclusions .................................................................................................... 123
Implications for Management............................................................................................... 124
Innovation ............................................................................................................................ 124
Technology (Technostress).................................................................................................. 125
Mindfulness Training .......................................................................................................... 126
MBSR training ..................................................................................................................... 126
MAPs Classes ...................................................................................................................... 126
Implications for the Future ................................................................................................... 127
Technology .......................................................................................................................... 127
Globalization ....................................................................................................................... 127
Sociocultural ........................................................................................................................ 127
Limitation ............................................................................................................................... 128
Future Research ..................................................................................................................... 129
Summary................................................................................................................................ 130
References .................................................................................................................................. 132
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................ 157
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................. 158
Appendix C ................................................................................................................................ 176
Appendix D ................................................................................................................................ 178
Appendix E................................................................................................................................. 179
Appendix F ................................................................................................................................. 180
Appendix G ................................................................................................................................ 181
Appendix H ................................................................................................................................ 183
Appendix I .................................................................................................................................. 186
Appendix J ................................................................................................................................. 189
Appendix K ................................................................................................................................ 191 MINDFULNESS AND DECISION MAKING 7
List of Tables
Table 1. Database Search Strings ............................................................................97
Table 2. Subject Matter Expert Panel Members ................................................... 101
Table B1. Weight of Evidence/TAPAPUS ..............................................................158
Table B2. Evidence for Synthesis (total of 26) ........................................................ 175
Table C1. Mindfulness and Decision Making ........................................................ 176
Table D1. Rationality and Decision Making ..................................
Management implications of gender decision biases in financial markets contexts: A systematic review
No full textIn organizations, individual decision makers are active parts in the environment that use data, approximations, and communication exchanges to evaluate the rewards and risks associated with decision outcomes. Unfortunately for managers, assumptions guiding financial markets decision making requires participants operate according to “rational man” objectivity. The challenge for managers is individual decision biases may emerge and result in misalignments with organizational objectives. Luckily, the influence of environmental factors can reverse or change the individual’s decision, avoiding outcomes that are misaligned with organizational risk goals. In the literature, gender is well documented as an individual characteristic intervening in financial market decisions resulting in decision biases. To address the needs of managers, this dissertation conducted a systematic review of the literature to identify factors that influence the emergence of decision bias dependent on the gender of the decision maker, identify implications, and offer recommendations to managers. This dissertation is guided by the behavioral theory of the firm, finance theory, and decision theory. The findings presented evidence from the existing literature on decision biases that 14 factors exist that influence the decision maker. It is believed that this dissertation is the first evidence based systematic review focused on the mechanisms that facilitate the emergence of decision biases of gender in financial risk markets. This dissertation found three areas of focus for managers including: adaptive communication, adaptive organizational structures, and adaptive decision tools. These suggestions in the form of a conceptual model and actionable recommendations for managers were presented with the goal of keeping decision makers and organizational risk objectives aligned.Running head: MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER DECISION BIASES i
Management Implications of Gender Decision Biases in Financial Markets Contexts: A Systematic Review
Lori A. Cenci
Dissertation
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
In Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Advisory Committee:
G. David Andersen, Ed.D.
Deborah M. Wharff, D.M.
MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER DECISION BIASES ii
Abstract
In organizations, individual decision makers are active parts in the environment that use data, approximations, and communication exchanges to evaluate the rewards and risks associated with decision outcomes. Unfortunately for managers, assumptions guiding financial markets decision making requires participants operate according to “rational man” objectivity. The challenge for managers is individual decision biases may emerge and result in misalignments with organizational objectives. Luckily, the influence of environmental factors can reverse or change the individual’s decision, avoiding outcomes that are misaligned with organizational risk goals. In the literature, gender is well documented as an individual characteristic intervening in financial market decisions resulting in decision biases. To address the needs of managers, this dissertation conducted a systematic review of the literature to identify factors that influence the emergence of decision bias dependent on the gender of the decision maker, identify implications, and offer recommendations to managers. This dissertation is guided by the behavioral theory of the firm, finance theory, and decision theory. The findings presented evidence from the existing literature on decision biases that 14 factors exist that influence the decision maker. It is believed that this dissertation is the first evidence based systematic review focused on the mechanisms that facilitate the emergence of decision biases of gender in financial risk markets. This dissertation found three areas of focus for managers including: adaptive communication, adaptive organizational structures, and adaptive decision tools. These suggestions in the form of a conceptual model and actionable recommendations for managers were presented with the goal of keeping decision makers and organizational risk objectives aligned.
