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Learning while climbing the academic administrative ladder from faculty to chair to dean to VP
No full textCommunity colleges are experiencing a retirement crisis. The American Association of Community Colleges (AACC) and the Association of Community College Trustees (2018) reported that as many as half of community college presidents presiding in 2016 were likely to retire by 2021. Many current community college vice presidents are not interested in presidencies and are also retiring. Community colleges are the workhorses of higher education in the United States, and as such, the health of our nation depends on strong leaders to guide these institutions as they empower our citizenry by producing student learning. This dissertation examines the leadership pipeline from faculty to chair to dean to academic VP/CAO and seeks to propose new solutions to help ameliorate the retirement crisis. Through the use of Critical Interpretive Synthesis, scholarly literature was identified and analyzed. The results were interpreted through the lens of two theoretical constructs: Amey's (2005) Leadership as Learning and Quatro, Waldman, and Galvin's (2007) ACES Leadership Theory, as well as the leadership competency framework from the AACC (2013). The resulting interpretation and synthesis produced a model that can be used by individuals, community colleges, universities, and other organizations working to provide professional development for community college leaders.Learning While Climbing the Academic Administrative Ladder from Faculty to Chair to
Dean to VP/CAO
Michael V. Ayers
A Thesis
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements of the Degree of
Doctor of Management
Dr. Charlene Nunley
Dr. Susan McMaster
August 1, 2018
i
Abstract
Community colleges are experiencing a retirement crisis. The American Association of
Community Colleges (AACC) and the Association of Community College Trustees (2018)
reported that as many as half of community college presidents presiding in 2016 were likely to
retire by 2021. Many current community college vice presidents are not interested in
presidencies and are also retiring. Community colleges are the workhorses of higher education
in the United States, and as such, the health of our nation depends on strong leaders to guide
these institutions as they empower our citizenry by producing student learning. This dissertation
examines the leadership pipeline from faculty to chair to dean to academic VP/CAO and seeks to
propose new solutions to help ameliorate the retirement crisis. Through the use of Critical
Interpretive Synthesis, scholarly literature was identified and analyzed. The results were
interpreted through the lens of two theoretical constructs: Amey’s (2005) Leadership as Learning
and Quatro, Waldman, and Galvin’s (2007) ACES Leadership Theory, as well as the leadership
competency framework from the AACC (2013). The resulting interpretation and synthesis
produced a model that can be used by individuals, community colleges, universities, and other
organizations working to provide professional development for community college leaders.
Keywords: community college, leadership, department chair, dean, VP/CAO, chief academic
officer, vice president, provost, competencies, retirement
ii
Dedication
This effort required much energy that took me away from my typical role as husband,
family member, friend, and colleague. Thanks to all for the support and encouragement. Now,
let us get back to life.
iii
Acknowledgements
Melissa R. Ayers Dr. Claude V. Ayers Dr. David F. Ayers
Judy H. Ayers Noah D. Ayers Laura Ayers
Dean Ashley Morrison Dr. Sharilyn Owens Dr. Courtney Harrington
Alan Beard Dr. Alexa Beshara-Blauth Alice Rudolph
Amanda Atwood-Killon Angie Ransom Dr. Anthony Clarke
Dean Anu Williams Dr. Ashlee Rowe Barbara Fuller
Beverly Nance Bill Stroupe Dr. Bonnie Pope (in memory)
Dr. Charlene Nunley Charles Boles Cheri Silverman
Dr. Cheryl Burrell Dr. Cleve Wilson Dr. Conley Winebarger
Dan Figler Dave “Mack” Miller David Pruitt
Dean Bernie Yevin Dean Connie Wolfe Debbie Gentry
Debra Bretz Dr. Dwaine Davis Dr. Dwight Atkins
Elizabeth Davis Elizabeth High Forsyth Tech CC
Dr. Frank Randall Dr. G. Frank Sells Dr. Gary Green
Dr. Gena Glickman George Fouts George Logan
Harry Downs Heidi Tennis Dean James Cook
James McCachren Dr. Jami Woods Jan Byrum
Dr. Jan Overman Jasmin Feimster Jeb Logan
Dr. Jennifer Nunez Dr. Jessica Frost Dr. Jewel Cherry
Jodie Walls Dr. Joel Welch Karl Bretz
Dr. Kevin Osborne Kimberly Fine Dr. Laura Yanuzi
Dean Leonard Kiser Dr. Lin Fain (in memory) Linda Brown
Dr. Lisa Chapman Dr. Lisa Lavigna Lorin Dingler
Marty Young Melody Callihan Dr. Mike Miller
Natalie Rackley Nonhuman companions Pamela Boles
Dean Pamela Short Dr. Pat Kier Dr. Paul Kourtnear
Dr. Rachel Desmarais Dean Randy Candelaria Dr. Richard Henson
Robin Narehood Dr. Ronald Head Russ Read
Sam Couch Dr. Sandy Richter Shirley Grogan
Southeastern CC Dr. Steve Atkins Dr. Sue Barcinas
Dr. Susan Phelps Surry Community College Dr. Susan McMaster
Sylvia Cox Dr. Susan Worth Susan Wright
Dr. Todd Raddenbaugh Tiffany Davis Tim Cope
Tim Thompson Dr. Torry Reynolds Dean Yolanda Wilson
Community College Students, Faculty, Staff, and Researchers
iv
Table of Contents
Chapter One: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
Background and Context ............................................................................................................. 1
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................ 2
Significance of the Problem ........................................................................................................ 4
Purpose ....................................................................................................................................... 6
Theoretical Frameworks .............................................................................................................. 7
Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 9
Definition of Terms ................................................................................................................... 10
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 12
Chapter Two: Research Methodology .......................................................................................... 13
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 13
Research Design ........................................................................................................................ 13
The Systematic Review of the Literature .................................................................................. 16
Methodology for Selection of Expert Panel .............................................................................. 32
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 34
Chapter Three: Literature Review and Conceptual Model ........................................................... 35
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 35
The Department Chair ............................................................................................................... 35
The Academic Dean .................................................................................................................. 49
The Chief Academic Officer (VP/CAO) ................................................................................... 55
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 63
Conceptual Model ..................................................................................................................... 75
v
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 78
Chapter Four: Analysis, Synthesis, Interpretation ........................................................................ 80
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 80
Expert Panel ............................................................................................................................... 81
Critical Analysis of the Findings Related to Research Questions ............................................. 89
Key Competencies ..................................................................................................................... 95
Summary of Findings for Research Question 1 ...................................................................... 102
Synthesis of Results and Research Questions ......................................................................... 118
Interpretation of the Findings .................................................................................................. 121
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 126
Chapter Five ............................................................................................................................... 128
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 128
Implications and Recommendations ........................................................................................ 129
