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Critical cuccess factors (CSFs) for implementation of enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems in various industries, including institutions of higher education (IHEs)
No full textEnterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems present a management problem for various industries including institutions of higher education (IHEs) because they are costly to acquire, challenging to implement, and often fail to meet anticipated expectations. ERP systems are highly complex due to the nature of the operations they support. This dissertation was conducted via a systematic review of the literature from 1998–2017 to synthesize available knowledge in various industries including IHEs in the United States. Through the lenses of Change Management Theory and The Diffusion of Innovations Theory, this systematic review highlighted critical success factors (CSFs) affecting the implementation of ERP systems in various industries and, also, sought to discover CSFs unique to institutions of higher education. Despite the challenges ERP presents to businesses, implementation of ERP systems continues to grow. This dissertation found that for various industries, the most often cited CSFs were: top management support, change management skills, effective communications, and ERP systems user training. For IHEs, institutional governance, staff engagement, lack of internal expertise, and conflicts with other priorities were the critical factors that played a significant role in ERP implementation. These findings suggested that industries must not only pay careful attention to the CSFs in various industries but that they can utilize the specific CSFs in IHEs, even though they may not appear to be as crucial for other industries. Future research may consider the extent to which organizations have mastered the skills necessary to effectively implement ERP systems.1
Critical Success Factors (CSFs) for Implementation of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems in Various Industries, including Institutions of Higher Education (IHEs)
by
Marie Michaël Débrosse-Bruno
A Thesis
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
In Partial Fulfillment, of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Doctoral Committee:
Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D.
Leslie Dinauer, Ph.D.
2
Abstract
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems present a management problem for various industries including institutions of higher education (IHEs) because they are costly to acquire, challenging to implement, and often fail to meet anticipated expectations. ERP systems are highly complex due to the nature of the operations they support. This dissertation was conducted via a systematic review of the literature from 1998-2017 to synthesize available knowledge in various industries including IHEs in the United States. Through the lenses of Change Management Theory and The Diffusion of Innovations Theory, this systematic review highlighted critical success factors (CSFs) affecting the implementation of ERP systems in various industries and, also, sought to discover CSFs unique to institutions of higher education. Despite the challenges ERP presents to businesses, implementation of ERP systems continues to grow. This dissertation found that for various industries, the most often cited CSFs were: top management support, change management skills, effective communications, and ERP systems user training. For IHEs, institutional governance, staff engagement, lack of internal expertise, and conflicts with other priorities were the critical factors that played a significant role in ERP implementation. These findings suggested that industries must not only pay careful attention to the CSFs in various industries but that they can utilize the specific CSFs in IHEs, even though they may not appear to be as crucial for other industries. Future research may consider the extent to which organizations have mastered the skills necessary to effectively implement ERP systems.
Keywords: enterprise resource planning systems, critical success factors, CSFs, implementation, higher education, innovation management
3
Dedication
This work is dedicated to my late adoptive mother, Therese, who instilled in me the curiosity to seek understanding through reading and learning, thus fostering my lifelong quest for knowledge. You are unforgettable! It is also a tribute to my biological mother, Jacqueline, who did not have a chance to see how much her sons and daughters inherited her smarts. She died way too early but I am sure she is smiling at her progeny, of whom she would have been so proud, from the heavens where she belongs.
And, now, to the three young men of whom I am so proud. The most precious gifts of my life: Bertran, Michael, and Alain: You are the ones for whom I strove so hard to succeed. I love you all to pieces, just the way you are.
4
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements? It is a tough thing to do as it can be so unforgiving to miss or omit deserving people who have helped me thrive through a long and complicated journey. This is a roundabout way to say that everyone who has touched my life from near and far deserves to be acknowledged here. There are, however, those who must be cited indelibly on this very page.
DM professors, whoever you are, if you have crossed paths with me during this journey, I thank you for your contributions. I have learned something from every one of you even when it hurt. I could not have moved through this journey successfully without your encouragement and your criticisms. There are also those of you who helped me get up when it was hardest to do and who have helped move me to the finish line with resilience and with pride. Dr. Dinauer, you were instrumental in establishing my reconnection with Dr. Edwards. Your intervention came at a key time. I thank you for agreeing to be a member of my dissertation committee and I value your input to my dissertation.
Dr. Kathleen Edwards is the professor that I wish I had known all my life. Dr. Edwards, thank you for providing me the support, guidance, wisdom, inspiration, backed up by your intellectual savviness to complete this dissertation, an outstanding milestone in my life journey. I am thankful I met you early in the DM program, at which time I understood so little about the work into which I was embarking. You have been an outstanding advisor, and a superb spiritual guide. There are no two people like you.
I thank my sister, Gladys, whose smarts are indescribable. Since the day I saw her deliver her Valedictory speech in perfect English at her graduation, her talent, intelligence, and poise wowed me and made me proud. I want to thank you, my dear sister, for your quiet support and excellent work editing my papers when I had exhausted all hope of completing my work in 5
proper form and on time. I can never do anything to equal your support in my time of despair during this journey and at any other times in my lifetime.
To my husband, Antoine, for his unwavering support. You showed a lot of patience and consented to long waiting hours in the car while I sat in classes way before I envisioned that I would pursue this DM degree. Those sacrifices paved the way for my entry into the DM program. Thank you for being there for me and for caring for our family.
To my classmates, too numerous to list here, more than expanding my knowledge, in pursuing the DM program, I had the opportunity to meet amazing classmates. Many remain engraved in my mind in an unforgettable way. I hope I will have a chance to cross paths with many of them again. I must, however, single out Dr. Darrel Earhart: You have helped me more than you will ever know. I am glad that you were one of my expert panel members and I thank you for the emails of encouragement you sent me while I was away from the DM program. They were a pick-me-upper when the time came for me to return to the program. In addition, your contribution to my dissertation was invaluable.
Special thanks, also, to Dr. Ephraim Okoro and Mrs. Denise Ganly, the two other members of my dissertation expert panel. It is meaningful to me that you took time out of your busy schedules to review my dissertation. You provided me meaningful input that helped me enrich and strengthen my dissertation.
The staff of the DM program is commended for the job they do to serve the students. Special thanks to Monica Graham for her calm support and her professional disposition.
And, then, there is my dear friend, Hope, whose support was unbelievable when I started the program. I am thankful that she will see me complete this program.
6
ProQuest Cover Sheet
7
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 2
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 4
ProQuest Cover Sheet ..................................................................................................................... 6
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... 12
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... 13
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................. 14
Introduction to Chapter 1 .......................................................................................................... 14
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 15
Importance to Management ...................................................................................................... 17
Research Questions and Propositions ....................................................................................... 21
Key Definitions ......................................................................................................................... 22
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................... 23
Chapter 2: Systematic Review of the Literature ........................................................................... 25
Introduction to Chapter 2 .......................................................................................................... 25
Research Questions and Propositions ....................................................................................... 25
ERP Systems in Organizations ................................................................................................. 26
Industry Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems Literature ........................................... 28
ERP Systems Critical Success Factors (CSFs) in Industries .................................................... 30 8
Critical Factors in ERP Systems Selection ............................................................................... 45
ERP Systems Fit as a Success Factor ....................................................................................... 59
Success Factors in ERP Upgrades ................................................................................................ 65
ERP Systems in Institutions of Higher Education ........................................................................ 69
ERP Systems’ Role in an Organization’s Management ............................................................... 80
ERP Systems as a Vehicle of Change in Organizations ............................................................... 81
Theoretical Lenses ........................................................................................................................ 85
Lewin’s Theory ......................................................................................................................... 87
The Diffusion of Innovations Theory ....................................................................................... 90
ERP Systems as Technological Innovations ................................................................................. 92
Research Propositions as They Emerged from and Were Reflected in the Systematic Review of the Literature ................................................................................................................................ 94
Summary of Chapter 2 .............................................................................................................. 96
Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................... 97
Introduction to Chapter 3 .......................................................................................................... 97
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 98
Framework for Analysis and Synthesis .................................................................................... 98
Lewin’s Change Theory’s Role in ERP Systems Implementation ........................................... 98
The Diffusion of Innovations Theory ....................................................................................... 99 9
Graphical Framework ............................................................................................................. 100
The Diffusion of Innovations Theory ..................................................................................... 103
The ERP Diffusion of Change Framework (EDCF) ............................................................... 103
Summary of Chapter 3 ............................................................................................................ 104
Chapter 4: Methodology ............................................................................................................. 106
Introduction to Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................ 106
Review of Research questions ................................................................................................ 106
Discussion of the Theory and Practice of Evidence-Based Research (EBR) ............................. 106
Importance of Research to Management ................................................................................ 107
Evidence-Based Management (EBMgt) and Best Practices Concept ..................................... 108
Methodological Framework for the Systematic Review ........................................................ 109
Identification of Evidence ....................................................................................................... 112
PRISMA Diagram ................................................................................................................... 113
Search Terms .......................................................................................................................... 114
Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria ....................................................................................................... 115
Evaluation and Appraisal of Evidence .................................................................................... 116
Data Analysis and Synthesis ................................................................................................... 117
Discussion of the Use of an Expert Panel ............................................................................... 118
Summary of Chapter 4 ............................................................................................................ 119 10
Chapter 5: Analysis and Discussion ........................................................................................... 120
Introduction to Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................ 120
Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 120
Propositions........................................................................................................................ 120
Content Analysis and Synthesis Method ................................................................................ 121
Presentation and Summary of Findings .................................................................................. 123
Critical Success Factors and their Roles in ERP Implementation .......................................... 124
Implications of CSFs Unique to IHEs ........................................................................................ 125
CSFs of ERPs Unique to IHEs ............................................................................................... 125
Propositions in Light of the Findings ..................................................................................... 127
Consideration of Other Points of View ................................................................................... 129
Summary of Findings and Conclusions .................................................................................. 129
Summary of Chapter 5 ............................................................................................................ 129
Chapter 6: Conclusions, Implications and Trends ...................................................................... 131
Introduction to Chapter 6 ........................................................................................................ 131
Overall conclusions of the dissertation ................................................................................... 131
Implications for management ................................................................................................. 132
Emerging trends ...................................................................................................................... 133
Limitations of the dissertation ................................................................................................ 134 11
Areas for future research ......................................................................................................... 135
Summary of Chapter 6 ............................................................................................................ 135
Summary of Dissertation ............................................................................................................ 136
References .................................................................................................................................. 138
Appendix A - Three sets of Critical Success Factors ................................................................. 144
Appendix B - Dissertation Search, Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ......................................... 146
Appendix C – Study Appraisal/Weighing Checklist .................................................................. 147
Appendix – D - Brief Biographies of Expert Panel Members .................................................... 148
Appendix E – List of Included Studies ....................................................................................... 149
Appendix F - Database of Critical Success Factors (CSFs) ....................................................... 153
12
List of Tables
Table 1. Definitions ...................................................................................................................... 22
Table 2. Sumner (2009) Key Focus of Interviews ........................................................................ 63
Table 3. EDUCAUSE® 2002 – 2009 ERP Survey Results .......................................................... 70
Table 4. CSFs Identified in Gallup Leadership Institute Survey on Change Management Factors in ERP Success (2005) .......................................................................................................... 84
Table 5. CSFs Findings in Any Industry and in IHEs for ERP Systems’ Implementation Success............................................................................................................................................ 124
13
List of Figures
Figure 1. Timeline of Oracle™ PeopleSoft Implementations/Upgrades at NCSU 1998–2009 (Bradford, 2011)………………………………………………………………………………...78
Figure 2. Lewin’s Change Model (1945)……………………………………………………….88
Figure 3. ERP Integrative Adoption Framework (EIAF)……………………………………...101
Figure 4. ERP Diffusion of Change Framework (EDCF)……………………………………..104
Figure 5. PRISMA Diagram…………………………………………………………………...113
14
Chapter 1: Introduction
Statement and Significance of the Problem
Introduction to Chapter 1
The purpose of this dissertation was to review the Critical Success Factors (CSFs) that affected Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems implementation across various industries and to determine whether there were unique CSFs for institutions of higher education (IHE) that differed from other industries that had adopted ERP systems. The studies selected for this dissertation spanned nearly two decades of research (1998 to 2017) on critical factors influencing ERP implementation in various industries in the United States. This dissertation was conducted using evidence-based research (EBR) which is the process of systematically searching for, analyzing, and synthesizing the best available and appropriate studies from 1998 to 2017 to answer a set of research questions to produce findings that can be acted upon (Briner, Denyer, & Rousseau, 2009). Change Management Theor
Innovations and student success in online learning: A systematic review of how innovations affect student retention
No full textThis study examined disruptive and incremental innovations in online higher education to determine their relative impact on student success—defined as course completion and retention—focusing on two factors associated with success: faculty interaction and student engagement. The premise for this examination is that different types of innovations may have different effects on student success. To complete this investigation, an evidence-based research synthesis was conducted. The process included (a) a systematic selection of studies that examined innovations and student success for online learners, (b) a quality assessment of the selected studies, (c) thematic coding of the selected studies, and (d) thematic analysis to understand the relationships amongst variables. In addition, a panel of stakeholders was interviewed to review the study and provide feedback on the design and the value of this study. Results indicate that incremental innovations showed positive results towards student success in 74% of the cases. There were too few studies on disruptive innovations (18%) to draw conclusions, and these studies showed mixed results at best. Disruptive innovations may require a greater investment of time and resources in order to be successful. Many institutions used a comprehensive approach to student success saw an increase in course success or retention. It was determined that incremental innovations have a positive effect on student success. Further, innovations that utilized multiple strategies and targeted more than one factor associated with success are more likely to be successful.Running Head: INNOVATION AND SUCCESS IN ONLINE EDUCATION
Innovations and Student Success in Online Learning:
A Systematic Review of How Innovations Affect Student Retention
Denise Nadasen
University of Maryland University College
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Management
Dissertation Advisors:
Leslie Dinauer, Ph.D.