Keywords: affect bias, cognitive bias, decision bias, evidence-based, female, financial markets, gender, male, risk aversion, risk preference MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER DECISION BIASES iii
Acknowledgements
To my primary dissertation advisor, Dr. G. David Andersen, thank you for giving me the freedom to pursue this life’s work. Your calm demeanor and adventurous spirit allowed me to fly. I have now answered the questions that have nagged at me for thirty years, thank you. To Dr. Wharff, thank you for being a role model of personal resilience and strength, you kept me going. To Dr. Dent, thank you for helping me see a management through a new lens. Dr. Witz, a fellow number lover, thank you for changing my writing forever. To my faculty at UMUC, I am a different person because of this experience with each of you. Thank you.
I would like to thank my subject matter expert panel, Dr. Carl Aridas, Dr. Daniel Cillis, Dr. Angelica Gonzalez, Dr. Raymond Manganelli, and Alexander Zaharoff for giving their time to reading the early executive summary of Chapters 1, 2, and 3. Their feedback provided critical guidance and brought clarity to some areas of grey.
I would like to acknowledge my UMUC cohort members, whose heartfelt support was priceless during this process. Thank you for letting me into your world, you certainly enriched mine.
MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER DECISION BIASES iv
Dedications
First, I dedicate this dissertation to my family. Thank you to my girls, Sarah and Emma who shared their mom with this labor of love. They each somehow knew when a gentle interruption and a hug was needed to help push through. To my husband, Tony, who provided unconditional support and understanding of the creative process required to do this. You made it easy.
Second, I dedicate this dissertation to my parents. My father Richard who instilled in me the work ethic needed to pursue this dream. My mother Catherine encouraged me from a young age to think beyond the boundaries, and was my biggest source of strength. While no longer here on earth, I know she walked beside me on this journey and picked me up a few times.
Third, this is dedicated to all the female friends who listened to my never ending obsessions while we walked, played tennis, or socialized. You are all strong, confident, successful women who inspire me. Thank you.
MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER DECISION BIASES v
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...........................................................................................................iii
DEDICATIONS…………………………………………………………………………………..iv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF DISSERTATION……………………1
Background……………….……………………………………………………..…………..…...3
Statement and Significance of the Problem………………………………..…………….……....6
Purpose of the Study…….……………………………...……………………...…………….......8
Significance of the Problem to Management Practice and Scholarship …………………….......9
Research Questions…………..………………..……………………………………………......11
Discussion of Concepts and Relevant Literature…………………………………………….....12
Cognitive bias……………………………………………………………………………12
Affect bias…………………………………………………………………….…...….....13
Perception of risk…………………………………………………………………....…...14
Definitions/Terminology……………………………………………..….………………..…….15
Affect decision…………………………………………………………………………..15
Ambiguity aversion……………………………………………………………………...15
Decision bias…………………………………………………………………………….15
Cognitive decision……………………………………………………………………….15
Financial markets theory and models……………………………………..…………..…16
Organizational financial risk markets contexts………………………………………….16
Rational man ……………………………………………………………………………16
Risk aversion……………………………………………………………………………16 MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER DECISION BIASES vi
Risk perception…………………………………………………………………….…….17
Risk preference………………………………………………………….….…..………..17
Risk propensity ………………………………………………………….….…………...17
Self-belief…...……………………………………………………………...…………….17
Chapter Summary……………………………………………………………….……………...17
Organization of the Dissertation………………………………………………….………….....18
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………….…………….20
Discussion of Theoretical Framework and Lenses …………………………..…….………..…21
Critical Review and Analysis of the Literature……………………………………..……..……22
Evidence Based Research Approach to Literature Review………………………….…..…….23
Background and Perspective for Organizational Need………………………………...…….…24
Managerial decision making under uncertainty……………………………….……..…..24
Organizations: Perception of expected values (outcomes) and risk (probability)……….25
Literature Demographics…………………………………….……………………………....…26