Suggestions for Future Research ............................................................................................. 147
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 148
References .................................................................................................................................. 150
vi
List of Figures
Figure 1 Conceptual Model ……………………………………………………………77
Figure 2 Synthesis and Interpretation of Results …………………………………..…123
vii
List of Tables
Table 1 Search Terms and Results ................................................................................................ 17
Table 2 Peer Reviewed, Published Papers about Community College Department Chairs .......... 19
Table 3 Expert Opinion about Community College Department Chairs ...................................... 20
Table 4 Dissertations about Community College Department Chairs .......................................... 21
Table 5 Peer Reviewed, Published Papers about Community College Deans .............................. 22
Table 6 Expert Opinion about Community College Deans ........................................................... 24
Table 7 Dissertations about Community College Deans ............................................................... 24
Table 8 Peer Reviewed, Published Papers about Community College VP/CAOs ........................ 26
Table 9 Expert Opinion about Community College VP/CAOs ..................................................... 27
Table 10 Dissertations about Community College VP/CAOs ...................................................... 28
Table 11 Peer Reviewed, Published Papers about Community College Leadership .................... 28
Table 12 Expert Opinion about Community College Leadership ................................................. 29
Table 13 Dissertations about Community College Leadership ..................................................... 31
Table 14 The AACC Leadership Competencies ........................................................................... 66
Table 15 Question 1 Scores ........................................................................................................... 82
Table 16 Question 2 Scores ........................................................................................................... 82
Table 17 Question 3 Scores ........................................................................................................... 83
Table 18 Question 4 Scores ........................................................................................................... 83
Table 19 Question 5 Scores ........................................................................................................... 84
Table 20 Question 6 Scores ........................................................................................................... 84
Table 21 Question 7 Scores ........................................................................................................... 85
Table 22 Question 8 Scores ........................................................................................................... 85
viii
Table 23 Question 9 Scores ........................................................................................................... 86
Table 24 Synthesis of Research Questions (RQ) 1 and 4 ............................................................ 119
Table 25 Examples of actions within each domain by each group of academic administrators . 124
Table 26 The AACC (2013) competency framework adapted for multiple leadership levels .... 135
1
Chapter One: Introduction
Background and Context
Community colleges are critical to the education of American citizens. According to the
American Association of Community Colleges (AACC, 2016), approximately one half of
undergraduate students in the United States are enrolled in a community college. Several factors
may have led to the rise of the community college, including demands from an increasing
population of high school graduates, industry needs for skilled workers, the prestige of having a
college in the community, the American idea that all people should have the chance to learn, or
even a capitalist conspiracy designed to funnel the poor into dead-end jobs (Cohen, Brawer, &
Kisker, 2014). The 1947 President’s Commission on Higher Education, also known as the
Truman Commission, had a major role in shaping the comprehensive community college mission
as it called for increasing access and equity in higher education (Krendl Gilbert & Heller, 2013).
To fulfill that goal, community colleges have adopted complex missions of serving people from
all walks of life, and they provide opportunities for under-served populations that have no
alternative option (Boggs, 2012; Cohen et al., 2014; Topper & Powers, 2013).
Community colleges are such an important component of the educational system in the
United States that they are sometimes called democracy’s college or the people’s college.
(O'Banion & Kaplan, 2004) wrote:
The community college has carved out a well-deserved role in higher education as
"democracy's college." The growth of the community college system, combined with the
demands of many constituencies, has resulted in an unwritten social contract in which the
community college, more than any other institution of higher learning, is expected to
deliver quality education that is economically, socially and geographically accessible to a
2
diverse population. Being democracy's college means the community college must make
a special effort to meet the needs of underserved groups - minorities, older adults, women
returning to the work world, displaced workers in need of retraining, and those who
simply need a second chance to acquire a sound education (p. 16).
Consistent with this idea of being all-things-to-all-people, in order to provide access and equity
community colleges have traditionally had an open-door policy. The open-door policy means
that community colleges serve everyone, no matter where they are in the educational process
(Boggs, 2012; Cohen et al., 2014; Krendl Gilbert & Heller, 2013; Topper & Powers, 2013).
Given the importance of an educated citizenry, as described by the Obama administration
("Higher Education," n.d.), and the significant role community colleges play in educating our
citizenry (Cohen et al., 2014), it follows that that our community colleges need strong leadership
at all levels: department chair, dean, academic vice president, and president. Unfortunately, a
recurring pattern in community college literature is that community college senior administrators
are retiring in mass, and there is great concern about succession (Crosson, Douglas, O'Meara, &
Sperling, 2005; Eddy, 2010a, 2013; Hawkins, 2009; McNair, 2015; Reille & Kezar, 2010; Strom,
Sanchez, & Downey-Schilling, 2011). Tekle (2012) wrote that of the 370 presidents responding
to his survey, 43% planned to retire in the next five years, 32% planned retirement between 2018
and 2022, and 15% were planning retirement between 2023 and 2028. These data indicate that
90% of community college presidents are likely to retire between 2012 and 2028.
Statement of the Problem
Cejda, McKenney, and Burley (2001) wrote, “Cohen and March (1974) proposed a
normative career ladder for the presidency of a higher education institution compromising five
rungs: (a) faculty member, (b) unit chair, (c) dean, (d) provost or vice president for academic
3
affairs, and (e) president” (p. 31). When community college presidents retire, Chief Academic
Officers (CAO), provosts, or instructional vice presidents are likely to fill the openings (Eddy,
2010a; Tekle, 2012). When CAOs vacate their positions, instructional deans are likely to fill the
vacant CAO positions, leaving open deans’ position (Amey & VanDerLinden, 2002; Eddy,
2010a). Department chairs are likely to fill the vacant deans’ positions (Amey & VanDerLinden,
2002; Eddy, 2010a). As community college senior leaders retire, there is a massive wicking
effect, pulling vice presidents into presidencies, deans into vice presidencies, and department
chairs into deans’ positions. Unfortunately, community college CAOs are also retiring in mass,
and many others are not interested in the presidency (Appiah-Padi, 2014; Eckel, 2009; Eddy,
2013; Keim & Murray, 2008). McNair (2015) wrote that “due to projected retirements, it is
imperative to identify future leaders who can invest the time, effort, and energy into intentionally
preparing for the role.” Although she wrote specifically about the presidency, it is logical to
extrapolate the imperative to the CAO, dean, and chair positions also. Selingo and Carlson
(2006) reported that during the Campus of the Future meeting two consultants from Witt/Keiffer,
an executive search firm, stated, “Unless college leaders do more to identify and nurture new
talent, higher education will face a leadership crisis….”