Sharon Hadary, Ph.D.
University of Maryland University College
December 2016
INNOVATION AND SUCCESS IN ONLINE EDUCATION 2
© 2016
Denise Nadasen
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
INNOVATION AND SUCCESS IN ONLINE EDUCATION 3
Abstract
This study examined disruptive and incremental innovations in online higher education to
determine their relative impact on student success—defined as course completion and
retention—focusing on two factors associated with success: faculty interaction and
student engagement. The premise for this examination is that different types of
innovations may have different effects on student success. To complete this
investigation, an evidence-based research synthesis was conducted. The process included
(a) a systematic selection of studies that examined innovations and student success for
online learners, (b) a quality assessment of the selected studies, (c) thematic coding of the
selected studies, and (d) thematic analysis to understand the relationships amongst
variables. In addition, a panel of stakeholders was interviewed to review the study and
provide feedback on the design and the value of this study. Results indicate that
incremental innovations showed positive results towards student success in 74% of the
cases. There were too few studies on disruptive innovations (18%) to draw conclusions,
and these studies showed mixed results at best. Disruptive innovations may require a
greater investment of time and resources in order to be successful. Many institutions
used a comprehensive approach to student success saw an increase in course success or
retention. It was determined that incremental innovations have a positive effect on
student success. Further, innovations that utilized multiple strategies and targeted more
than one factor associated with success are more likely to be successful.
Keywords: higher education, online learning, innovation, retention, course success
INNOVATION AND SUCCESS IN ONLINE EDUCATION 4
Acknowledgements
First, I wish to thank my family for their patience and support: my husband, Tom
Reynolds, who has read numerous drafts and took on additional responsibilities while I
retreated to my dissertation cave; my two sons, Clay Nadasen-Reynolds and Jeremy
Nadasen-Reynolds, who have been incredibly patient and understanding; my father, Dr.
Aruna Nadasen, who encouraged me to finish; and my sister, Dr. Premilla Nadasen,
whose support was both operational and emotional.
Second, I owe a great deal of gratitude to an amazing dissertation chair, Dr. Leslie
Dinauer. Without her support, this dissertation would not have been completed. The
confidence she had in me carried me through difficult times. She motivated and
challenged me to do more than I thought I could. I would also like to thank the doctor of
management faculty members at the University of Maryland University College who
have advised, guided, and encouraged me over the years: Dr. Sharon Hadary, Dr. Tom
Mierzwa, Dr. Mike Evanchek, Dr. Kay Edwards, Dr. John Sherlock, and Dr. James
Gillette.
I am incredibly fortunate to have several colleagues who have provided
tremendous support through the dissertation process: Dr. Karen Vignare, Dr. Marcia
Watson, Dr. Peter Shea, Dr. Karen Swan, Mr. William Pelz, and fellow doctoral students
with whom I enjoyed a community of support and academic discourse.
A special thank you goes to Dr. Karen Vignare who has been a friend, a mentor,
and an advisor.
INNOVATION AND SUCCESS IN ONLINE EDUCATION 5
Table of Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. 4
Table of Tables ................................................................................................................... 9
Table of Figures ................................................................................................................ 10
Chapter 1: Introduction ..................................................................................................... 11
Background ................................................................................................................... 13
Problem Statement ........................................................................................................ 15
Innovation ..................................................................................................................... 17
Definitions .................................................................................................................... 20
Purpose .......................................................................................................................... 22
Significance .................................................................................................................. 23
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 24
Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................ 25
The Adult Learner ......................................................................................................... 26
Success in Online Learning .......................................................................................... 27
Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................. 29
Factors Influencing Success in Online Learning .......................................................... 36
Innovation in Higher Education .................................................................................... 38
Incremental innovation. ............................................................................................ 39
Disruptive innovation. ............................................................................................... 40
Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 45
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 48
INNOVATION AND SUCCESS IN ONLINE EDUCATION 6
Chapter 3: Methodology ................................................................................................... 50
Research Questions and Variables ................................................................................ 52
Keyword Development ................................................................................................. 54
Search and Selection Process ........................................................................................ 55
Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria ......................................................................................... 56
Quality Assessment Process ......................................................................................... 57
Publications. .............................................................................................................. 58
Citations. ................................................................................................................... 58
Research questions. ................................................................................................... 58
Variables. .................................................................................................................. 60
Assumptions. ............................................................................................................. 60
Sample size. .............................................................................................................. 60
Internal validity. ........................................................................................................ 61
External validity. ....................................................................................................... 61
Research design. ....................................................................................................... 61
Results and conclusions. ........................................................................................... 62
Fit for purpose. .......................................................................................................... 62
Expert Panel Process ..................................................................................................... 62
Analysis and Synthesis Process .................................................................................... 64
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 67
Chapter 4: Results ............................................................................................................. 69
Quality Assessment Results .......................................................................................... 69
Stakeholder Review Results ......................................................................................... 71
INNOVATION AND SUCCESS IN ONLINE EDUCATION 7
Results of Thematic Analysis ....................................................................................... 79
Coding. ...................................................................................................................... 79
Analytic memos. ....................................................................................................... 85
Themes .......................................................................................................................... 86
Institutional innovations. ........................................................................................... 87
Faculty interaction. ................................................................................................... 90
Student engagement. ................................................................................................. 91
Course design. ........................................................................................................... 92
Student support. ........................................................................................................ 93
Disruptive and incremental innovations. .................................................................. 94
Concept Diagram .......................................................................................................... 97
Answering the Research Questions ............................................................................ 102
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 104
Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Implications ................................................... 106
Innovations .................................................................................................................. 108
Incremental Innovations. ......................................................................................... 108
Disruptive Innovations. ........................................................................................... 108
Factors ......................................................................................................................... 109
Themes ........................................................................................................................ 111
Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 113
Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 114
Implications to Management ...................................................................................... 115
Limitations .................................................................................................................. 116
INNOVATION AND SUCCESS IN ONLINE EDUCATION 8
Areas of Future Research ............................................................................................ 116
References ....................................................................................................................... 118
Appendix A: Keyword Search Criteria ........................................................................... 137
Appendix B: Databases Used in Systematic Search ....................................................... 138
Appendix C: List of Selected Articles ............................................................................ 139
Appendix D: Stakeholders .............................................................................................. 142
Appendix E: Summary of Stakeholder Interviews ......................................................... 143
Appendix F: Codes Used for Thematic Analysis ........................................................... 144
INNOVATION AND SUCCESS IN ONLINE EDUCATION 9
Table of Tables
Table 1. Quality Assessment Tool (QAT) ....................................................................... 59
Table 2. Raw Assessment Scores by Author and Criterion ............................................. 70
Table 3. Quality Assessment Total Weighted Scores by Author..................................... 71
Table 4. Frequency of Unique Codes by Category .......................................................... 80
Table 5. Disruptive and Incremental Strategies by Outcome .......................................... 94
INNOVATION AND SUCCESS IN ONLINE EDUCATION 10
Table of Figures
Figure 1. Tinto’s student integration model (SIM). .......................................................... 30
Figure 2. Bean & Metzner’s student attrition model (SAM). .......................................... 33
Figure 3. Rovai’s composite persistence model .............................................................. 34
Figure 4. Conceptual framework: Factors of online learning student success. ............... 46
Figure 5. Evidence-based research synthesis process. ..................................................... 52
Figure 6. Search and selection for evidence-based research synthesis. ........................... 57
Figure 7. Emergent conceptual diagram. ......................................................................... 97
INNOVATION AND SUCCESS IN ONLINE EDUCATION 11
Chapter 1: Introduction
Higher education has changed dramatically with the advent of online education
and a market that has expanded to online learners. Technologically savvy young people
and working adult students are drawn to this new way of learning. It is particularly
appealing because it allows students to learn anywhere, anytime. As a result, online
education has become an important part of student education. Institutions of higher
education are embracing online learning by incorporating online courses into their
academic programs.
Success rates for students using online education, however, are lower than success
rate for students in traditional, face-to-face education (Frydenberg, 2007; Lee, Choi, &
Kim, 2013; Rovai & Downey, 2010). Dropout rates for students enrolled in online
programs in the United States have been reported between 25% and 45% (Willging &
Johnson, 2009). As a result, leaders in higher education are seeking to find out what
factors lead to attrition in order to develop innovative solutions to improve persistence
(Lee & Choi, 2011).
Innovations are strategies that change the standard business practice to improve
organizational goals. In higher education, institutional goals are broad but typically
include improving student success. Student success can be defined as course completion,
student retention, or graduation. Within online learning, innovations that address student
success may include strategies such as adaptive learning, online learning communities,
and even virtual faculty or students.
Innovations are not always as effective as expected (Tinto, 2006). Institutions
employ innovations for a variety of reasons (Whitworth, 2012). Some innovations are
INNOVATION AND SUCCESS IN ONLINE EDUCATION 12
expected to increase enrollments and improve efficiencies (Anderson, Maier, & Shepard,
2010), while other innovations may face challenges related to an institution’s social and
political culture (Whitworth, 2012). In particular, incremental innovations may be more
prevalent at large universities where the political and social context favors innovations
that adapt to the conventional practices (Whitworth, 2012).
The complex environment in higher education, particularly online learning, makes
evaluating innovations related to student success challenging. For example, Heyman
(2010) examined student retention in online programs and found that student support,
instructor-related interactions, and course design were important factors contributing to
student success. However, other practices and policies such as admissions, financial aid,
and advising may confound the effects of these factors on student success.
Despite the complexity of evaluating innovations, institutions employ numerous
innovations to address student success. For example, the massive open online course
(MOOC) is perceived as an innovation that could disrupt the standard classroom
experience for students. While MOOCs have become increasingly popular, they have
shown poor course completion rates (de Frietas, Morgan, & Gibson, 2015). Innovations
related to online student orientation, on the other hand, have shown positive results with
regard to online student success (Hall, 2011). Hall (2011) examined a community
college’s voluntary orientation and found that it led to social and academic integration,
which led to increased course completion for online students. Given these mixed results,
the need to examine the effectiveness of innovations in higher education is more
prevalent for online education (Casanovas, 2010).
INNOVATION AND SUCCESS IN ONLINE EDUCATION 13
While there is an abundance of literature documenting the differences between
online and face-to-face learning, there is little research on how different types of
innovations influence student success in online learning. There are innovations that are
incremental, focusing on small improvements and sustaining the business model; or
innovations that are disruptive, more radical in nature, creating a substantial change to the
education business model. Incremental innovations are popular in higher education as a
means to sustain and slightly improve existing practices. Disruptive innovations, by
nature, are less appealing to institutions where change is difficult. Using a systematic
review and an evidence-based research synthesis (EBRS), this dissertation explores both
incremental and disruptive innovations to determine their influence on student success in
online learning.
This introductory chapter provides the background, the problem statement, the
research questions, the theoretical framework, and definitions of key terms related to
student success. Chapter 2 provides a literature review, followed by Chapter 3, which
describes the methodology. Chapter 4 presents the results and analysis and Chapter 5
discusses conclusions and implications.
Background
An educated population stimulates the economy, reduces poverty, and
experiences lower crime rates (Haskins, 2012; McKiernan, 2012; Nolan, 1999). In 2008,
the United States reported that 39% of its population had received a college degree while
Canada reported the highest rate of college graduates at 55% of its population (National
Center for P
Ranking different stakeholder-driven definitions of academic quality
No full textAmericans are increasingly concerned about academic quality (Hauptman & Kim, 2009). This concern about academic quality is a product of the relative decline of the American economy, American Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) test scores, American baccalaureate attainment rates, and various other indicators of national competitiveness (Kanter, 2011). Educating about 40% of all postsecondary students and suffering from persistently low completion rates, community colleges are not immune from public concern about academic quality (Alstadt, Fingerhut, & Kazis, 2012). Pressure on community college leaders to promote academic quality comes from a variety of quarters, including students and parents, faculty and staff members, board members, program and regional accreditors, funding agencies, citizens, taxpayers, employers, and state and federal government agencies (Hom, 2011). Unfortunately, different community college stakeholders have different, and often shifting, definitions of academic quality (Newton, 2010). The open-ended nature of the term quality makes such complexity possible, if not inevitable. As Bassis (2015) asserted, issues related to academic quality are disconcerting and perspectives vary widely, “influenced in no small part by where one sits” (p. 2).