Lens #1: Gender Decision Biases as an Analytical Departure from Rationality……………….27
General Discussion of Gender and the Bias Literature………………………….…….…..……27
Anchoring………………………………………………………………………………..28
Conservatism Bias……………………………………………………………………….31
Disposition Effect………………………………………………………………………..34
Framing…….………………...…………………………………………………………..37
Mental Accounting……………………………………………………………………….40
Overconfidence…………………………………………………………………………..42
Emotional Decision-making……………………………………………………………..49 MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER DECISION BIASES vii
Affect Bias……………………………………………………………………………….52
Lens #2: Gender and Individual Risk Preferences………………………….…………………..53
Overview of gender and risk preferences………..……………………….………..…….53
Empirical literature………………………………………………….…………..……….55
Propositions…………………………………………………………….……………………….65
Literature Interpretive Model…………………………………………………….……………..66
Summary……………….………………………………………………………...……….....…..67
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODS………………………………………….…………….69
EBMgt Research for Management…………………………………………………….………..70
Systematic Review Methodology……………………………………………………………....73
Literature Search Strategy……………………………………………………….…………..…75
Search Terms…………………………………………………………………………………...76
Databases Searched……………………………………………………………………………..77
Inclusion Criteria…………………………………………………………………………….....78
Quality Appraisal of Literature………………………………………………...…………..…...82
Soundness………………………………………………………………………………..……..83
Appropriateness………………………………………………………………………..……….84
Relevance………………………………………………………….…………………..………..84
Synthesis Methodology…………………………………….……..…………………………….85
Data Extraction…………………………………………….………..………………………….86
Open Coding: First Cycle Coding………………………….……….…………………….…….87
Mechanisms: First Cycle Coding………………………….…………..…………………….….87
Organizing Mechanisms: Second Cycle Coding…………….…………..……………………..87
Presentation and Discussion of the Expert Panel…………………………..……………….…..92 MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER DECISION BIASES viii
Panel Members……………………………………………..…………………………………...93
Panel Member Comments…………………………………………………..……….………….94
Panel Member Impact…………………………………………………………..………………95
Chapter Summary……………………………………………………………..………………..96
CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS…………………………………………………..97
Overview: Systematic Review of Evidence and Findings…………………..………………….98
Contextual Factors/Mechanisms and Management Implications
Research questions 1 and 2……………………………………….……………………101
External Environment……………………………………………………..…..………………102
Business context…………………………………………………….……….………….102
Motivation..……………………………………………………………………….…… 105
Organizational role…………………………………………………..………………….106
External financial markets environment…………………………..……………………107
Peer competition……………………………….…………………………………….…108
Individual Decision Maker…………………………………………………..........………..…110
Internal belief……………………………………………………………………...……110
Issue capability……………………………………………………………….………....111
Unrelated information…………………………………………………………………..112
Positive valence……………………………………………………………………...…113
Negative valence…………………………………………….………………………….113
Self efficacy..…………………………………………………………………………...114
Decision Models and Tools…………………………………………………………………...116
Probabilistic expectations………………………………………………………………116
Education……………………………………………………………………………….118 MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER DECISION BIASES ix
Prior experience………………………………………………………………….……...118
Actions/Recommendations for Management Research Question #3………………………....121
Recommendation #1: Adaptive Communication…..………………………………….….…...121
Highlight Decision Features…………...……………………………………………………...123
Communicate objectively…………………………………….…………………..…….123
Communicate contextually relevant market information…………………..……….….124
Recommendation # 2: Adaptive Organizational Structures…………………………………..125
Gender diverse teams………………..……………………………………………….…125
Gender diverse organizational roles…………………………………………………….126
Peer competition structures……………………………..……………………………....126
Regulatory and non regulatory contexts………………………………………………..127
Recommendation #3: Adaptive Decision Tools……………...………………………………..128
Address individual assumptions……………………………………….……...………..128
Complimentary debiasing tools..……………..………………….……………………..129
Experiential tools……………………………….………………………………………129
Conceptual Model (revised) and Narrative………………………………..……..……………131
Alternative Perspectives………………………………………………………..……………...132
Chapter Summary……………………………………………………………..………………133
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS………………………..…………….135
Overall Conclusions…………………………………………………….……………..………136
Conclusion 1……………………………………………………………………..……………136
Conclusion 2……………………………………………………………………..……………137