Community college scholars have studied leadership at the chair’s level (Brown &
Moshavi, 2002; Derden, 2012; Ebbers, Conover, & Samuels, 2010; Gillet-Karam, 1999b; Rakos,
2001; Sirkis, 2011), the dean’s level (Andrews, 2005; Bragg, 2000; Colvin, 2011; Robillard,
2000; Watba & Farmer, 2006), the academic vice president’s level (Anderson, Murray, &
Olivarez, 2001; Cejda & Leist, 2006; Cejda, McKenney, & Burley, 2001; Keim & Murray, 2008;
M. R. Price, 2012), and the presidential level (Eddy, 2004, 2010b; Floyd, Maslin-Ostrowski, &
Hrabak, 2010; Karas, 2014; McNair, 2015; Person, 2015; Tekniepe, 2014). Riggs (2009)
4
explained the importance of making the climb up the leadership ladder by writing, “Along the
way, they [leaders] develop a portfolio of important experiences, gain complex leadership and
management skills, and establish valuable networks and contacts” (p. 29). Careful scrutiny of
the literature resulted in no insight into how competency sets and experiences change as one
moves up the administrative ladder in community colleges. Therefore, the problem is that
scholars have not identified if or how the competencies, skills, and experiences for each
academic leadership position change as individuals climb the leadership ladder from department
chair to dean to vice president.
Significance of the Problem
Identifying if or how the competencies, skills, and experiences are different at various
leadership levels is a significant problem that needs to be solved in order to efficiently facilitate
the development of community college academic leaders. Wallin (2009) captured the
significance of the leadership gap well:
Nothing is more important to the success of community colleges than quality of
leadership. It influences student outcomes, faculty success, and financial stability at all
levels of the institution. With the impending retirements of so many baby boomer
community college leaders, the leadership gap is an issue of increasing concern (p. 31).
Community colleges face a widening array of challenges that make it ever more critical to
understand the leadership roles and skills required at different levels in the academic
administrative ladder. These challenges include the impact of technology, changing enrollment
patterns, underprepared students, rising technology costs, and increasing calls for accountability
(Tschechtelin, 2011). The expansion of technology has increased the variety of jobs for which
5
community colleges need to train people, and this technology is expensive and quickly becomes
outdated (Cohen et al., 2014). Community college leaders at all levels face issues raised by
technology, but the nature and extent of their involvement with these issues may vary from one
level to the next.
In addition, competition for students both regionally and globally continues to increase.
(Deming
Faith-based entrepreneurship: The integration of faith and business for sustainable social impact.
No full textThis study seeks to determine the relevant factors that contribute to the successful integration of a not-for-profit and for-profit business model to benefit Faith-based Organizations
Factors that influence implicit prototypes based on gender or race in the leader/follower relationship.
No full textThe purpose of this systematic review was to examine the factors that
influence implicit prototypes based on gender or race within the relationship
between a leader and their followers. Implicit prototypes influence both the
way people perceive other people and the way people interpret the actions
of others. This perception is especially influential in the way in which
followers perceive the people who lead them. Managing implicit prototypes
is critical to increase the success of women or racial minorities in top
leadership positions.Factors that influence implicit prototypes based on gender or race in the leader/follower relationship.
Purpose Statement
• Perception (Agentic vs. Communal Traits) and Performance (Job/Task
fit) were the most influential factors for implicit prototypes based on
gender while Perception (Agentic vs. Communal Traits) was the most
influential factor for race. These factors influence whether a
follower’s implicit leader prototype matches the leader or not. Leader
prototype mismatch can negatively impact the leader/follower
relationship, negatively impact the organization, and negatively impact
the success of leaders who are women or who are racial minorities.
• By developing specific strategies to mitigate prototype mismatch, the
management field can provide practicioners with more effective
solutions to address the challenges of a diverse and changing
workforce.
• Because prototype mismatch is rooted in the cognitive process,
research on decision-making and judgment in management provides
possibilities for strategies. Specifically Tversky and Kahneman’s (1974)
work on the representatives heuristic, used to decide if a particular
object is representative of a particular category, can cause judgment
errors because important considerations such as prior probability,
predictability, validity, and regression are discounted as important
inputs into the decision process.
• Bazerman and Moore (2009) offer the specific strategy of Debiasing
Judgment through unfreezing, change, and refreezing.
Results
The purpose of this systematic review was to examine the factors that
influence implicit prototypes based on gender or race within the relationship
between a leader and their followers. Implicit prototypes influence both the
way people perceive other people and the way people interpret the actions
of others. This perception is especially influential in the way in which
followers perceive the people who lead them. Managing implicit prototypes
is critical to increase the success of women or racial minorities in top
leadership positions.
Advisors:
Dr. James Gelatt, Ph.D.
Dr. Deborah Wharff, D.M.
Findings/Implications
Leonard Brown Jr.
The Graduate School
University of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD
Methodology
Text here. You can modify the text box.
Research Question
What factors based on race or gender influence implicit protoypes that
can potentially impact the leader-follower relationship?
Proposition 1: Culture influences implicit leader prototypes based on
gender.
Proposition 2&3: Role congruity influences implicit leader prototypes based
on gender or gender.
Proposition 4&5: Organizational success and failure influences implicit
leader prototypes based on gender or race.
Proposition 6&7: Positive and negative valence influences implicit leader
prototypes based on gender or race.
Proposition 8&9: Group salience influences implicit leader prototypes
based on gender or race.
The following themes were identified as factors that influence implicit
prototypes based on gender or race:
Future Research
• Intersectionality - How do multi-identity prototypes function
• Research beyond IAT on race
• Development and evaluation of specific strategies to mitigate
prototype mismatch
Initial Conceptual Framework
.
Search String: “implicit n5 (theor* OR prototype*) n5 (leader*) AND
(Gender*OR sex* OR race* OR racial”
Quality Appraisal: Weight of Evidence Framework with TAPUPAS
Synthesis: Open coding with Thematic Analysis
Figure 3.1. The preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (PRISMA) diagram
shows the search strategy for this paper. Adapted from “the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic
Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement,” by D. Mohler, A. Liberati, J. Tetzlaff, D. G.
Altmann, and The PRISMA Group, 2009, PLoS Med, 6, p. 3, Copyright 2009 by The PRISMA Group.
Adapted under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
PRISMA Flow Diagram
Records identified through
database searching
(n = 52)
Included Eligibility Screening Identification
Additional records identified
through other sources
(n = 27)
Records after duplicates removed
(n =64)
Records screened
(n = 64)
Records excluded
(n = 7)
Full-text articles assessed
for eligibility
(n = 57)
Full-text articles excluded,
with reasons
(n = 30 )
Studies included in
qualitative synthesis
(n = 27 )
Final Conceptual Framework
Table Three
Analytical Themes and Descriptive Themes
Analytical Theme Descriptive Theme
Gender
Performance Achievement
Performance
Task/Job Fit
Belief Era/Generation
Liberal/Conservative
Mindset
Patriotism
Religion
Social Dominance Orientation
View of Women
Perception Mortality Salience
Traits
Identity Age
Culture
Gender
Self
Race
Performance Performance
Task/Job Fit
Perception Traits
Belief Patriotism
Social Dominance Orientation
Identity Sel
Applying intrapreneurship to sustain corporate growth: A business practitioner’s model
No full textMany companies fail to achieve growth due to their inability to create opportunities and transition them into production. There is often an absence of employee innovation that stems from a lack of strategy that energizes and expands employee initiative to develop and sustain creative solutions. The purpose of this dissertation is to develop a model to integrate an intrapreneuring structure and culture within a practitioner’s ongoing business process. This research is fundamental to understanding the best ways that business culture, selected behaviors, strategic intent, and social structure could be intentionally integrated to create and sustain business opportunities.