A community college leader’s decisions about academic quality can lead to the uneven distribution of academic, technological, or physical plant resources, and the downgrading of other, opposing stakeholder-driven definitions of academic quality. When we choose one value-laden interpretation of the term quality, we invariably give up on another incommensurate interpretation of the same word (Kenny, 2000). As Northcraft and Neale (1996) argued, most organizational decisions between competing values inherently affect resource allocation. Community colleges leaders who fail to prioritize different stakeholder-driven definitions of academic quality properly often fail to make informed strategic decisions that advance a college’s mission (Hom, 2011).
Employing total quality management, stakeholder theory, and the theory of the public sphere, the researcher used a critical interpretative synthesis methodology to describe varied stakeholder-driven definitions of academic quality and provide community college administrators with a theoretical model for prioritizing them. Total quality management provides a practical framework for incorporating customer feedback into an actionable definition of quality (Crosby, 1979; Deming, 1986; Juran, 1989; Sparks & Legault, 2001); stakeholder theory provides a method for broadening leaders’ perspectives about an organization’s purpose or bottom line (Freeman, 1984, 1994); and the theory of the public sphere offers leaders a theoretical model for understanding how men and women can democratically resolve differences between different or competing claims about values (Habermas, 1989).Ranking Different Stakeholder-Driven Definitions of Academic Quality
RANKING DIFFERENT STAKEHOLDER-DRIVEN DEFINITIONS
OF ACADEMIC QUALITY
Derek Shouba
A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Maryland University College in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Doctor of Management Degree
Summer 2017
Advisory Committee
Trudy Bers, Ph.D.
Gena Glickman, Ph.D.
Ranking Different Stakeholder-Driven Definitions of Academic Quality
ABSTRACT
Americans are increasingly concerned about academic quality (Hauptman & Kim, 2009).
This concern about academic quality is a product of the relative decline of the American
economy, American Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) test scores, American
baccalaureate attainment rates, and various other indicators of national competitiveness (Kanter,
2011). Educating about 40% of all postsecondary students and suffering from persistently low
completion rates, community colleges are not immune from public concern about academic
quality (Alstadt, Fingerhut, & Kazis, 2012). Pressure on community college leaders to promote
academic quality comes from a variety of quarters, including students and parents, faculty and
staff members, board members, program and regional accreditors, funding agencies, citizens,
taxpayers, employers, and state and federal government agencies (Hom, 2011). Unfortunately,
different community college stakeholders have different, and often shifting, definitions of
academic quality (Newton, 2010). The open-ended nature of the term quality makes such
complexity possible, if not inevitable. As Bassis (2015) asserted, issues related to academic
quality are disconcerting and perspectives vary widely, “influenced in no small part by where
one sits” (p. 2).
A community college leader’s decisions about academic quality can lead to the uneven
distribution of academic, technological, or physical plant resources, and the downgrading of
other, opposing stakeholder-driven definitions of academic quality. When we choose one value-laden
interpretation of the term quality, we invariably give up on another incommensurate
interpretation of the same word (Kenny, 2000). As Northcraft and Neale (1996) argued, most
organizational decisions between competing values inherently affect resource allocation.
Community colleges leaders who fail to prioritize different stakeholder-driven definitions of
Ranking Different Stakeholder-Driven Definitions of Academic Quality
academic quality properly often fail to make informed strategic decisions that advance a
college’s mission (Hom, 2011).
Employing total quality management, stakeholder theory, and the theory of the public
sphere, the researcher used a critical interpretative synthesis methodology to describe varied
stakeholder-driven definitions of academic quality and provide community college
administrators with a theoretical model for prioritizing them. Total quality management provides
a practical framework for incorporating customer feedback into an actionable definition of
quality (Crosby, 1979; Deming, 1986; Juran, 1989; Sparks & Legault, 2001); stakeholder theory
provides a method for broadening leaders’ perspectives about an organization’s purpose or
bottom line (Freeman, 1984, 1994); and the theory of the public sphere offers leaders a
theoretical model for understanding how men and women can democratically resolve differences
between different or competing claims about values (Habermas, 1989).
Ranking Different Stakeholder-Driven Definitions of Academic Quality ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author of this dissertation wishes to thank his faculty advisors, Drs. Gena Glickman
and Trudy Bers, for their thoughtful guidance, and all of the other excellent UMUC faculty
members and students who have provided him with feedback on the subject of academic quality
over the past several years. One of these faculty members, Dr. Pat Keir, was particularly
important to the formulation of the study’s research questions and choice of research
methodology. Another faculty member, Dr. Susan McMaster, was especially helpful in making a
variety of excellent editorial suggestions on multiple occasions. Additionally, the author wishes
to thank Dr. Gabriella Oldham for lending her editorial expertise to the final stages of the project,
especially with respect to the stylistic conventions of the American Psychological Association.
Finally, the author is grateful for the support of his two children, Rayan and Torin, to whom this
work dissertation is dedicated, as well as his wife, Dr. Besma Smida, Associate Professor of
Engineering at the University of Illinois at Chicago, who served as a persistently insightful
interlocutor on the complicated, multidimensional, and sometimes controversial topic of
academic quality.
Ranking Different Stakeholder-Driven Definitions of Academic Quality iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1
Background and Context.................................................................................................. 1
History of the Accountability and Quality Movements ....................................... 1
Multifunctional Community College Mission ..................................................... 5
Theoretical Debates About the Nature of Quality ............................................... 7
Practical Implications of Disputes About Academic Quality .............................. 9
Significance..................................................................................................................... 14
New Pressures to Define and Bolster Academic Quality .................................... 14
Importance of Dealing With Stakeholder-Driven Definitions of
Academic Quality ............................................................................................ 17
Statement of Purpose ....................................................................................................... 17
Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 18
Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................... 18
Total Quality Management .................................................................................. 19
Stakeholder Theory .............................................................................................. 21
The Theory of the Public Sphere ......................................................................... 24
Definition of Terms.......................................................................................................... 26
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 31
CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................ 33
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 33
Choice of Research Methodology .................................................................................... 33
The Relevance of CIS to Academic Quality ........................................................ 37
Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 39
Literature Search (An Overview) ..................................................................................... 41
Key Word Searches.............................................................................................. 41
Literature Search (Mechanics) ......................................................................................... 43
Appraisal of Literature ..................................................................................................... 45
Criteria for Inclusion/Exclusion ........................................................................... 45
Synthesis of Literature ..................................................................................................... 46
Key References ................................................................................................................ 47
Expert Panel Review ........................................................................................................ 47
Methodology for Expert Panel Review................................................................ 47
Credentials of Expert Panelists ............................................................................ 54
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 56
CHAPTER THREE: CONCEPTUAL MODEL AND LITERATURE REVIEW ...................... 57
The Conceptual Model ..................................................................................................... 57
Introduction to Conceptual Model ....................................................................... 57
The Relevance of Three Theories of the Conceptual Model ........................................... 58
Element One: The Relevance of Total Quality Management .............................. 58
Element Two: The Relevance of Stakeholder Theory ......................................... 60
Element Three: The Relevance of Public Sphere Theory .................................... 61
Ranking Different Stakeholder-Driven Definitions of Academic Quality iv
Chapter Three (continued)
Literature Review............................................................................................................. 61
Overview of Literature Review ........................................................................... 61
The Nature of Academic Quality ......................................................................... 62
Stakeholder Perspectives on Academic Quality ....................................................66
Board members .......................................................................................... 68
Students ..................................................................................................... 70
Taxpayers .................................................................................................. 74
Citizens ...................................................................................................... 75
Faculty members ....................................................................................... 76
Business leaders ........................................................................................ 78
Regional and programmatic accreditors .................................................... 81
Funding agencies and educational not-for-profits ..................................... 84
State government officials ......................................................................... 86
Federal government officials ..................................................................... 88
Representatives of transfer institutions ..................................................... 91
Higher education committee members ...................................................... 93
Accountability, Ranking, and Rating Systems .................................................... 94
Quality and accountability systems ........................................................... 94
Quality and ranking and rating systems .................................................... 96
Theories of Communicating Effectively With Different Stakeholder Groups ................ 98
Total Quality Management .................................................................................. 98
TQM’s definition of quality as related to customer satisfaction ............... 98
TQM’s customer satisfaction strategy .......................................................100
TQM in higher education: Pros and cons ..................................................103
Positive impact of TQM on satisfying customers and stakeholders
in college and universities: TQM and AQIP .........................................105
TQM and ranking stakeholder-driven definitions of quality .....................106
Stakeholder Theory ..............................................................................................107
Characteristics of stakeholder theory ........................................................107
Purpose of stakeholder theory ...................................................................108
Identifying or mapping stakeholders .........................................................108
Prioritizing or ranking stakeholders ..........................................................110
The rungs of stakeholder engagement .......................................................111
Stakeholder theory in education ................................................................113
Stakeholder theory tools ............................................................................116
Theory of the Public Sphere ................................................................................117
Mediating conflict in the public sphere .....................................................117
Communicative action ...............................................................................118
Ideal speech situation ................................................................................119
The links between the public sphere and democracy ................................119
Hannah Arendt and the value of the public sphere ...................................120
Criticisms of the theory of the public sphere ............................................123
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................124
Ranking Different Stakeholder-Driven Definitions of Academic Quality v
CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS ....................................................................125
Introduction ......................................................................................................................125
Findings Based on Expert Panel Survey ..........................................................................126
General Findings From the Literature Review ................................................................129
Findings Related to Research Question 1: Stakeholder-driven Definitions
of Academic Quality .................................................................................129
The indeterminate nature of quality ..........................................................129
Stakeholder-drive definitions of quality ....................................................132
Findings Related to Research Question 2: Ranking Different Stakeholder-driven
Expectations of Academic Quality ......................................................135
Quality in the context of accountability and ranking systems ...................135
Ranking stakeholder-driven definitions of academic quality ....................136
The management of competing definitions of academic quality ..............137
TQM and customer-driven definitions of quality ......................................138
TQM in academic settings .........................................................................139
Stakeholder theory and the process of ranking values ..............................142
Academic quality in a public sphere .........................................................145
The limits of ranking, rating, and accountability systems .........................147
Ranking systems ...............................................................................147
Rating systems ..................................................................................149
Accountability systems .....................................................................149
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................152
CHAPTER FIVE: IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR
FUTURE RESEARCH ................................................................................................................154
Introduction ......................................................................................................................154
Implications of Findings for Community College Practice .............................................154
Operationalizing the Conceptual Model ..............................................................156
Four Recommendations for Community College Administrators ...................................157
Implement a Customer Feedback Project ............................................................157
Conduct a Stakeholder Mapping Exercise ...........................................................158
Hold Open Forums on Academic Quality ...........................................................160
Revise Strategic Plan ...........................................................................................162
Gaps in the Research Related to the Topic and Research Questions ...............................162
College Governance and Strategic Planning System ...........................................162
Case Studies in Ranking Stakeholder-drive Definitions of Academic
Quality.............................................................................................................164
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................165
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................166
Ranking Different Stakeholder-Driven Definitions of Academic Quality vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1 Search Terms and Results ................................................................................................ 42
2 Key References ................................................................................................................ 48
3 Hom’s (2011) Table for Categorizing Community College Stakeholders ......................115
Ranking Different Stakeholder-Driven Definitions of Academic Quality vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1 Graphic depiction of conceptual model ........................................................................... 59
2 Factors influencing the perception of academic quality .................................................. 67
3 Juran’s quality-planning roadmap....................................................................................102
4 Hom’s value tree for hypothetical stakeholder ................................................................116
Ranking Different Stakeholder-Driven De
Knowledge management strategies: A success framework for the changing age demographic of the United States federal workforce
No full textGovernment-reported statistics and existing research herald an epic age demographic change in the federal workforce, as a large number of its workers approach the average retirement age of 61.3 (United States Office of Personnel Management, 2016, March). Hence, this study examined the changing age demographic of the federal workforce with regard to workforce separation and retirement. Through years of professional practice, older workers accumulated a breadth of knowledge that provides widespread benefit to the respective federal organizations. As a result, there is a need for effective knowledge management (KM) strategies that respond to the changing knowledge requirements of federal workers. Based on this age demographic trend, a significant consideration for knowledge retention and knowledge sharing in the federal workforce emerges (Slagter, 2007). This researcher found that the appropriate KM strategies address the knowledge considerations specific to the federal workforce. Management practitioners are presented with both challenges and opportunities for the development of new management strategies to address changing workforce dynamics. Consistent with the chosen management focus of applied leadership and change in an organizational context, this researcher pursued KM success strategies for a federal agency workplace that faces significant demographic change. Through this evidence-based study, the researcher identified and analyzed relationships between KM concepts. A KM strategic framework is provided for mitigating the projected knowledge gaps in the federal workforce. This success framework provides elements for KM strategy development including; situational adaptation, social factors, and the management of knowledge as an essential resource.Running head: KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 1
Title Page
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES: A SUCCESS FRAMEWORK FOR THE CHANGING AGE DEMOGRAPHIC OF THE UNITED STATES FEDERAL WORKFORCE
Dawn M. R. Turner
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
In Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Submitted to:
Deborah M. Wharff, DM Eric B. Dent, Ph.D.