Conclusion 3……………………………………………………………………..……………137 MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER DECISION BIASES x
Implications/Recommendations for Management and Research………...……………………138
Implicit and Explicit Factors…………………………………………………………………138
Implications of Risk Preference: Misalignment and Magnitude……………..……………….140
Managing in Practice………………………………………….……….….…………..………144
Implications for Future Researchers………………………………………………..…………146
Study Limitations……………………………………………………………………...………147
Summary…………………………………………………………………………….……...…148
Aligning Organizational Risk by Managing Gender Bias…………………………..……….. 149
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………151
APPENDIX A: Table of Databases Directly Searched in UMUC OneSearch…………………170
APPENDIX B: Weight of Evidence for Included Articles………………………….………….171
APPENDIX C: Summary of Descriptive Statistics for Included Articles……………………...172
APPENDIX D: Subject Matter Expert Biographies……………………………………………174
APPENDIX E: Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) Invitation Letter and DMGT Supplement…...175
APPENDIX F: Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) Questionnaire and Responses……………..…177
APPENDIX G: Literature Organized by Factors, Biases, and Management Implications…….180
APPENDIX H: Findings Summary………………………………………………………….…188
MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER DECISION BIASES xi
List of Tables
Table 1. Keywords and Synonyms for Search Terms……………………………………………76
Table 2. Search String……………………………………………………………………………77
Table 3. Search Results by Database…………………………………………………………….78
Table 4. Summary of Academic Journals………………………………………………………..81
Table 5. Summary of the Number of Studies Organized by Discipline………………………….82
Table 6. Summary of Results: Weight of Evidence……………………………………………...85
Table 7. Subject Matter Experts………………………………………………………………….94
Table 8. Summary of SME Panel Comments……………………………………………………95
Table 9. Map of Included Literature to Mechanistic Factors……………………………………99
Table 10. Proportion of Decision Bias Outcomes by Category………………………………..100
Table 11. Implications for Management Influenced by Organizational Factors……………….108
Table 12. Environmental Factors Elements Decision Bias Outcome…………………………..110
Table 13. Implications for Management Influenced by Individual Decision Maker Factors…..114
Table 14. Individual Decision Maker Factor Decision Bias Outcomes………………………...115
Table 15. Implications for Management Influenced by Individual Decision Maker Factors…..120
Table 16. Decision Models and Tools Factor Decision Bias Outcomes………………………..120
Table 17. Summary of Recommendations to Management…………………………………….130
Table 18. Implication Impact on Organizational Risk Objectives……………………………...142
MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER DECISION BIASES xii
List of Figures
Figure 1. Literature Interpretive Model………………………………………………………….67
Figure 2. PRISMA of Included Articles…………………………………………………………80
Figure 3. CIMO-Logic Model……………………………………………………………………88
Figure 4. Coding Results Organized by First and Second Cycle……………………...…………92
Figure 5. Updated CIMO-Logic Model…………………………………………………….….102
Figure 6. Final Conceptual Model Incorporating Recommendations to Management…..….….132
Figure 7. Logic Model of Recommended Actions in Practice…………………….…………...145 Running head: MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER DECISION BIASES 1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE DISSERTATION
Introduction
Organizations are perennially challenged to create firm wide decision making structures, tools, and policies that support consistency among internal decision makers, assuring that the decision outcomes are aligned with organizational goals (Simon, 1964, p. 11). In organizational decision making, it is impractical and potentially unattainable to separate the decision outcome from the decision maker, and therefore organizations are at risk for inherent biases present within the individual decision maker (Bazerman, Loewenstein, & White, 1992, p. 221; Simon, 1956, p. 129). As “active parts of their environment” (Cyert, March, & Starbuck, 1961, p. 263), organizational decision makers use approximations, information, data, and communication exchanges to evaluate the relative rewards and risks associated with decision outcomes. These organizational tools and contextual environments influence the decision maker as much as the individuals’ inherent biases (Simon, 1956, p. 130). Fortunately for organizations, the influence of environmental factors can reverse or change the individual decision maker’s outcome, potentially avoiding decisions that are misaligned with organizational goals (Bazerman et al., 1992, p. 235).