Despite the prominence of intrapreneurship in corporate conversations, it continues to remain an untested, but promising, business process. Business scholars tend to discuss intrapreneurship and strategy as associated business concepts. Business practitioners use strategy and structure to mature opportunities for achieving long-term growth. Using a conceptual model, this dissertation will combine business strategy and structure within a framework of intrapreneurship to realize alternative ways of producing business growth and long-term sustainability. The organizing scheme for this dissertation provides an integration of the pluralistic dimensions of the intrapreneur working within a framework of strategic business process and structuration theory. Thus, one goal of this study is to create a synthesis of academics and business. This study attempts a synthesis of creativity, innovation, and strategy as a way of suggesting practical opportunities for the in-practice integration of intrapreneurship.Running head: Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth: A Business
Practitioner Model
Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth:
A Business Practitioner’s Model
by
Mark A. Gaertner
A Thesis
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Doctoral Committee: Professor Hadary
Professor Winters
Date Final Version Submitted: 1 August 2013
Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth: A Business Practitioner’s Model
2
Table of Contents
Acknowledgement 5
Abstract 6
Chapter 1
Background of the Problem 8
Statement of the Problem 19
Purpose Statement 20
Research Questions 20
Conceptual Framework 21
Significance of the Problem 26
Organization of the Dissertation 27
Chapter 2:
Literature Review 29
Intrapreneurship: The Culmination of Processes,
Dimensions, Balanced Thought, Behaviors, and Rationality 30
Strategic Vision 50
Structuration Theory 60
Incorporated Propositions 65
Chapter 3
Conceptual Framework 70
Social Framework 70
Procedural View of the Models 72
Conclusions 79
Chapter 4
Methodology 80
Research Process and Methodology for
Evidence-Based Research 81
Chapter 5
Propositions and Findings 99
Summary 128
Chapter 6
Meaning of the Findings and Recommendations 133
Discussion and Significance of Findings 135
Significance for the Future of Intrapreneurship 140
Limitations for Practice 148
Final Thoughts 150 Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth: A Business Practitioner’s Model
3
Appendix 151
References 169
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Establishing the Thinking Model 31
Table 2.2 Summary of Limitations of Traditional
Strategic Planning—and Alternatives 53
Table 2.3 Application of Theories to Research Propositions 66
Table 4.1 Summary of Expert Review 97
Table 5.1 Intrapreneur Behaviors Matrix 107
List of Figures
Figure 1.1. The flow of information in a traditional
corporate structure. 11
Figure 1.2. An integrative view of corporate communication. 12
Figure 1.3. The Mintzberg (1979) conceptualized view of
organizational functions. 14
Figure 1.4. Self theories affect interaction and structure. 22
Figure 1.5. Organization of the study. 27
Figure 2.1.Visual representation of interaction between
employee and group behaviors. 46
Figure 2.2. Intrapreneurial decision making process:
six sources of information. 48
Figure 2.3. Traditional strategic planning process. 52
Figure 2.4. Macro-level view of strategy to innovation. 59
Figure 2.5. Venn diagram illustrating the creation of wealth. 67
Figure 2.6. Interaction between self and structuration. 68
Figure 3.1. Theoretical model. 73
Figure 3.2. Practitioner model. 74
Figure 4.1. Overall research process. 81
Figure 4.2. Keywords. 83
Figure 4.3. Research framework. 84
Figure 4.4. Personal assessment tool example. 87
Figure 4.5. Sources of evidence. 94
Figure 4.6. Summary of research by level of evidence. 95
Figure 4.7. Expert panel members and expertise. 95 Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth: A Business Practitioner’s Model
4
Figure 5.1. Incorporating the three values of intrapreneurship,
corporate strategy, and structure to achieve an opportunity. 99
Figure 5.2. Connectivity between intrapreneurs and employees. 103
Figure 5.3. Opportunity identification using intrapreneurial
dimensions and balanced thought. 110
Figure 5.4. Modified strategic thinking process. 115
Figure 5.5. Integration of intrapreneurship, strategy,
and innovation. 117
Figure 5.6. Process duality for an idea to become
an opportunity. 121
Figure 5.7. Growth acceleration model. 127
Figure 6.1. Opportunity growth model. 144
Figure 6.2. Growth acceleration model. 147
Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth: A Business Practitioner’s Model
5
Acknowledgement
This dissertation is the result of all the time and love my family has given me, caught up in my office, aka my tree house, plowing away through journals and books to look for that most important phrase or words or comment to close my arguments. My wife, Sharon, and my daughters, Jennifer and Elise, are amazing and willing to give me the time to complete this research. I thank them for their support and the needed hours of additional support in the years ahead as I continue my doctoral journey.
I also thank Dr. Hadary and Dr. Winters; without much conversation with them I would not have achieved this milestone. Dr. Winters, for your perceptions and thoughts on intrapreneurship and particularly Dr. Hadary, who forced me to focus . . . focus . . focus and produce clarity in my thoughts and words.
Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth: A Business Practitioner’s Model
6
Abstract
Many companies fail to achieve growth due to their inability to create opportunities and transition them into production. There is often an absence of employee innovation that stems from a lack of strategy that energizes and expands employee initiative to develop and sustain creative solutions. The purpose of this dissertation is to develop a model to integrate an intrapreneuring structure and culture within a practitioner’s ongoing business process. This research is fundamental to understanding the best ways that business culture, selected behaviors, strategic intent, and social structure could be intentionally integrated to create and sustain business opportunities.
Despite the prominence of intrapreneurship in corporate conversations, it continues to remain an untested, but promising, business process. Business scholars tend to discuss intrapreneurship and strategy as associated business concepts. Business practitioners use strategy and structure to mature opportunities for achieving long-term growth. Using a conceptual model, this dissertation will combine business strategy and structure within a framework of intrapreneurship to realize alternative ways of producing business growth and long-term sustainability. The organizing scheme for this dissertation provides an integration of the pluralistic dimensions of the intrapreneur working within a framework of strategic business process and structuration theory. Thus, one goal of this study is to create a synthesis of academics and business. This study attempts a synthesis of creativity, innovation, and strategy as a way of suggesting practical opportunities for the in-practice integration of intrapreneurship.
Keywords: Intrapreneurship, Strategy, Behaviors, Creativity, Structure, Social Interaction Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth: A Business Practitioner’s Model
7
Chapter 1
Creating wealth is at the heart of both entrepreneurship and strategic management. For general managers and entrepreneurs, a keen interest is to learn how to apply entrepreneurial and strategic tools, techniques, and concepts in way that help the firm create increasing amounts of wealth.