December 31, 2016
© Copyright by
Dawn M. R. Turner
2016
This dissertation may contain copyrighted material. This material was used to advance research and it is the dissertation author's belief that this constitutes a “fair use” of any such copyrighted material as provided for in Section 107 of the U.S. Copyright Law. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 2
Abstract
Government-reported statistics and existing research herald an epic age demographic change in the federal workforce, as a large number of its workers approach the average retirement age of 61.3 (United States Office of Personnel Management, 2016, March). Hence, this study examined the changing age demographic of the federal workforce with regard to workforce separation and retirement. Through years of professional practice, older workers accumulated a breadth of knowledge that provides widespread benefit to the respective federal organizations. As a result, there is a need for effective knowledge management (KM) strategies that respond to the changing knowledge requirements of federal workers. Based on this age demographic trend, a significant consideration for knowledge retention and knowledge sharing in the federal workforce emerges (Slagter, 2007). This researcher found that the appropriate KM strategies address the knowledge considerations specific to the federal workforce. Management practitioners are presented with both challenges and opportunities for the development of new management strategies to address changing workforce dynamics. Consistent with the chosen management focus of applied leadership and change in an organizational context, this researcher pursued KM success strategies for a federal agency workplace that faces significant demographic change. Through this evidence-based study, the researcher identified and analyzed relationships between KM concepts. A KM strategic framework is provided for mitigating the projected knowledge gaps in the federal workforce. This success framework provides elements for KM strategy development including; situational adaptation, social factors, and the management of knowledge as an essential resource.
Keywords: knowledge management strategy, knowledge depletion, knowledge retention, human capital management, competency management, aging federal workforce KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 3
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated in loving memory of my father, Linton G. Reid who left his “words” that continue to speak wisdom into my life.
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 4
Acknowledgments
First, I give all glory, honor, and praises to God. In His strength, this dissertation went from reverie to reality. With immense gratitude and love, I acknowledge my wonderful husband, Larry Turner II whose unwavering understanding, patience, and prayers were always with me. My thankfulness and love also go to my dear mother, Dorothy Reid, whose encouragement, prayers, and kind acts are beautiful demonstrations of God’s love. During this course of work, I was blessed with Larry III, who brings pure joy along with the high honor of motherhood.
Words cannot fully express my gratitude for the intercessory spiritual support from my sister Joan McClellan, my extended family, and friends. I also acknowledge the graciousness of my colleagues who embraced my vision for completion.
With infinite gratitude, I acknowledge the support of my Dissertation Advisors, Dr. Deborah M. Wharff and Dr. Eric B. Dent. Along my winding path to completion, Dr. Wharff has been a consistent voice of encouragement, kindness, and motivation. Dr. Dent with his invaluable metaphoric instruction was a beacon of light guiding me to the shore of completion. Dr. Wharff and Dr. Dent demonstrate the attributes of instructional excellence and I will forever count it a blessing to have received their instruction.
I wish to express my gratitude to the expert panel members Dr. Angela Amayah, Dr. Mario Donate, and Dr. Susanne Durst whose selfless participation and candid feedback improved my work.
I am appreciative of the unconditional companionship of my four-legged loves, Zoe and Zion, displayed by the comforting “sniff-bys”, accompanied trips to the kitchen, and their enduring presence through the night. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 5
Finally, I must acknowledge the power of this doctoral journey to strengthen faith, stamina, patience, and relationships.
My efforts on the extended road to completion can aptly be described by the words of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow:
The heights by great men reached and kept were not attained by sudden flight, but they while their companions slept, were toiling upward in the night.
. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 6
1. Knowledge Management Strategies:
2. A Success Framework for the Changing Age Demographic of the United States Federal Sector
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 2
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... 4
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 6
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... 11
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... 12
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................. 13
Background .............................................................................................................................. 13
Conceptualization of Knowledge and Knowledge Management ............................................. 13
Knowledge defined. ................................................................................................................ 13
The concept of knowledge management. ................................................................................ 15
Knowledge management processes. ....................................................................................... 16
Relevant concepts. .................................................................................................................. 18
Statement of Research Problem ............................................................................................... 19
Research Significance .............................................................................................................. 23
Research Purpose ..................................................................................................................... 24
Research Questions .................................................................................................................. 25
Research Scope and Limitations .............................................................................................. 25
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................... 26
Chapter 2: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 28
Patterns in Knowledge Management ........................................................................................ 28 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 7
Trends in knowledge management research methods. ........................................................... 28
Trends in knowledge management research contexts. ............................................................ 29
Introduction to Methodology Implemented in the Dissertation Process .................................. 31
Research Methodology Specifics ............................................................................................. 33
Systematic review. .................................................................................................................. 33
Discussion of Relevant Scholarly Evidence ............................................................................. 35
Inclusion/exclusion criteria. .................................................................................................... 36
Thematic analysis.................................................................................................................... 38
Discussion of Expert Panel Review Process ............................................................................ 41
Integration of Expert Panel feedback. ..................................................................................... 43
Chapter 3: Systematic Literature Review ..................................................................................... 48
Conceptualization of Knowledge and Knowledge Management ............................................. 49
Common themes in knowledge management literature. . ...................................................... 49
The importance of knowledge and knowledge management to an organization.. .................. 51
Knowledge management processes.. ...................................................................................... 54
The impact of knowledge depletion. . ..................................................................................... 69
The Role of Knowledge Management Strategy ....................................................................... 78
The Role of Human Capital Management and Competency Management in Managing Knowledge ............................................................................................................................... 82
The role of human capital management as a knowledge management sub-strategy. ............. 83
The role of competency management as a knowledge management sub-strategy. ................ 87
Common KM Strategies for Age-Related Knowledge Depletion ............................................ 91
Examination of Seminal Publications .................................................................................... 102 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 8
Research Propositions ............................................................................................................ 106
Chapter 4: Analysis and Discussion ........................................................................................... 108
Findings ................................................................................................................................. 108
Secondary research question 1 (SRQ1): ............................................................................... 109
Secondary research question 2 (SRQ2): ............................................................................... 112
Secondary research question 3 (SRQ3): ............................................................................... 114
Primary research question (PRQ): ........................................................................................ 116
Discussion of Conclusions in Relation to Research Propositions .......................................... 123
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 123
Conclusion 2 (C2). ................................................................................................................ 123
Conclusion 3 (C3). ................................................................................................................ 123
Conclusion 4 (C4). ................................................................................................................ 124
Contrasting Viewpoints .......................................................................................................... 125
Chapter 5: Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................. 130
Restatement of the Research Problem .................................................................................... 130
Graphic Conceptual Framework Portrayal ............................................................................. 131
Literature Review Conceptualization Approach .................................................................... 133
Literature Review Conceptualization ..................................................................................... 136
Definitions of knowledge and KM. ...................................................................................... 136
KM processes. ....................................................................................................................... 137
Organizational value of KM. ................................................................................................ 139
Impact of knowledge depletion. ............................................................................................ 139
KM strategy approach. .......................................................................................................... 140 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 9
The Dynamic Theory of Organizational Knowledge Creation. ............................................ 142
Systems theory. ..................................................................................................................... 144
Resource based theory.. ........................................................................................................ 146
Strategic management theory. .............................................................................................. 147
Social exchange Theory. ....................................................................................................... 149
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 151
Chapter 6: Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 152
Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 152
Overall Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 152
Overall conclusion 1 (OC1): ................................................................................................. 152
Subsequent management implication (OC1-SMI):. .............................................................. 153
Overall conclusion 2 ............................................................................................................. 153
Subsequent management implication (OC2- SMI) ............................................................... 154
Overall conclusion 3 (OC3). ................................................................................................. 155
Emerging Trends in Knowledge Management Research ....................................................... 157
Trend Implications and Future Pathways for Knowledge Management Research. ............... 158
Research Limitations .............................................................................................................. 160
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 160
References .................................................................................................................................. 162
Appendix A – Literature Coding ................................................................................................ 180
Appendix B - Letter of Introduction ........................................................................................... 191
Appendix C - Subject Matter Expert Evaluation Form ............................................................. 192
Appendix D - Executive Summary ............................................................................................. 193 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 10
Appendix E - Subject Matter Expert Evaluation: Susanne Durst, PhD ...................................... 197
Appendix F - Subject Matter Expert Evaluation: Angela Titi Amayah, PhD ............................ 199
Appendix G - Subject Matter Expert Evaluation: Mario J. Donate, PhD ................................... 202
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 11
List of Tables
Table 1 Thematic Analysis Process by Phase ............................................................................... 38
Table 2 Thematic Factors Used to Analyze Literature with Relevant Research Questions ......... 39
Table 3 Expert Panel Members ..................................................................................................... 42
Table 4 Summary of Subject Matter Expert Feedback and Disposition ....................................... 44
Table 5 Proposition and Evidence Alignment ............................................................................ 107
Table 6 Finding 1 Relevant Empirical Evidence ........................................................................ 110
Table 7 Finding 2 Relevant Empirical Evidence ........................................................................ 111
Table 8 Finding 3 Relevant Empirical Evidence ........................................................................ 113
Table 9 Finding 4 Relevant Empirical Evidence ........................................................................ 116
Table 10 Finding 5 Relevant Empirical Evidence ...................................................................... 117
Table 11 Proposition and Finding Alignment ............................................................................. 122
Table 12 Management Theory and Finding Alignment .............................................................. 142
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 12
List of Figures
Figure 1. KM Processes. ............................................................................................................... 16
Figure 2. Research Methodology Steps. ....................................................................................... 34
Figure 3. Literature Assessment Spreadsheet Format................................................................... 37
Figure 4. Evidence Levels............................................................................................................. 37
Figure 5. Conceptual Framework.. ............................................................................................. 132
Figure 6. Concepts With Research Question and Proposition Relevance. ................................ 134
Figure 7. Concept Area Crosswalk ............................................................................................. 135
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 13
Chapter 1: Introduction
Background
When knowledge management was emerging as a management concept, prominent theorists predicted a society where the currency of knowledge would be at the core of the economy (McLaren, Mills, & Durepos, 2009). The “knowledge movement” was based on the principle that knowledge is, “… the underlying factor that fuels performance, progress and economic growth” (Wiig, 2007, p. 141). Knowledge was
The performance appraisal process: Best approaches to support organizational justice for employees
No full textWhat is considered a fair and accurate performance appraisal depends on whom you ask. The performance appraisal, an evaluation/assessment instrument widely used by many human resource departments, has been in the controversial spotlight for almost as long as organizations have been in existence. The performance appraisal process (or lack thereof) is one of the mostly hotly debated human resources issue in today’s work environment, and there is a trend to abandon traditional performance appraisals (Kenny, 2016). One purpose of the performance appraisal is to communicate to employees any information collected about their performance over a specified period of time. While the performance appraisal process is a critical function of human resources that can trigger assessment fairness perceptions, understanding how fairness influences job productivity and employee satisfaction, as well as employee behavior consequences, have practical implications. Social influences of perception are fast becoming contextual components of the performance appraisal process. The traditional approach to the performance appraisal is antiquated because the workplace environment has rapidly changed due to technological advances. The manner in which 21st Century employees work and the definition of performance, significantly impacts how employee performance should be measured (Bititci, Garengo, Dorfer & Nudurapati, 2012). Applying the social comparison, expectancy, and equity theories to the performance appraisal process suggests that an employee expects to be fairly compensated, recognized, and fairly rewarded for their contributions to meeting organizational goals. This research underscores the importance of incorporating organizational justice dimensions into the performance appraisal process. Additionally, this research enhances the understanding of organizational justice and the role that it plays on employee perception of the overall performance appraisal process.
Using thematic synthesis, employee and manager/supervisor perceptions, reactions, and observations of performance appraisal accuracy and equity were examined. These variables were identified as predictor constructs for appraisal effectiveness and satisfaction. The findings show that organizational justice within the context of the performance appraisal is significantly impacted by national context and demographic characteristics, and the relationship quality between the appraiser and appraisee is crucial. These results provide HR practitioners and organizations with a meaningful approach to integrate organizational justice. The pivotal role and important implications that organizational justice plays on the performance process is presented.Running head: ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE & THE PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
The Performance Appraisal Process:
Best Approaches to Support Organizational Justice for Employees
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Management
Dissertation Advisory Committee:
G. David Andersen, Ed.D.
Eric B. Dent, Ph.D.
ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE AND THE PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL ii
Abstract
What is considered a fair and accurate performance appraisal depends on whom you ask. The
performance appraisal, an evaluation/assessment instrument widely used by many human
resource departments, has been in the controversial spotlight for almost as long as organizations
have been in existence. The performance appraisal process (or lack thereof) is one of the mostly
hotly debated human resources issue in today’s work environment, and there is a trend to
abandon traditional performance appraisals (Kenny, 2016). One purpose of the performance
appraisal is to communicate to employees any information collected about their performance
over a specified period of time. While the performance appraisal process is a critical function of
human resources that can trigger assessment fairness perceptions, understanding how fairness
influences job productivity and employee satisfaction, as well as employee behavior
consequences, have practical implications. Social influences of perception are fast becoming
contextual components of the performance appraisal process. The traditional approach to the
performance appraisal is antiquated because the workplace environment has rapidly changed due
to technological advances. The manner in which 21st Century employees work and the definition
of performance, significantly impacts how employee performance should be measured (Bititci,
Garengo, Dorfer & Nudurapati, 2012). Applying the social comparison, expectancy, and equity
theories to the performance appraisal process suggests that an employee expects to be fairly
compensated, recognized, and fairly rewarded for their contributions to meeting organizational
goals. This research underscores the importance of incorporating organizational justice
dimensions into the performance appraisal process. Additionally, this research enhances the
ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE AND THE PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL iii
understanding of organizational justice and the role that it plays on employee perception of the
overall performance appraisal process.