In the decision making literature, gender is a well-documented factor influencing decision outcomes in financial risk markets (Barber & Odean, 2001; Estes & Hosseini, 1988; Powell & Ansic, 1997). However, the literature on factors that trigger or mediate decision biases depending on the gender of the decision maker are discrete, leaving organizational managers to make connections between the decision contexts, the decision makers, and the organization’s objectives. Furthermore, the literature on organizational policies and tools is scarce on ways to MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER DECISION BIASES 2
manage and prevent the emergence of decision bias in multiple organizational contexts where financial risk decisions occur.
This evidence-based dissertation will explore and identify underlying mechanisms that facilitate the emergence of gender decision making biases in financial risk markets, describe the implications for management in a variety of practice contexts, and explore the literature for recommendations that help organizations recognize and manage these biases. This inquiry is founded in the scholarship on individual decision heuristics (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979; Slovic, Peters, Finucane, & McGregor, 2005; Thaler, 2008) that have also been identified in the management literature (Bardolet, Fox, & Lovallo, 2011; Johnson & Powell, 1994), and seeks to distinguish and contextualize the organizational environments that may facilitate decision bias emergence under financial risk conditions.
It is the idea that the broad use of the probabilistic tools grounded in the theoretical frameworks of financial markets decision making may be inadequate given the gender of the decision maker and the contextual application of the decision. In the gender neutral literature, Gigerenzer and Goldstein (1996, p. 652) contend that inferences from probabilistic terms are calibrated differently from frequency-based terms, and this may be more evident when gender is considered. Furthermore, Fehr-Duda, de Gennaro, and Schubert (2006) found that gender differences exist in “responsiveness to probabilities” (p. 299) in financial markets contexts, where females exhibited different probability weighting curves in investment decision making.
This dissertation uses systematic review to blend evidence from available research in the fields of management, finance, economics, decision-making, leadership, psychology, and sociology to address the relationship between the gender of the decision maker and emergent decision biases in financial risk markets contexts. Critical to this exploration is the MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER DECISION BIASES 3
understanding that the gender of the decision maker may not be a singular influence in biased outcomes, and as a result, this dissertation seeks to uncover the drivers that facilitate observed biased behaviors attributable to gender, such as females as “risk averse” (Barber & Odean, 2001, p. 286). The intention of this exploration will be to help determine whether or not management may face a misalignment in organizational expectations and decision outcomes based on the gender of the decision maker in financial risk markets contexts. Additionally, this dissertation will attempt to offer organizations a holistic view of the varied contexts where financial risk markets decision making occurs within the organization, and present a conceptual framework to better manage potential misalignments due to the emergence of gender inherent decision biases.
In support of the goals of this dissertation, Chapter 1 presents the theoretical constructs used to examine the underlying mechanisms that facilitate the emergence of decision