—Ireland, Hitt, Camp, and Sexton, (2001, p.49)
Many companies fail to achieve growth due to their inability to create and transition business opportunities into production. There is an absence of employee innovation within companies, which corresponds to a lack of strategy and employee initiative to develop and sustain creative solutions. The line of argument of this dissertation is quite straightforward: To achieve growth and create wealth, businesses need to learn how to apply the tools, techniques, and concepts of intrapreneurship within the corporation. The creation of an intrapreneuring structure within the company’s ongoing business process is fundamental to understanding how business culture, behaviors, strategic intent, social interaction, and structure are used to create and sustain business opportunities. This chapter will introduce the background and provide a history of the problem, the purpose, research questions, and significance that this dissertation brings to corporate wealth creation. The chapter ends with a brief explanation of Chapters 2 through 6.
Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth: A Business Practitioner’s Model
8
Background of the Problem
To describe the intrapreneur, a distinction needs to be established between entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship. Schumpeter (1934), known as the father of entrepreneurship, defined entrepreneurship as a form of innovativeness. “Entrepreneurs are people who take the initiative to start new ventures and create self-conceived value” (Goodman & Schafman, 2011, p.7). Entrepreneurs who did not want to stay within traditional guidelines and a linear-based, hierarchical corporate structure broke from this culture to pursue their own entrepreneurial ventures (Antoncic & Hisrich, 2003). Other entrepreneurs foresaw the need to instill change inside their existing organizations, perhaps with corporate support. They associated themselves with other strategic-thinking employees and were encouraged to create new ideas and concepts. These employees stayed within the company boundaries to practice their entrepreneurial endeavors, using the established company structure. These employees became the definition of the intrapreneur.
Intrapreneurs have similar psychological traits as entrepreneurs, including the need for achievement and a tolerance for ambiguity (Okhomina, 2010) and a passion for creation and newness (Antoncic & Hisrich, 2003). However, they choose to apply these traits within the firm and not to operate on their own. They establish social relationships and levels of trust among fellow employees, which facilitate the transformation of these traits into product innovation; the corporation and executive management provide the resources and environment and expect a predicted financial return on these innovations.
Antoncic and Hisrich (2003) provided one modernistic view of the intrapreneur using a combination of processes and dimensions. Intrapreneurs focus on new ventures Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth: A Business Practitioner’s Model
9
and innovations of business processes, products and services. Dimensions of the intrapreneur are self-renewal, risk taking, proactiveness, and competitive aggressiveness. Intrapreneurs apply these processes and dimensions based on both their tacit knowledge and inherent ability to sense opportunities, a departure from the customary ways of doing business in traditional organizations (Antoncic & Hirsch, 2003, p. 20).
An intrapreneur is an employee who understands and uses both conceptual and business tools to produce a product innovation. A strong intrapreneur is capable of using both to recognize and balance the linear (empirical and analytical) and nonlinear (emotional, creative, holistic, visual, and imaginative) thinking styles that socially interact inside a firm (Vance, Zell, & Groves, 2008). This skill enables the intrapreneur to become a facilitator, someone who integrates employees with varying thinking styles to produce a sustainable product growth strategy.
The traditional linear nature of most corporate structures has made intrapreneurship a rare contributor to the firm. The challenge facing corporations has been to understand the consequences of promoting traditional employee linear thinking (Vance et al., 2008) and seek an optimum balance with nonlinear thought. The 1980s solution to this problem was the creation of a “skunk works,” or a group of employees who worked outside the firm to avoid bureaucracy and to promote nonlinear, creative solutions. However, this concept reached a plateau: These employees were rich in the creation of new knowledge, but their physical separation inhibited their ability to communicate this knowledge to corporate decision makers. Reintroduction of skunk works employees back inside the firm was challenging, for the firm’s bureaucratic structure and linear thinking often suffocated the acceptance of new ideas and potential Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth: A Business Practitioner’s Model
10
for creative growth (Brodbeck, 2002). This inside/outside separation caused firms to lose the potential for new innovation. Employees were not encouraged to think openly, nor have a tolerance for ambiguity (Okhomina, 2010), and both are necessary to foster creativity. One can deduce there was a collision of nonlinear, intrapreneuring ideas with linear corporate processes (Vance et al., 2008), not to be resolved within existing corporate policies or human resource methods. A longitudinal study by Marcus and Zimmerer (2003) concluded that instead of using traditional corporate methods that suffocate the ability to create new ideas, intrapreneurship programs should be offered inside firms to increase employee socialization and creative ideas.
Intrapreneurship, through the structural lens, is viewed as an active dual relationship between the intrapreneur and firm growth; one cannot exist without the other (Sarason, Dean, & Dillard, 2006). Instead of the traditional view that technology alone fills the need for innovativeness, the structurist view is one that allows intrapreneurs and employees to interact socially and to coevolve to produce an innovation (Sarason et al., 2006). Hence, integration between firm structure and employee social interactivity is needed in order for creativity to occur.
To create a view of the traditional corporation through a business practitioner’s lens, Figure 1.1 depicts the long-established flow of information between stockholders, managers, and employees. These three types of participants fundamentally interact and work as a group to create a successful company: stockholders who fund the firm with their expectations for wealth creation, managers to manage financial objectives and communicate actions to employees to accomplish those objectives, and employees who Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth: A Business Practitioner’s Model
11
have the direction from managers to optimize their performance and produce successful outcomes.
All three, although acting as a group, have different intentions toward their work. Stockholders often have little insight regarding internal firm operations but have a high expectation for financial return. Managers are likely to be linear-based, sequentially drive objectives onto employees, and expect accomplishment of those linear tasks. Employees will respond to linear objectives with linear results. The outcome of the entire social process is to encourage focus on the financial bottom line. Profits are viewed in the short term as a result of efficient operations and are not measured by creative growth or innovation (Duncan, Ginter, Rucks, & Jacobs, 2001). Managers respond to stockholders by providing financial returns that typically are annual objectives.
Figure 1.1. The flow of information in a traditional corporate structure. Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth: A Business Practitioner’s Model
12
The consequence is the expectation of continued company growth, whereas a more realistic perspective is at best the perpetuation of status quo (Hambrick, Geletkanycz, & Fredrickson, 1993.) In this model, the firm conceives significant risk because employees may experience boredom and discontinuity, worsened by a management staff perhaps not educated nor trained in the need for innovation and open social interaction. Profits begin to decline, and growth cannot be achieved. After a period of declining performance, the company could often face the potential of becoming obsolete and is no longer competitive (Twice, 2013).