Using thematic synthesis, employee and manager/supervisor perceptions, reactions, and
observations of performance appraisal accuracy and equity were examined. These variables
were identified as predictor constructs for appraisal effectiveness and satisfaction. The findings
show that organizational justice within the context of the performance appraisal is significantly
impacted by national context and demographic characteristics, and the relationship quality
between the appraiser and appraisee is crucial. These results provide HR practitioners and
organizations with a meaningful approach to integrate organizational justice. The pivotal role
and important implications that organizational justice plays on the performance process is
presented.
Keywords: equity theory, expectancy theory, job performance, job satisfaction,
organizational justice, performance appraisals, performance evaluation, social comparison
theory, trust, 21st Century organizations
ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE AND THE PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL iv
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my daughter, Adrienne G. Clayton, and to my son, DeLonte A.
Smith. As a single parent at an early age, I knew that someday, somehow, I would leave a
legacy the Ware ancestry would be proud of. Never once did I ever imagine that it would be a
prestigious degree. Now, that I have reached this milestone in life, I only want to be the best
mother that I can possibly be. This journey has consumed so much of me, and my personal and
quality time from both of you. I appreciate all the support you have given me while I pursued
my dream. This is my legacy, for you, my grandchildren, and my future grandchildren. I love
you beyond what words can express.
This dissertation is also dedicated to the late Linda P. Ware (my mother), and the late
Sarah F. Ware (my grandmother). These two loving and compassionate women instilled in me
the value and importance in always striving to be the very best and to always give from the heart.
Giving from the heart meant finding ways to help people who were less fortunate than we were
and to give back, even though I grew up poor. And by doing so, I would be living life with
purpose. They also instilled the values of working hard, persevering through adversity, and
helped me understand that failure is a part of success. The values you instilled in me at an early
age will always be engrained in my heart. I know that you both are smiling down on me from
Heaven.
ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE AND THE PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL v
Acknowledgments
This dissertation was possible because of the enormous amount of love, encouragement,
and support received from my children, family, friends, my professional and personal colleagues,
my fellow cohort, and more importantly, my dissertation advisors. I want to acknowledge my
sister (Lynerl Ware), and my colleague and trusted friend, Johnetta Grimes. You both have been
encouraging me since Day 1. You both have been instrumental in assisting me when I broke my
hand. You both have been my rock through my knee replacement surgery, rehabilitation, and
therapy ordeal. I will never forget that you brought all of my school papers, articles, folders, and
my two computers to the hospital and rehabilitation center so that I would not miss a due date.
The countless days and nights you stayed up with me, helping me organize files, label folders,
assisting me in organizing stacks of articles, and countless other big and small tasks you fulfilled
to get me through the finish line will never be forgotten. Through all the tears, my hurt, my
pains, and the laughing moments, I conceded I was stubborn, yet remained steadfast; I stayed
unshakeable and determined not to let these circumstances distract or hinder me from
accomplishing my goal. You were the strongest support system through and through. Thank
you.
To my boss, Joseph P. McKenna, who was influential in suggesting I explore the topic of
the performance appraisal. Indeed, this topic resonated with me and I embarked on this journey,
pursued it with the confidence knowing that the information I acquired would someday be used
to improve the manner in which the performance appraisal process is approached. While we had
differing viewpoints, you constantly bounced off ideas or made statements that made me think
ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE AND THE PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL vi
“more critically” and I found myself going back to home base look at other perspectives. Thank
you.
To my DMGT 892 (2017) cohort, thank you for the assistance you provided at all the
residencies and for keeping me inspired. To experience the community closeness and support
the group provided help me stay focused, motivated, and pressing forward. Our back-and-forth
banter was healthy, encouraging, and is what kept us rooted and grounded to finish together and
finish strong. I will miss each of you dearly.
I have benefitted tremendously from the academic advising and mentoring from
Dr. G. David Andersen, Dr. Eric B. Dent, and Dr. Deborah M. Wharff. There are no words that
can amply express my gratitude for all of you. Specifically, the guidance and emotional support
provided along this doctoral journey. You all kept me above water through all the stones that life
had thrown at me. There were times I had to jump over what seemed to be insurmountable
obstacles, and you all saw me through to the end. I am privileged to have received your time and
attention throughout this journal and for that, I am truly indebted to you. Thank you.
ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE AND THE PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL vii
Table of Contents
Abstract……… ............................................................................................................................... ii
Dedication…… .............................................................................................................................. iv
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables.. ............................................................................................................................... xi
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE DISSERTATION ................ 1
Introduction….. ............................................................................................................................... 1
Background ......................................................................................................................... 8
An Historical Perspective ................................................................................................... 8
21st Century Performance Appraisals – Challenges and Issues ....................................... 18
The Case For and Against Performance Appraisals ......................................................... 20
Statement and Significance of the Problem .................................................................................. 23
Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................................... 26
Significance of the Study to Management Practice and Scholarship ........................................... 26
Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 29
Discussion of Concepts and Relevant Literature .......................................................................... 29
Organizational Justice: Overview, Dimensions, and Components ................................... 30
Distributive justice ...................................................................................................... 31
Procedural justice.. ...................................................................................................... 32
Interpersonal/interactional justice.. ............................................................................. 34
Informational justice.. ................................................................................................. 35
Employee Job Satisfaction ................................................................................................ 37
Employee Job Performance .............................................................................................. 40
Trust…. ............................................................................................................................. 45
Definitions and Terminology ........................................................................................................ 47
Chapter 1 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 50
Organization of Dissertation ......................................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE ANALYSIS .................. 52
Introduction and Review of Study Background ............................................................................ 52
Discussion of the Theoretical Frameworks ................................................................................... 54
Equity Theory ................................................................................................................... 54
Expectancy Theory ........................................................................................................... 55
Social Comparison Theory ............................................................................................... 56
Critical Analysis of the Literature ................................................................................................. 58
Introduction and Presentation of the Research ................................................................. 58
ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE AND THE PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL viii
Sources of Dissatisfaction in the Appraisal Process ......................................................... 59
Inequity. ..................................................................................................................... 60
Inaccuracy ................................................................................................................... 60
Unfairness.. ................................................................................................................. 67
Employee Job Satisfaction ................................................................................................ 69
Employee Job Performance and the Psychology of Competition ..................................... 72
Employee Job Performance .............................................................................................. 73
Trust….. ............................................................................................................................ 74
Organizational Justice: Moving Forward .......................................................................... 76
Best Approaches that Integrate Organizational Justice into the Perf. Appraisal ............. 77
Open communication .................................................................................................. 78
Narrative comments….. .............................................................................................. 78
Cognitive ability of the rater ................................................................................. 81
Rater rating consistency......………………...……………………………………81
Narrative comments used for employee development……………………….…..83
Narrative comments used for continuous feedback……………………………...85
Narrative comments used for goal setting ............................................................ 87
The Performance Appraisal Purpose ................................................................................ 89
Literature Interpretative Model ..................................................................................................... 92
Research Propositions ................................................................................................................... 94
Chapter 2 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 95
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................. 96
Introduction to Chapter 3 .............................................................................................................. 96
Evidenced-Based Research (EBR) and Systematic Literature Review
(SLR) for Management ................................................................................................................. 97
Synthesis Methodology ............................................................................................................... 100
Search Strategy ........................................................................................................................... 103
The Search Strategy Approach ....................................................................................... 103
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) ..... 106
Manual and electronic search strategy ...................................................................... 108
Grey literature ........................................................................................................... 108
Inclusion and exclusion criteria ................................................................................ 108
Weight of Evidence Approach and Scholarly Research ................................................. 109
Internal/External Validity ............................................................................................... 111
Publication Bias .............................................................................................................. 114
NVIVO Software Program ............................................................................................. 115
Coding ....................................................................................................................... 116
Developing descriptive themes ................................................................................. 119
ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE AND THE PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL ix
Generating analytical themes .................................................................................... 120
Sensitivity analysis and bias ..................................................................................... 121
Subject Matter Experts/Panel Members as Evidence or Support ............................................... 121
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 121
Panel Members ................................................................................................................ 123
Panel Member Comments ............................................................................................... 123
Panel Member’s Impact on the Dissertation ................................................................... 125
Chapter 3 Summary .................................................................................................................... 125
CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS .......................................................................... 127
Introduction…. ............................................................................................................................ 127
Research Questions and Propositions ............................................................................. 128
Research Question #1 and #2 Themes ............................................................................ 129
Findings: Analysis and Results for Research Question #1 ......................................................... 130
RQ#1 Theme: Organizational Commitment and Organizational
Citizenship Behavior ................................................................................................................... 130
Findings: Analysis and Results for Research Question #2 ......................................................... 139
RQ#2 Theme 1: The Degree of Communication in the Performance
Appraisal Process ...................................
Servant leadership and job satisfaction in K-12 schools: A systematic review
No full textThis presentation analyzes existing empirical literature exploring SL-JS correlation in K-12 schools, identifying specific SL behaviors that have the strongest correlation with employee JS in K-12 schools, and eliminate the ambiguity associated with the SL construct as it is applied in schools.Servant Leadership and Job Satisfaction in K-12 Schools:
A Systematic Review
Presenter: Haroon Baqai. Advisors: Dr. Kriesta Watson and Dr. Richard Milter
Research Question
Theoretical
Framework
Purpose of the Study
The Problem for
K-12 Schools
Methodology
Mapping of SL Behaviors From Other Models to Laub’s Model
Implications for Management
Laub
Spears
Dennis
Barbuto & Wheeler
Values People
Listening, Empathy
Stewardship
Agapao Love
Altruistic Calling
Develops People
Commitment to growth of people
Empowerment
Builds Community
Building Community
Healing
Emotional healing
Organizational Stewardship
Displays Authenticity
Humility
Provides Leadership
Conceptualization, Foresight
Awareness, Persua-sion
Vision
Persuasive Map-ping
Wisdom
Shares Leadership
Conceptual Framework
• NCLB and ESSA require schools to show sustained im-provement in student perfor-mance
• High rates of employee job dis-satisfaction and turnover affect student performance (Sawchuk, 2012)
• Schools leadership is critical for employee job satisfaction, and thus student performance (Eldred, 2010)
• Servant Leadership (SL) can improve satisfaction, but it is ambiguous
• What specific SL behaviors have the strongest correlation with employee job satisfaction (JS) in K-12 schools?
• Analyze existing empirical lit-erature exploring SL-JS cor-relation in K-12 schools
• Identify specific SL behaviors that have the strongest corre-lation with employee JS in K-12 schools
• Eliminate the ambiguity asso-ciated with the SL construct as it is applied in schools
• Frederick Herzberg’s Motiva-tor-Hygiene Theory (MHT)
• Edward L. Deci and Richard Ryan’s Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
Context (C)
K-12 School Employees (Teachers, Staff, Administrators)
Intervention (I)
Mechanism (M)
Outcome (O)
Servant Leader-
Values People
Develops People
Builds Community
Displays Authenticity
Provides Leadership
Shares Leadership
Motivator-Hygiene Theory
Self-Determination Theory
Employee Job Satisfaction
• EBM distinguishes “science from folklore, data from as-sertions, and evidence from beliefs, anecdotes or person-al opinions” ((Barends, Rous-seau, & Briner, 2014, p. 3)
• Systematic Review provides the most efficient and highest-quality methodology of identi-fying, evaluating, and analyz-ing existing literature
• Thematic synthesis: Explores patterns in primary studies through the lens of the re-search question
• Deductive approach: Mapped SL behaviors to Laub’s (1999) SL model, to see which be-haviors are most strongly cor-related
• Inductive approach: Generat-ed additional themes during the coding process
• Coding using NVivo
• Laub’s (1999) model was used in most studies (10 out of 21 included studies or 47.6%)
• SL is implemented in schools across the United States, as well as in other countries / cultures such as Turkey, Oman, Hong Kong
• Only 4 out of 21 (19%) studies were conducted in schools with religious affiliations
• The behavior of “Values People”—as defined by Laub— had the most frequent statistically significant correlation with job satisfaction. “Builds Community” was second.
• Once mapping was completed, “Values People” still had the most frequent statistically significant correlation with job satisfaction. “Builds Community” was second.
• Interestingly, the behavior of “Shares Leadership” had the least frequent statistically significant correlation with job satisfaction
• MHT: SL fulfills some of the higher order needs such as achievement and recognition for achievement
• SDT: SL fulfills the relatedness need by building com-munity
• School leaders should focus on establishing long-lasting relationships with employees, where the focus is on em-ployee growth and achievement
• The highest form of growth ought to be that employees be-come servant leaders themselves—virtuous cycle of ser-vice
• Develop training programs where school leaders can learn how to develop such relationships and build a sense of community that extends within and outside the school
References:
Barends, E., Rousseau, D.M., & Briner, R.B. (2014). Evidence-Based management: The basic principles. Amsterdam: Center for Evidence-Based Management.