This model could also be viewed with the addition of intrapreneurship through an integrative lens as depicted in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2. An integrative view of corporate communication. Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth: A Business Practitioner’s Model
13
In this view, the intrapreneur is placed into the flow of information and acts as a facilitator to balance the thinking styles of both linear and nonlinear employees. Empirical research has provided evidence of an established link between linear/nonlinear thinking styles and innovative behavior (Vance et al., 2008, p. 240). Integrating both linear and nonlinear thought is more likely to include innovative attitudes and can assemble known ideas into a new combination of solutions to solve problems. Given their innovativeness, intrapreneurs seek challenging problems to solve or perhaps use creative methods to solve older ones. The manager, subsequently, has the foundation for building and submitting a more strategic view to the stockholder. The ability for managers and employees to create ideas is greatly improved when innovation is introduced and facilitated by intrapreneurs. Ideally, the intrapreneur could be employed to manage the flow of strategic ideas and could act as a catalyst to manage idea flow across the company.
A similar view of the corporation is through a functional lens using Mintzberg’s approach (1979) that identified five parts of the organization, shown in Figure 1.3. Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth: A Business Practitioner’s Model
14
Figure 1.3. The Mintzberg (1979) conceptualized view of organizational functions.
The base of the picture is the operating core, where the majority of the employees carry out the functional work of the corporation. The top of the diagram shows the strategic apex, followed by the chain of command to the middle line, or middle management. The support staff to the far right consists of support functions such as legal, payroll, cafeteria, public relations, and so on. The far left is the technical structure of the company. This author’s interpretation of the Mintzberg model suggests the techno structure includes not only the analytical part of the corporation but the nonlinear thinking group responsible for strategic planning, research, and development. Both the technical structure and support staffs are shown to the sides of the diagram to indicate there is a separation in traditional organizations from the main line of authority (Mintzberg, 1979).
This author further suggests there is a physical separation between the management structure and the formulation of new ideas. It can be assumed that by Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth: A Business Practitioner’s Model
15
introducing intrapreneurship, the social barrier between these corporate functions (Vance et al., 2008) can be reduced or, optimally, deleted. The intrapreneur’s role is to reduce this barrier and improve the social interaction between stockholders, managers and employees.
These views and models, however, have met significant resistance. The traditional business model has been around for generations. To create a new entity that realigns traditional process with creative thinking skills progresses far beyond the status quo (Hambrick et al., 1993) and will be a significant change for a company to accept and implement. This dissertation argues that the traditional corporate model must change, and the status quo to be overcome through the integration of intrapreneurship and its associative processes of idea creation (Vance et al., 2008), socialization (Hayton & Kelly, 2006), and structuration (Giddens, 1984).
Historical Significance
For everything that is worthwhile in this world goes back to the increase in the output of the individual.
—Taylor (1916)
Traditional wealth creation strategies that defined corporate existence trend back to the beginning of management theory, with advancements in science and social and human thought. Efficiency was the primary attribute of industrial age growth. Frederick Taylor’s scientific theory (Taylor, 1916) and his enthusiasm for labor-saving devices Applying Intrapreneurship to Sustain Corporate Growth: A Business Practitioner’s Model
16
developed linear-based models that have since evolved into modern production processes. Taylor wrote, “What I want to emphasize is that all of the elements of scientific management are an evolution not an invention” (Taylor, 1916, p. 63).
One can equate those early signs of scientific process to today’s definition of production, using software and automation very simi
Improving transfer student Baccalaureate completion through higher education centers
No full textAccording to the National Center for Education Statistics (Aud et al., 2013), only 10.6% of students who started at a two-year institution in the 2003-2004 year successfully completed a baccalaureate degree from a four-year institution within six years. Two- and four-year institutions are looking for new strategies to improve transfer student degree attainment. An innovative approach is the creation of higher education centers (HECs) where two- and four-year institutions collaborate in a shared facility.
This dissertation explored the reasons behind the creation of higher education centers with a focus on the role team leadership plays in creating, maintaining, and enhancing these centers. It also analyzed the impact these centers have on improving the graduation rates of community college transfer students.
The research is an exploratory study that used a mixed method approach. Four research phases were identified that included an online survey instrument, a review of institutional artifacts, collection of transfer students’ completion data from 4 HECs, and a comparative analysis of the findings.
Access to postsecondary education, workforce development, and economic growth were identified as major reasons for creating HECs. The results showed that HECs were established through a collaborative process that included two-year institutions, four-year institutions, local government, and the business community. The results suggest that HECs increase baccalaureate degree completion rates for transfer students above the national average. Finally, the leadership strategies used by the HECs and the partnering institutions were consonant with characteristics of team leadership.IMPROVING TRANSFER STUDENT BACCALAUREATE COMPLETION THROUGH
HIGHER EDUCATION CENTERS
IMPROVING TRANSFER STUDENT BACCALAUREATE COMPLETION THROUGH HIGHER EDUCATION CENTERS
Jeffery Mark Gonzalez
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of the
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the
Doctor of Management
Degree
Charlene Nunley, Ph.D.
Ronald Head, Ph.D.
2013IMPROVING TRANSFER STUDENT BACCALAUREATE COMPLETION
THROUGH HIGHER EDUCATION CENTERS
i
ABSTRACT
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (Aud et al., 2013), only 10.6% of students who started at a two-year institution in the 2003-2004 year successfully completed a baccalaureate degree from a four-year institution within six years. Two- and four-year institutions are looking for new strategies to improve transfer student degree attainment. An innovative approach is the creation of higher education centers (HECs) where two- and four-year institutions collaborate in a shared facility.
This dissertation explored the reasons behind the creation of higher education centers with a focus on the role team leadership plays in creating, maintaining, and enhancing these centers. It also analyzed the impact these centers have on improving the graduation rates of community college transfer students.
The research is an exploratory study that used a mixed method approach. Four research phases were identified that included an online survey instrument, a review of institutional artifacts, collection of transfer students’ completion data from 4 HECs, and a comparative analysis of the findings.
Access to postsecondary education, workforce development, and economic growth were identified as major reasons for creating HECs. The results showed that HECs were established through a collaborative process that included two-year institutions, four-year institutions, local government, and the business community. The results suggest that HECs increase baccalaureate degree completion rates for transfer students above the national average. Finally, the leadership strategies used by the HECs and the partnering institutions were consonant with characteristics of team leadership.IMPROVING TRANSFER STUDENT BACCALAUREATE COMPLETION
THROUGH HIGHER EDUCATION CENTERS
ii
© Copyright by
Jeffery Mark Gonzalez
2013IMPROVING TRANSFER STUDENT BACCALAUREATE COMPLETION
THROUGH HIGHER EDUCATION CENTERS
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DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to two very special children who found their way into my life. Tatyana Julia Escobar and Bernard Samuel Escobar, you arrived in my life at just the right moment to remind me that everyday life can be beautiful. Years from now when you are both adults, I want the memory of this dissertation to remind you that everything is possible when you work hard and believe in yourself.
I also want to dedicate this dissertation in loving memory to my grandmothers Carmen Gonzalez and Francis Davis, and my godmother Juana Olga Nebot. These women were a special influence in my life.IMPROVING TRANSFER STUDENT BACCALAUREATE COMPLETION
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The adage it takes a village applies to completing a dissertation. I want to thank everyone who helped me reach this personal goal. I want to start by thanking my mother, Roxana, and father, Marcelo, for developing in me the curiosity and commitment to learning. To my brother, Ricky, who has always been a true friend.