Eldred, J. (2010). A study to determine the relationship between the perceived leader ship styles of school principals and teacher job satisfaction at selected elementary schools. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED518001.
Laub, J. A. (1999). Assessing the servant organization: Development of the servant or ganizational leadership assessment (SOLA) instrument (Order No. 9921922). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Full Text. (304517144).
Sawchuk, S. (2012). Teacher turnover; 'How teacher turnover harms student achievement. Education Week, (26). Retrieved from http://www.edweek.org.
Finding
Leader-member engagement and employee team engagement:Systematic review of the linkage in international nongovernmental organizations
No full textThis presentation examines the link between leader-member engagement and employee team engagement in the INGO context.Leader -Member Engagement and Member Engagement and Member Engagement and Member Engagement and Member Engagement and Member Engagement and Employee Team Engagement: Employee Team Engagement:Employee Team Engagement: Employee Team Engagement: Systematic Review of the Linkage in Systematic Review of the Linkage in Systematic Review of the Linkage in Systematic Review of the Linkage in Systematic Review of the Linkage in Systematic Review of the Linkage in Systematic Review of the Linkage in Systematic Review of the Linkage in Systematic Review of the Linkage in International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental OrganizationsInternational Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations Robert Obeng Robert Obeng Robert Obeng Robert Obeng Umiversity of Maryland University College Umiversity of Maryland University College Umiversity of Maryland University College Umiversity of Maryland University College Umiversity of Maryland University College Umiversity of Maryland University College Umiversity of Maryland University College Umiversity of Maryland University College Umiversity of Maryland University CollegeUmiversity of Maryland University CollegeWelcome to My Poster Presentation!Welcome to My Poster Presentation! Welcome to My Poster Presentation! Welcome to My Poster Presentation!Welcome to My Poster Presentation! Welcome to My Poster Presentation! Welcome to My Poster Presentation! LEADER LEADER -MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT: MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT: MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT: MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT: MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT:MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT: MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT: MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT:MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT: MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT: MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT: MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT: MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT: MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT: MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT: MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT:MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT: MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT: MEMBER ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE TEAM ENGAGEMENT:SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LINKAGE IN INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONSORGANIZATIONS ORGANIZATIONSORGANIZATIONS ORGANIZATIONSORGANIZATIONSORGANIZATIONS ORGANIZATIONSORGANIZATIONS Robert ObengRobert ObengRobert ObengRobert ObengRobert Obeng Robert ObengRobert Obeng Robert ObengRobert ObengRobert ObengGraduate School Graduate SchoolGraduate SchoolGraduate SchoolGraduate School Graduate School Graduate SchoolGraduate SchoolGraduate SchoolGraduate SchoolUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MDDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James Gelatt Dissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James Gelatt Dissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James Gelatt Dissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James Gelatt Dissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James Gelatt Dissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James Gelatt Dissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James Gelatt Dissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James Gelatt Dissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James Gelatt Dissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James Gelatt Dissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James Gelatt Dissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James Gelatt Dissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattDissertation Committee: Dr. Kriesta Watson and James GelattBackground BackgroundBackground International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations International Nongovernmental Organizations
INGOs have very difficult work to perform INGOs have very difficult work to perform INGOs have very difficult work to performINGOs have very difficult work to perform INGOs have very difficult work to performINGOs have very difficult work to perform INGOs have very difficult work to perform INGOs have very difficult work to perform INGOs have very difficult work to perform INGOs have very difficult work to performINGOs have very difficult work to perform INGOs have very difficult work to perform INGOs have very difficult work to perform
Most are charitable in some way Most are charitable in some way Most are charitable in some way Most are charitable in some way Most are charitable in some wayMost are charitable in some way Most are charitable in some wayMost are charitable in some way
Giving food or supplies to the poor; offering medical care Giving food or supplies to the poor; offering medical care Giving food or supplies to the poor; offering medical care Giving food or supplies to the poor; offering medical care Giving food or supplies to the poor; offering medical care Giving food or supplies to the poor; offering medical care Giving food or supplies to the poor; offering medical careGiving food or supplies to the poor; offering medical care Giving food or supplies to the poor; offering medical care Giving food or supplies to the poor; offering medical care Giving food or supplies to the poor; offering medical careGiving food or supplies to the poor; offering medical care Giving food or supplies to the poor; offering medical care Giving food or supplies to the poor; offering medical care
Others focus on economic development Others focus on economic development Others focus on economic development
All are international All are international
Trying to help people, towns, or countries in some wayTrying to help people, towns, or countries in some wayTrying to help people, towns, or countries in some way Trying to help people, towns, or countries in some way Trying to help people, towns, or countries in some way Trying to help people, towns, or countries in some way Trying to help people, towns, or countries in some way Trying to help people, towns, or countries in some way Trying to help people, towns, or countries in some way Trying to help people, towns, or countries in some way Trying to help people, towns, or countries in some way Trying to help people, towns, or countries in some wayTrying to help people, towns, or countries in some way
All have the same problem All have the same problemAll have the same problem All have the same problem All have the same problem All have the same problem
How to find leaders who can engage dynamically with How to find leaders who can engage dynamically with How to find leaders who can engage dynamically with How to find leaders who can engage dynamically with How to find leaders who can engage dynamically with How to find leaders who can engage dynamically with How to find leaders who can engage dynamically with How to find leaders who can engage dynamically with How to find leaders who can engage dynamically with How to find leaders who can engage dynamically with How to find leaders who can engage dynamically with How to find leaders who can engage dynamically with How to find leaders who can engage dynamically with employees to pursue the INGO mission employees to pursue the INGO mission employees to pursue the INGO mission employees to pursue the INGO mission employees to pursue the INGO mission employees to pursue the INGO mission employees to pursue the INGO mission employees to pursue the INGO mission —especially when especially when there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where there is no profit incentive to remind leaders of where they stand they standStudy Purpose / Problem Statement Study Purpose / Problem Statement Study Purpose / Problem Statement Study Purpose / Problem Statement Purpose Purpose :To examine the link between leaderTo examine the link between leader To examine the link between leader To examine the link between leaderTo examine the link between leader To examine the link between leader To examine the link between leader To examine the link between leader To examine the link between leader To examine the link between leader -member engagement and employee team member engagement and employee team member engagement and employee team member engagement and employee team member engagement and employee team member engagement and employee team member engagement and employee team member engagement and employee team member engagement and employee team member engagement and employee team member engagement and employee team member engagement and employee team member engagement and employee team member engagement and employee team member engagement and employee team member engagement and employee team engagement in the INGO context. engagement in the INGO context. engagement in the INGO context. engagement in the INGO context. engagement in the INGO context. engagement in the INGO context. engagement in the INGO context. engagement in the INGO context.
How well do leaders interact with their employees? How well do leaders interact with their employees? How well do leaders interact with their employees? How well do leaders interact with their employees?How well do leaders interact with their employees? How well do leaders interact with their employees? How well do leaders interact with their employees? How well do leaders interact with their employees? How well do leaders interact with their employees?
How well do employees interact with each other? How well do employees interact with each other? How well do employees interact with each other? How well do employees interact with each other?How well do employees interact with each other? How well do employees interact with each other? How well do employees interact with each other? How well do employees interact with each other? How well do employees interact with each other? How well do employees interact with each other? How well do employees interact with each other? Problem Problem :Cases suggest LM engagement to be Cases suggest LM engagement to be Cases suggest LM engagement to be Cases suggest LM engagement to be Cases suggest LM engagement to be Cases suggest LM engagement to be Cases suggest LM engagement to be central to INGO stakeholder engagement. central to INGO stakeholder engagement. central to INGO stakeholder engagement. central to INGO stakeholder engagement. central to INGO stakeholder engagement. central to INGO stakeholder engagement. central to INGO stakeholder engagement. central to INGO stakeholder engagement. central to INGO stakeholder engagement. central to INGO stakeholder engagement. central to INGO stakeholder engagement. central to INGO stakeholder engagement. central to INGO stakeholder engagement. central to INGO stakeholder engagement.central to INGO stakeholder engagement.
But the research has yet to determine relevance But the research has yet to determine relevance But the research has yet to determine relevance But the research has yet to determine relevance But the research has yet to determine relevance But the research has yet to determine relevance of employee team engagement in this equation of employee team engagement in this equation of employee team engagement in this equation of employee team engagement in this equationof employee team engagement in this equation of employee team engagement in this equation of employee team engagement in this equation of employee team engagement in this equation of employee team engagement in this equation of employee team engagement in this equation
How does LM engagement foster ET engagement? How does LM engagement foster ET engagement? How does LM engagement foster ET engagement? How does LM engagement foster ET engagement? How does LM engagement foster ET engagement? How does LM engagement foster ET engagement? How does LM engagement foster ET engagement? How does LM engagement foster ET engagement? How does LM engagement foster ET engagement?Problem Significance / Research Qq Problem Significance / Research Qq Problem Significance / Research Qq Problem Significance / Research Qq Problem Significance / Research Qq Significance of the Problem Significance of the Problem Significance of the ProblemSignificance of the Problem Significance of the ProblemSignificance of the Problem Significance of the Problem Significance of the Problem:Mission Creep
INGOs need to select leaders who live the INGOs need to select leaders who live the INGOs need to select leaders who live the INGOs need to select leaders who live the INGOs need to select leaders who live the INGOs need to select leaders who live the INGOs need to select leaders who live the INGOs need to select leaders who live the mission mission —deviation occurs due to a lack of deviation occurs due to a lack of deviation occurs due to a lack of deviation occurs due to a lack of deviation occurs due to a lack of deviation occurs due to a lack of engagement engagement engagement Research Questions Research Questions Research Questions Research Questions Research Questions Research Questions Research Questions
RQ1RQ1 :Does leader -member engagement positively member engagement positively member engagement positively member engagement positively member engagement positively member engagement positively member engagement positively member engagement positively affect employee team engagement in an INGO? affect employee team engagement in an INGO? affect employee team engagement in an INGO? affect employee team engagement in an INGO? affect employee team engagement in an INGO? affect employee team engagement in an INGO? affect employee team engagement in an INGO? affect employee team enga
The Evolution of Death Rituals in American Society
No full textThis paper explores the evolution of death rituals in America and the connections to larger social trends including changes in religious and family life and the emergence of a new faith in science. It further explore how the rituals and symbols connected to death and memorialization illustrate a growing emphasis on individualism in American society.UMUC Social Science Essay Contest
Name: Phyllis Hane
Major: English
Email: [email protected]
The Evolution of Death Rituals in American Society
Phyllis Hane
UMUC
BEHS 380 / End of Life Issues
February 26, 2017
The rituals surrounding death and mourning in the United States have evolved significantly over time. From the simple, spare funeral rites of Puritan communities, to the concept of the “Good Death” and associated elaborate memorialization practices of the nineteenth century, the detached approach to death brought about by the twentieth century emergence of the professional funeral industry and finally to emerging trends in individualized funerals, the rites associated with death have been influenced by and serve as a reflection of broader changes within American society. In this paper, I will explore the evolution of these rituals in America and the connections to larger social trends including changes in religious and family life and the emergence of a new faith in science. I will further explore how the rituals and symbols connected to death and memorialization illustrate a growing emphasis on individualism in American society.
Rituals are key to the function of society, and can be a guide to developments within a society. Sociologists often study patterns within social processes over a period of time to trace societal influences and effects (American Sociological Association, 2017). Death rituals are indicative of such a process. As a process connected to a major life transition, rituals associated with death and mourning “reflect the most fundamental values of society” (Wells, 1994, p.717). These rituals serve multiple social functions, including providing comfort and meaning through the experience, defining appropriate forms of behavior during mourning and affirming the commonality of death through the performance of routine actions (Wells, 1994). In addition, changes within the patterns of these rituals and ceremonies can exemplify many of the greater shifts within the social order (Collier, 2003). These social changes can be seen in funerary customs as indicative of spiritual beliefs, the relationship of the living to the dead and the emergence of an entire industry surrounding death.
Colonial America
Death in colonial America was an all too familiar experience, with an average life expectancy of only around 37 years. Beyond the frequency with which early American homes were visited with death, there was an intimacy with the dead virtually unknown to most Americans today. Care of the dying and the dead was the exclusive domain of the family. People died at home, cared for by family with the assistance of friends and neighbors. Once they had succumbed, the dead remained at home and continued to be cared for by the family. Women would clean and dress the deceased to prepare them for burial, while the men would construct the coffin. The body would be laid out within the home for two to three days, after which it was carried by family members and neighbors to the gravesite (Nygard & Reilly, 2003).
In the Puritan communities of the Northeast, the role of ritual was minimalized. Puritan theology stressed mortal existence as a precursor to final judgement and the afterlife with God. In accordance with these beliefs, members of these communities felt little attachment to their corporeal bodies and, as such, were disinclined to dwell on the disposition of the corpse. Burial took place with little ceremony, often in a grave dug by a member of the family (Nygard & Reilly, 2003). Emphasis was on the separation of the living from the dead. Cemeteries were placed at the edge of the community, often fenced off, and symbolism was minimal. Grave markers usually bore simple inscriptions with the deceased’s name, date of birth and date of death. As a society, the Puritans held temporal life to be of little value, placing primary focus on preparation for eternal judgement. The role of graveyards in this society was not to address a desire to maintain a relationship with the deceased loved one, but rather to serve as a reminder that death and judgement are always at hand, and the living must be prepared for death (Morris, n.d.). These death rituals reflected the theocratic society of the Puritan community and the “evangelism of fear” that dominated the social order (Laderman, 1995).