I want to thank Otto Tianga, my lifelong friend, who has helped me every step of the way and reminds me often to stop, look around, and enjoy the beautiful things life has to offer. I also want to thank my friends Betty, Ric, and Raul for encouraging me and supporting me on this journey. To Miguel Ramos, my friend and godfather, thank you for always providing guidance and encouragement. I want to show my sincerest appreciation to my friends and colleagues in the Office of Planning and Institutional Research who have supported me through this process. I especially want to thank Nancy Colón for reading every poorly written chapter and making them so much better, and to Hiselgis Perez, Yasmin LaRocca, and Adam Zimmerman for helping analyze the results and guide the format of the presentation.
I want to thank my two dissertation advisors. Dr. Charlene Nunley, thank you for taking my call three years ago and encouraging me to join the program. Thank you for all the moments you reminded me that this was a journey and it would be difficult at times but immensely satisfying when it was completed. I also want to thank Dr. Ronald Head for guiding, pushing, helping, suggesting, questioning, and advising me for the last two years through this journey. You never let me settle for less than my best work. Thank you both!
Finally, I want to thank the Divine, the visible hand that has shaped my life. Thank you Olorun, Obatala, Oshun, the irunmole, egun, and especially VB.
It takes a village, I am especially lucky to have had all of you share this journey with me.IMPROVING TRANSFER STUDENT BACCALAUREATE COMPLETION
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v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem........................................................................................... 1
Statement of Purpose ................................................................................................. 6
Context or Background Related to the Problem........................................................ 6
Theoretical Base......................................................................................................... 9
Research Questions.................................................................................................... 10
Definition of Terms......................................................................................................11
Significance................................................................................................................ 13
Organization of the Dissertation ................................................................................ 18
2 LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................................... 20
Searching Outcomes .................................................................................................. 20
Overview of Literature............................................................................................... 21
Higher Education Centers ................................................................................. 22
Searching Dissertations and Theses.................................................................. 26
The Completion Agenda ................................................................................... 32
Assessing Learning ........................................................................................... 35
Community College Accountability ................................................................. 36
Graduation Challenge ....................................................................................... 37
Community College Transfer Students............................................................. 39
Student Engagement ......................................................................................... 43
Wilder Collaboration Factors Inventory ........................................................... 46
Leadership......................................................................................................... 47
Transformational leadership .................................................................... 47
Adaptive leadership ................................................................................. 49
Team leadership....................................................................................... 50
Summary.................................................................................................................... 53
3 CONCEPTUAL MODEL.......................................................................................... 55
Overview of the Conceptual Model........................................................................... 55
Challenge—Increasing Degree Completion ..................................................... 57
Assumption one ....................................................................................... 58
Assumption two ....................................................................................... 60
Strategy—Creating Higher Education Centers................................................. 62
Assumption three ..................................................................................... 63
Assumption four....................................................................................... 64IMPROVING TRANSFER STUDENT BACCALAUREATE COMPLETION
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Chapter
3 Outcome—Improving Baccalaureate Completion............................................ 66
(cont’d) Hypothesis one......................................................................................... 66
Hypothesis two......................................................................................... 67
Summary.................................................................................................................... 67
4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY............................................................................... 68
Revisiting the Problem............................................................................................... 68
Literature Evaluation ................................................................................................. 69
Research Questions........................................................................................... 69
Keyword Search................................................................................................ 70
Systematic Review of Original Research ......................................................... 70
Expert Review Process .............................................................................................. 71
The Reviewers .................................................................................................. 73
Gathering Feedback .......................................................................................... 73
Reviewing the Feedback ................................................................................... 74
Research Design......................................................................................................... 75
Mixed Methodology Design ............................................................................. 76
Phase One................................................................................................................... 77
Sample Size....................................................................................................... 77
The Exploratory Survey.................................................................................... 79
Validation of survey................................................................................. 82
Timeline for survey.................................................................................. 83
Analysis of survey results ........................................................................ 83
Phase Two—Completion Data .................................................................................. 84
Phase Three—Artifacts.............................................................................................. 85
Artifacts to Review........................................................................................... 85
Triangulation..................................................................................................... 87
Phase Four.................................................................................................................. 88
Expected Findings...................................................................................................... 88
Institutional Review Board Approval ........................................................................ 89
Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 89
5 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION................................................................................91
Expert Reviewers ....................................................................................................... 91
Summary........................................................................................................... 96
Suggested Enhancements.................................................................................. 96
Research Findings...................................................................................................... 97
The Results........................................................................................................ 98
Research question 1 ................................................................................. 98
Summarizing research question 1 ............................................................101IMPROVING TRANSFER STUDENT BACCALAUREATE COMPLETION
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vii
Chapter
5 Research question 2 .................................................................................101
(cont’d) Summarizing research question 2 ............................................................102
Research question 3 .................................................................................104
Summarizing research question 3 ............................................................112
Research question 4 .................................................................................113
Summarizing research question 4 ............................................................116
Research question 5 .................................................................................116
Summarizing research question 5 ............................................................126
Discussion of Research Findings ...............................................................................126
General Finding One—Access .........................................................................127
General Finding Two—Collaboration ..............................................................127
General Finding Three—Tracking Graduation Rates.......................................128
General Finding Four—Team Leadership........................................................128
Limitations of the Study.............................................................................................128
6 IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS....................................................131
Discussion and Implications of Findings...................................................................132
Understanding Why ..........................................................................................132
Steps for a Successful Implementation.............................................................134
Guidance for Community College Leaders ......................................................137
Guidance for Four-year Institution Leaders......................................................137
The Role of Team Leadership...........................................................................138
The Importance of Collaboration......................................................................139
Future Research Agenda ............................................................................................139
Conclusion .................................................................................................................141
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................143
APPENDICES
A Evaluation Form.........................................................................................................153
B Invitation to Participate in Survey .............................................................................154
C Survey Instrument......................................................................................................155
D Reminder Postcard.....................................................................................................161
E Invitation to Participate in Phase Two of Study ........................................................162
F Transfer Completion Template ..................................................................................163
G Centers Invited to Participate in Survey ....................................................................164
H Invitation to Participate in Second Survey.................................................................166
I No Tracking of Completion Data ..............................................................................167