The Antebellum Age
As America moved from its colonial beginnings into the antebellum age, the view of death and mourning evolved as well in response to larger societal changes, notably the role of family and shifts in spiritual beliefs. The antebellum age saw the emergence of “the cult of domesticity” and an increasing focus on the nuclear family (Nygard & Reilly, 2003). The romanticism of the period contributed to the ideal of “the Good Death”. A Good Death was considered to be one in which the deceased died at home, surrounded by loved ones, reconciled with God and family and spiritually prepared for the transition to heaven (Wells, 1994).
As in colonial times, death was a frequent visitor to the nineteenth century household and the care for the dying remained under the auspices of the family. The dead were prepared for burial by family members, mainly, as in earlier times, the women of the family. The corpse was cleaned, dressed, and laid out at in the family home, where it would remain under surveillance day and night for several days. During this time, members of the community would visit to view the deceased and lend emotional support to the grieving family. The eating and other social activities that took place during this time helped to create a sense of communal healing. After two to three days, a procession of mourners would accompany the body to the burial site. Often, once the body had been lowered into the grave, a branch or dirt from the ground was thrown into the grave to mark the finality of the journey (Laderman, 1995).
The role of faith remained paramount, but it is here that a major divergence with earlier eras can be identified. The focus shifted away from the day of judgement and toward a heavenly reward and eventual reunion with those left behind. Jonathan Pearson, a nineteenth century professor, noted at the death of his sister in 1860, “death is only a narrow bridge that separates loved ones for a brief space” (Wells, 1994, p. 730). As the bereaved waited and hoped for this celestial reunion, mourning rituals no longer accentuated the separation of the dead from the living, but instead placed an emphasis on symbols that bridged the gap between the two (Laderman, 1995).
Death rituals of the nineteenth century focused on the corpse, and seem to indicate a desire to preserve the deceased individual and the social connection to him or her. Among the popular symbols surrounding death in this era was hair art, in which locks of the deceased’s hair were preserved by working them into elaborate works of art or including them in jewelry, which had the added benefit of allowing the wearer to keep the departed loved one near (Nygard & Reilly, 2003). Another development during this period was the rise of post mortem photography. A brisk business developed in daguerreotypes of the recently deceased, particularly children. These photographs are evidence of an attempt to defy death and maintain the relationship with the deceased, to “rescue the memory of the deceased from the materiality of his or her body” (Fernandez, 2011, p.346).
Another innovation in the symbols surrounding death was the rural cemetery movement, marked by the establishment of Boston’s Mount Auburn Cemetery in 1830. Created in reaction to the increasing urbanization of American life and the accompanying overcrowding of city cemeteries, these new burial grounds were parklike settings, featuring public art and quiet landscapes (Morris, n.d.). The rural cemetery spoke to the nineteenth century desire to maintain the social link with the deceased by encouraging pilgrimages to visit and tend the gravesite. The atmosphere created by the rural cemetery appealed to the romanticism of the era with its “cult of melancholy and poetic meditations on mortality” (Nygard & Reilly, 2003). Moving Into the Twentieth Century
Following the Civil War, significant shifts began to take form as the professional undertaker became increasingly prevalent in funerary rituals. This is no doubt due in large part to the increased use, and acceptance, of embalming. Embalming had come into wider use during the war, in order to facilitate the return of fallen soldiers to their families for burial. The national tour of President Lincoln’s embalmed body following his assassination played a significant role in the public’s acceptance of the process (Nytroe, 2013). With the widespread use of embalming, the duty of preparing the dead was moved from family to professionals, from the family home to the funeral home. As America moved into the twentieth century, care of the dead fell almost exclusively to professionals. The consumerism that was transforming society included the dead in its broad sweep, eventually leading to a “systemization of the dead” (Laderman, 1995).
Until the early twentieth century, Americans maintained a familiarity and intimacy with death that caused it of necessity to be viewed as a part of everyday life. The development of advances in medicine which greatly extended life expectancy and made the death of loved ones an increasingly rare experience, in combination with the emergence of the professional funeral industry, initiated a major shift in the attitude of Americans toward death. These shifts took place during a time of increasing secularization in American society which contributed to a view of death as simply an end and returned to an earlier emphasis on “separation of the living from the dead” (Nytroe, 2013).
As the medical profession increased its ability to cure the body, the trust of the public in that profession led to a ceding of nearly all care of the terminally ill to professionals, so that dying now took place in a hospital surrounded by health care professionals rather than at home surrounded by family. Focus was now on the body and staving off death as long as possible, rather than spiritual reconciliation in preparation for death. The Civil War had again played a key role in initiating the transformation as the concept of the antebellum “Good Death” was supplanted by the ideal of death in service to a righteous nationalistic cause (Nytroe, 2013). This combination of scientific advances and changing spiritual perspectives contributed to changing attitudes and a decreased intimacy with the dead.
The symbolism of death can be seen to accommodate these new trends as well with the introduction of the lawn cemetery. With its carefully managed vistas and uniform markers containing minimal personalization, the lawn cemetery reflected the twentieth century trend toward a detached, scientific, efficiently managed approach to death. Indeed, the environment of the lawn cemetery is designed in such a way as to “disassociate itself not only from previous traditions but also from death itself” (Morris, n.d.).
Emerging Trends
The rituals of the twentieth century funeral industry have remained relatively static for some time. In recent years, however, new trends are emerging. Cremation has steadily gained ground in the industry, with rates up 50% in the last decade. Another increasingly popular trend is green funerals. According to the National Funeral Directors Association, these eco-friendly rituals can take many forms but generally involve burial without embalming and with the body contained in a biodegradable shroud or container (NFDA, 2017). Technology is being utilized to create a variety of innovative manners of disposition and memorialization. Gunter van Hagens has created a process called “plastination” which enables him to preserve donated human bodies in such a way that exposed human musculoskeletal and other systems can be viewed in dynamic action poses. These preserved bodies have been made available in exhibits to the general public and, more importantly, for medical study. Cremains, the residual matter from cremation, are being included in “eternal reefs”, which serve to memorialize the deceased in a way that benefits marine habitats. Another technology extracts the carbon from human ashes which is then turned into graphite, pressed into a rock and cut like a diamond. Mourners can then wear a piece of jewelry which contains some of the essence of the deceased loved one, in a manner reminiscent of the hair art jewelry of the early nineteenth century (Tech Stuff, 2015).
Many of these trends in funeral rituals reflect an increasing individualization of this final phase of life. As such, they speak to a postmodern society in which individuals are increasingly disconnected from society and from the social institutions and traditions which previously functioned to preserve social unity and balance. One study of a 150-year-old cemetery in Stone Mountain, Georgia, found this to be evident in the symbolism of the grave markers from different eras. The eras between 1860-1929 and 1930-1959 saw a reliance on symbols of religion, as well as social groups with which the deceased was associated, representing institutional social connections and accenting the individual’s role in society. Graves marked after 1960 show a different emphasis. The deceased is now often identified by personal aspects, such as recreational interests and hobbies. These symbols serve to differentiate the individual from the larger social group rather than to fix his or her place within it (Collier, 2003).
Another relatively recent development in the symbolism of mourning is the spontaneous memorial. Often erected on a roadside to mark the site of a fatal accident, these memorials may be interpreted as a visible break from traditional institutions. Created by individuals personally mourning a loss, memorial displays can range from simple wooden crosses to crafted metal structures and are often adorned with flowers, toys or photographs. Spontaneous memorials may represent a reaction against the minimalism of contemporary mourning rituals, as well as larger societal trends away from the authority of traditional churches and a growing view of spiritual authority as resting within the individual. They may be seen as indicative of “a current groundswell of disregarding institutional forms that once sufficed for the crisis moments of life” (Clark & Franzmann, 2006, p.583).
Reflection
Looking back through history can create an image of the values and belief systems of a community or society. Discovering a theme in earlier times and following that thread to the present can provide a clearer view of the values of our current society. This study of the relationship between the rituals surrounding death and broader shifts within society has illuminated both the importance of rituals within society and the social role the dead continue to play. When examined from this perspective, it becomes clear that trends in relationships and social functions among the living continue to be seen in relationships between the living and the dead. I find it particularly interesting to follow the arc of attitudes toward the dead as society seems to vacillate between an emphasis on separation from the dead to a desire to preserve and maintain the relationship with departed loved ones. It would appear from recent trends that we may be moving from the twentieth century attitude of scientific and professional detachment from the deceased, and indeed from death in general, back toward a desire for a more personal, individualized approach to the rituals through which we deal with this major life transition. Many of the newly emerging technologies in the funeral industry, along with individually initiated memorials, seem to speak to a desire to maintain, at some level, a relationship with the deceased. Conclusion
American attitudes toward death, and its attendant rituals, have evolved to reflect broader changes in values and customs as the nation grew and developed. The sparse rites of early Puritan communities gave way to elaborate nineteenth century mourning rituals with the increasingly prominent role of family and the embrace of romanticism in American culture. Following the carnage of the Civil War, care of the dead and dying fell increasingly to a professional industry born of a new faith in science and technology, as well as a growing consumer culture. Recently, Americans are beginning to embrace trends in technology and memorialization that point toward a new individualism in society’s perspective on the dead.
References American Sociological Association. (2017). Topics. http://www.asanet.org/topics/comparativehistorical-approaches
Clark, J. and Franzmann, M., (2006). Authority from grief, presence and place in the making of roadside memorials. School of Classics, History and Religion, University of New England, Armidale NSW, Australia. 579-599. http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.umgc.edu/eds/detail/detail?vid=5&sid=7898b08a-2655-47c8-acab-7f31c6fbe922%40sessionmgr102&hid=119&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=106158669&db=ccm
Collier, C.D.A. (2003). Tradition, modernity, and postmodernity in symbolism of death.
The Sociological Quarterly, 44 (4), 727-749. http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/stable/4120730?&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents Fernandez, I. (2011, November). The lives of corpses: narratives of the image in American memorial photography. Mortality, 16 (4), 343-364. http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.umgc.edu/eds/detail/detail?vid=1&sid=33a59bce-2d2d-4070-8294-568e9d88743a%40sessionmgr4006&hid=4205&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=104639014&db=ccm
Laderman, G. (1995). Locating the dead: a cultural history of death in the antebellum, Anglo-Protestant communities of the northeast, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 63 (1), 27-52. http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/stable/pdf/1465152.pdf
Morris, R. (n.d.). Burial grounds. Encyclopedia of death and dying. http://www.deathreference.com/Bl-Ce/Burial-Grounds.html National Funeral Directors Association. (2017). In the news. http://www.nfda.org/news/in-the-news
Nygard, P & Reilly, C. (2003). The American family and the processing of death prior to the 20th century. Handbook of death and dying. http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.4135/9781412914291.n55
Nytroe, S. (2013). An American Catholic culture of death and dying, 1900-1955. American Catholic Studies, 124 (2), 22-48. https://muse-jhu-edu.ezproxy.umgc.edu/article/514112
Tech Stuff. (2015). The mortuary: a multi-million-dollar industry. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4BO_VhZUgek
Wells, R.V. (1994, summer). Taming the “king of terrors”: ritual and death in Schenectady, New York, 1844-1860. Journal of Social History, 717-734. http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.umgc.edu/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=2c45a7dc-9944-4fb0-83b9-6b2af07c702f%40sessionmgr4008&vid=3&hid=420
The role of social media in nonprofit manager and stakeholder communications
No full textStakeholder engagement is a critical managerial activity for medium-to-large nonprofit organizations (NPO) that offer human services. The growth in new social networking communication methods and channels has tasked organizations with understanding that the medium utilized has a direct and immediate effect on the dynamics and success of stakeholder communication. A systematic review of the literature on nonprofit communication over the last ten years reveals that dialogic communication opportunities optimize NPO stakeholder engagement. A meta-ethnographic analysis of 13 primary articles found that the adoption of online community engagement by nonprofit organizations necessitates its use as a communication strategy and not just as a communication tool. Utilizing media richness theory, stakeholder theory and dialogic communication theory as a theoretical lens suggest that social media, as a particular dialogic medium, shapes and controls the scale and form of human association and action. The study showed that collectively and collaboratively, stakeholder theory, media richness theory, and dialogic communication theory are at the core of the NPO-stakeholder relationship. While social media provides avenues for amplification of messages in practice and as a strategy across diverse communities, social media as a medium alters NPO manager's relationships with stakeholders as much as it potentially enhances that relationship. As a rich media experience, social media allows for nearly simultaneous feedback and engagement in a two-way conversation and has an especially strong potential to positively influence the formation of relationships between an NPO and its stakeholders.Running Head: NPO MANAGER AND STAKEHOLDER COMMUNICATION 1
The Role of Social Media in
Nonprofit Manager and Stakeholder Communications
Teresa Howard Carter
Dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the
University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Management
2016
Dissertation Committee:
Dr. Diana Watts, Chair
Dr. Claudine SchWeberNPO MANAGER AND STAKEHOLDER COMMUNICATION 2
Abstract
Stakeholder engagement is a critical managerial activity for medium-to-large nonprofit organizations (NPO) that offer human services. The growth in new social networking communication methods and channels has tasked organizations with understanding that the medium utilized has a direct and immediate effect on the dynamics and success of stakeholder communication. A systematic review of the literature on nonprofit communication over the last ten years reveals that dialogic communication opportunities optimize NPO stakeholder engagement. A meta-ethnographic analysis of 13 primary articles found that the adoption of online community engagement by nonprofit organizations necessitates its use as a communication strategy and not just as a communication tool. Utilizing media richness theory, stakeholder theory and dialogical communication theory as a theoretical lens suggest that social media, as a particular dialogic medium, shapes and controls the scale and form of human association and action. The study showed that collectively and collaboratively, stakeholder theory, media richness theory, and dialogic communication theory are at the core of the NPO-stakeholder relationship. While social media provides avenues for amplification of messages in practice and as a strategy across diverse communities, social media as a medium alters NPO manager's relationships with stakeholders as much as it potentially enhances that relationship. As a rich media experience, social media allows for nearly simultaneous feedback and engagement in a two-way conversation and has an especially strong potential to positively influence the formation of relationships between an NPO and its stakeholders.
Keywords: Social media, nonprofit organizations, communication, stakeholder relations, relationship buildingNPO MANAGER AND STAKEHOLDER COMMUNICATION 3
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my family, especially:
• My husband, Ted, for reminding me that I had a dream and for loving and supporting me through it all.
• My sons, Joseph and Zion, for being a continued blessing and source of encouragement. You inspire me to be my best.
• My sister-friends—Jonya Wagner, Heather Reffett, Carolyn Cole, Monica Jenkins, and Zoa Roper—for reading various versions of my paper, pushing me, and sometimes believing more in me than I believed in myself. I am so grateful for you.
• My departed adopted father and mother, Rev. Joe and Gloria Howard, for instilling in me the importance of education and persistence.
• My mother, Sheryle Shears, for pushing me and showing me unconditional love and support.
Without your collective support, I would not have achieved this milestone in my life.
.NPO MANAGER AND STAKEHOLDER COMMUNICATION 4
Acknowledgements
I owe a great deal of gratitude to many people who involved themselves in helping me undertake and complete this dissertation. While many people have helped me achieve this goal, I specifically acknowledge the following individuals who were especially instrumental in my success.
I am especially indebted to my dissertation chair Dr. Diana Watts and Dr. Claudine SchWeber. Dr. Watts pushed me to think deeper and richer, and Dr. SchWeber never allowed me to settle for less than my best.
Michelle LeFurge, my dissertation mentor, reader, editor, and now friend who patiently and diplomatically critiqued, motivated, and shared her immense knowledge.
Marina Caminis, a true motivator and disciple for the University of Maryland Doctor of Management program who dependably provided a wealth of information and resources.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the inspiration provided by my UMUC classmates, Kimberly Rowland and Justin Blaney. No matter when I reached out to you, you were always there to greet me with words of encouragement and motivation. NPO MANAGER AND STAKEHOLDER COMMUNICATION 5
Table of Contents
Dedication...................................................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................ 4
Table of Contents........................................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 1: Introduction................................................................................................................... 7
Background................................................................................................................. 11
Terms .......................................................................................................................... 14
Significance of Problem.............................................................................................. 16
Importance of Social Media to NPO Management..................................................... 18
Purpose........................................................................................................................ 19
Research Question ...................................................................................................... 19
Summary..................................................................................................................... 20
Chapter 2: Literature Review........................................................................................................ 21
Overview..................................................................................................................... 21
Elements of Sustainability in Nonprofit Organizations .............................................. 23
Nonprofit Organization Communication .................................................................... 25
The Power and Influence of Medium Selected........................................................... 28
Theoretical Application .............................................................................................. 30
Study Propositions ...................................................................................................... 43
Conceptual Framework............................................................................................... 44
Summary..................................................................................................................... 46
Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 48
Relevance of evidence-based research/evidence-based management ........................ 48 NPO MANAGER AND STAKEHOLDER COMMUNICATION 6
Synthesis Method........................................................................................................ 49
Inclusion/Exclusion decisions..................................................................................... 53
Summary..................................................................................................................... 56
Chapter 4: Findings....................................................................................................................... 57
Stakeholders................................................................................................................ 57
Theoretical Implications of the Findings .................................................................... 60
Propositions................................................................................................................. 61
Summary..................................................................................................................... 67
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ..................................................................................... 69
Practical Implications for Management ...................................................................... 70
Adoption of Media Rich, Dialogic Stakeholder Communication............................... 72
Limitations .................................................................................................................. 73
Opportunities for Future Research.............................................................................. 75
Summary..................................................................................................................... 76
References.................................................................................................................................... 77
Appendix A: Terms....................................................................................................................... 96
Appendix B: Key Source Overview............................................................................................. 97
Appendix C: Registered Nonprofit Organizations by Level of Total Assets ............................. 100
Appendix D: NPO Success Factors ............................................................................................ 101
Appendix E: Reasons for Social Media Adoption...................................................................... 102 NPO MANAGER AND STAKEHOLDER COMMUNICATION 7
Table of Tables
Table 1: Main Features of Monologic and Dialogic Communication Modes .............................. 28
Table 2: Summary of theories supporting NPO and social media applications ........................... 30
Table 3: Meta-Ethnographic Process ............................................................................................ 50
Table 4: Search Summary............................................................................................................. 51
Table 5: Keyword Search Results................................................................................................. 52
Table 6: Inclusion/Exclusion ........................................................................................................ 54
Table 7: Term Definitions............................................................................................................. 55 NPO MANAGER AND STAKEHOLDER COMMUNICATION 8
Table of Figures
Figure 1. Media richness and social media................................................................................... 33
Figure 2. Honeycomb of Social Media ........................................................................................ 42
Figure 3. Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................ 46
Figure 4. Results of Application of the PRISMA Diagram for Research.................................... 53
Figure 5. Factors for Optimal Relationship Building/Maintenance in Social Media ................... 72 NPO MANAGER AND STAKEHOLDER COMMUNICATION 9
Chapter 1: Introduction
Nonprofit organizations (NPO) build relationships as a proactive process of seeking out supporters to fund ongoing operational expenses and activate supporters to further the NPO mission. Opportunities to communicate with advocates and donors has evolved, challenging NPOs to review their communication strategies to meet this rapidly evolving means of engagement for advocacy and fundraising. Advances in communication methods, both technically and in the sheer numbers of people participating, would suggest that social media strategies are rapidly becoming essential to NPO operations (Hager, Galaskiewicz, & Larson, 2004, p. 165). Advances in communication mediums and channels also offer NPO managers a strategic framework for targeting key stakeholders—donors, advocates, and volunteers—and an efficient means to create value, maximize organizational resources, and help support, maintain, and sustain the organization (Agnihotri, Kothandaraman, Kashyap, & Singh, 2012, p. 333; Tuten & Angermeier, 2013, p. 70).
Regardless of these advances, NPO management is not inclined to alter its communication strategies without having clarity on what strategic opportunities exist and how they might best be integrated into current communication plans. This study identifies social media and online networking as the medium able to provide positive changes in stakeholder relations due to its dialogic and rich media abilities. Under constant pressure to maintain operations, NPO leadership can be motivated to create new communication tactics that are attractive to existing and new stakeholders. Even further, the ability to maintain a positive reputation has become increasingly important to nonprofits (Hager et al., 2004, p. 164).
However, while managers are exposed to many new and innovative mediums, there is limited academic literature available that provides then with a rationale for adopting new NPO MANAGER AND STAKEHOLDER COMMUNICATION 10
mediums and channels such as social media (Nah & Saxton, 2012). Also, while reviewing available research for this study, it became clear that NPO leaders need to understand that what is relevant is the effect of the medium (McLuhan, 1994, p. 10) they employ in growing and maintaining stakeholder relations and not the function or type of the medium. To meet this challenge, this study seeks to explore a possible rationale for adoption of social media as a strategy and tool in NPO stakeholder communication that could advance NPO sustainability.
Contrary to expectations, however, the research suggests that the ability to build relationships between the NPO manager and stakeholder does not rest in the medium itself. This places this study in alignment with McLuhan’s (1994) concept of the medium being the message, suggesting that the medium of social media has emerged as a means of amplification in practice and strategy for stakeholder engagement. As such, social media has the capacity to drive changes in NPO communication practices and alter stakeholder relationships and what drives communication practices between NPO managers and their stakeholders is the collective application of dialogic communication, the ability to reach stakeholders, and use of rich media. As such this study is also tasked with reviewing traditional stakeholder communication strategies and their potential to be replaced by the iterative dialogue of social media.
To do so, the research used a cross-disciplinary approach in its analysis of social media through three applicable theories—media richness theory, stakeholder theory, and dialogic communication. These theories provide a dynamic perspective for identifying a rationale for changing mediums to allow NPO leadership to meet organizational goals. Another means of focusing the research was identifying the type of nonprofit organization and the funding stream most likely to be impacted by the relationship-building abilities of social media. NPO MANAGER AND STAKEHOLDER COMMUNICATION 11
To that point, this study looks at medium-to-large NPOs engaged in human service causes that have, as a key strategy, a proactive engagement of advocates and donors to support a particular mission-driven effort or to build relationships that meet the NPOs goals (Taylor, Kent, & White, 2001, p. 270). Organizations that focus on human service causes are ideal for this study given the unique relationship human service establishments have with their stakeholders—a relationship that requires continual engagement (Campbell, Lambright, & Wells, 2014, p. 1). While size is not a predictor of NPO engagement in social media (Briones et al., 2011; Lindquist, Steele, & Nemovicher, 2010), medium-to-large organizations are more relevant to this study because size is a contributing factor to whether an organization will seek to acquire new technologies (Nah & Saxton, 2011) and are, therefore, more than likely to recognize the need for an online networking and web presence in order to be competitive (p. 7).
Another area of focus in this study is donative profits. Donors are a critical element in nonprofit sustainability and a key nonprofit stakeholder in this study. The impact of a donation, according to Weisbrod and Dominguez (1986), is significant to the relationship building process because the donor believes their giving will have an equivalent level of impact on the NPO’s ability to pursue their mission (p. 257). Given that relationship building is an essential prerequisite for securing donors, donative profits are the sustainability element included in this study’s exploration of the role social media plays in driving communication practices between NPOs and their stakeholders.
Background
NPOs exist in many forms—from grassroots organizations to multi-million dollar operations—and cross many sectors from religion to education to social services. NPOs, as a formal business entity, did not evolve until the 1950s. At the heart of NPO business operations NPO MANAGER AND STAKEHOLDER COMMUNICATION 12
is relationship building where the use of specific tactics has only recently included the use of social media and, less often, the incorporation of social media strategies alongside more traditional communication strategies. Mintzberg (1987) defined strategy as a plan and Porter (1996) asserted that a strategy requires an organization to do something out of the ordinary (p. 64). This study uses Mintzberg’s scholarly understanding of strategy (Mintzberg, 1987, p. 11) to find evidence in the literature as to how NPOs are planning the deployment of social media to activate and engage new stakeholders in a conscious and purposeful course of action
What is an NPO? The designation of nonprofit is tied to the United States tax code that classifies an organization as a 501(c)(3) (Lewis, 2005, p. 240). Because the tax code only provides for the categorization of businesses for tax purposes and does not imply or recommend strategies for operations, Hansmann’s (1980) definition of a nonprofit is more functional for the purpose of this study since it reflects fiscal operating policies: an organization that is barred from distributing its net earnings (earnings in excess of expenses) to individuals who exercise control over it, such as board members, officers, or trustees. A nonprofit organization is not barred from earning a profit. It is only the distribution of the profits that is prohibited (Hansmann, 1980, p. 838).
Over 90 percent of NPOs were established from the 1950s to the 1970s (Herman, 2011, p. 3). This growth was a response to the increased need for social services that were no longer adequately available or provided by local or national governments or other for-profit entities (Courtney, 2002, p. 18). According to a report published by the Internal Revenue Service (Biggs, 2011, p. 10), 21% of nonprofit organizations were identified as being no longer operational due to their lack of filing the required IRS 990 form in 2005. NPO MANAGER AND STAKEHOLDER COMMUNICATION 13
As forprofit organizations are concerned about their bottom lines, nonprofit organizations are responsible for developing fiscally solvent business practices and programs that will maximize their profits and sustain operations. Churches are examples of the earliest nonprofit organizations where survival depends on the generosity of their congregations. Lacking a revenue stream comparable to a church congregation or to social program funding, NPOs typically generate revenues through government grants or donations from individuals and corporations committed to their cause. The strategies, practices, and resources used by NPOs have evolved over time, responding to advances in communication, changing social conditions, and an understanding of those strategic advantages that move their mission forward (Finn, Maher, & Forster, 2006, p. 277; Maxwell & Carboni, 201