J Management Correlation Results...............................................................................169
K Collaboration Correlation Results..............................................................................170
L Community Correlation Results ................................................................................171
M Questions with fewer than 32 responses....................................................................172IMPROVING TRANSFER STUDENT BACCALAUREATE COMPLETION
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
1 Keyword Searches ..................................................................................................... 72
2 Research Design......................................................................................................... 77
3 Search Terms ............................................................................................................. 78
4 Artifacts Matrix.......................................................................................................... 86
5 Related Words............................................................................................................ 86IMPROVING TRANSFER STUDENT BACCALAUREATE COMPLETION
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1 Population that has attained tertiary education .......................................................... 14
2 Socioeconomic distribution at colleges, by selectivity, 2006 .................................... 17
3 Hill’s (2010) model of team leadership ..................................................................... 53
4 Conceptual model ...................................................................................................... 56
5 Challenges facing higher education........................................................................... 57
6 Understanding why ................................................................................................... 100
7 Understanding how ....................................................................................................103
8 Improving degree completion....................................................................................105
9 National Student Clearinghouse degree attainment...................................................107
10 Completion comparison for all cohorts......................................................................107
11 Selected cohorts completion comparison...................................................................108
12 Non-collection survey results ....................................................................................110
13 Analysis of institutional artifacts ...............................................................................114
14 Collaboration phase one.............................................................................................115
15 Management dimension
Reclaiming relevance: Embracing complexity in the 21st Century community college
No full textThe central mission of the community college is to provide low-cost, high-quality educational offerings to all students. With current budget constraints, changing student demographics, multiple stakeholders and new objectives that now emphasize degree completion and measurable student learning, community colleges have been transformed into highly complex organizations. Few community colleges, however, are structured to effectively support complex functioning while effectively meeting the goals of the mission. This dissertation argues that a structural design that is based on complexity theories with emergent, self-organizing subgroups that work at the boundaries and accept continuous change, will result in a community college that is intentionally responsive to ongoing environmental changes and, in turn, is better equipped to support student learning through pedagogical methods that meet the needs of students along with curricular offerings that meet the needs of transfer institutions and the workforce. A new emergent, complex and adaptive structure will not only embrace current challenges, but will also provide a structure that is resilient, adaptable and nimble enough to respond to any changes in the environment surrounding students, faculty and administrators now and in the future. The model that is presented is supported by evidence that emergent, self-organized groups, a flatter hierarchy, interdependent functioning and the acceptance of continuous change provides an effective design for industries that have faced many of the same challenges that community colleges currently face. Ideally, this conceptual model would include teaching innovations and flexible responses that are intentionally developed through emergent, self-organized groups of interdisciplinary teams. These teams would share a vision of education that includes teaching and learning cooperatively and active promotion of a culture of interdependence that unites the stakeholders inside and outside of the institution, and becomes the basis for all decisions about curriculum and student learning strategies.RECLAIMING RELEVANCE: EMBRACING COMPLEXITY IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE 1
Reclaiming Relevance: Embracing Complexity in the 21st Century Community College
by
Kristie L. Crumley
A Thesis
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Doctoral Committee: Dr. Dennis Winters
Dr. Sharon Hadary
Date Final Version Submitted: August 4, 2013 RECLAIMING RELEVANCE: EMBRACING COMPLEXITY IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE 2
Abstract
The central mission of the community college is to provide low-cost, high-quality educational offerings to all students. With current budget constraints, changing student demographics, multiple stakeholders and new objectives that now emphasize degree completion and measurable student learning, community colleges have been transformed into highly complex organizations. Few community colleges, however, are structured to effectively support complex functioning while effectively meeting the goals of the mission. This dissertation argues that a structural design that is based on complexity theories with emergent, self-organizing subgroups that work at the boundaries and accept continuous change, will result in a community college that is intentionally responsive to ongoing environmental changes and, in turn, is better equipped to support student learning through pedagogical methods that meet the needs of students along with curricular offerings that meet the needs of transfer institutions and the workforce. A new emergent, complex and adaptive structure will not only embrace current challenges, but will also provide a structure that is resilient, adaptable and nimble enough to respond to any changes in the environment surrounding students, faculty and administrators now and in the future. The model that is presented is supported by evidence that emergent, self-organized groups, a flatter hierarchy, interdependent functioning and the acceptance of continuous change provides an effective design for industries that have faced many of the same challenges that community colleges currently face. Ideally, this conceptual model would include teaching innovations and flexible responses that are intentionally developed through emergent, self-organized groups of interdisciplinary teams. These teams would share a vision of education that includes teaching and learning cooperatively and active promotion of a culture of interdependence that unites the RECLAIMING RELEVANCE: EMBRACING COMPLEXITY IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE 3
stakeholders inside and outside of the institution, and becomes the basis for all decisions about curriculum and student learning strategies.
Keywords: Community College, Higher Education, Complexity Theories, Self-Organization
RECLAIMING RELEVANCE: EMBRACING COMPLEXITY IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE 4
Dedication
In loving memory of my mother,
Nancy Tremblay
(11/1/45-7/7/13)
Unconditional love, fierce loyalty and unwavering integrity are the gifts
that she gave to each of us. A woman unparalleled and forever in our hearts.
This dissertation and degree are dedicated to Mike, Michael and Kelly, my wonderfully supportive family. Without the love and support that my husband and children have shown me, completion of this program would not have been possible. Together we‘ve learned that anything is possible with hard work, dedication and a strong family.
RECLAIMING RELEVANCE: EMBRACING COMPLEXITY IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE 5
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 2
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... 4
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 5
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ 7
Chapter One: Introduction and Overview of Relevant Literature .................................................. 8
Purpose ................................................................................................................................................... 13
Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................................... 14
Research Question ................................................................................................................................. 15
List of Definitions .................................................................................................................................. 16
Limitations ............................................................................................................................................. 16
Significance of Study .............................................................................................................................. 17
Organizing Scheme for Remainder of the Dissertation .......................................................................... 17
Chapter Two: Systematic Review of the Literature ...................................................................... 19
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 20
Community College Missions Then and Now ........................................................................................ 20
Student Success, Student Learning and Completion............................................................................... 25
Environmental Impacts on Curriculum ................................................................................................... 26
Recent Research Concerning Student Success in Community College .................................................. 28
Emergence and self-organizing groups. .............................................................................................. 33
Unpredictability and non-linearity ...................................................................................................... 35
A culture of interaction. ...................................................................................................................... 37
Adaptability and the focus on learning ............................................................................................... 39
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 40
Examples of Complexity Theories in Community College .................................................................... 40
Interaction, interrelatedness and collaboration. .................................................................................. 41
Self-organization ................................................................................................................................ 48
Adaptability ........................................................................................................................................ 50
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 54
Chapter Three: Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................ 69
Interaction and collaboration. ............................................................................................................. 71
Self-organization. ............................................................................................................................... 76 RECLAIMING RELEVANCE: EMBRACING COMPLEXITY IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE 6
Information from the external environment. ....................................................................................... 80
Adaptability and the focus on learning. .............................................................................................. 85
Emergence and innovation .................................................................................................................. 85
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................. 86
Chapter Four: Methodology .......................................................................................................... 88
Evidence-Based Research: An Introduction ........................................................................................... 88
Research Methodology for Evidence-Based Research ........................................................................... 90
Step 1: Formulate review question and develop protocol. .................................................................. 91
Step 2: Define studies to be considered .............................................................................................. 92
Step 3: Search for studies .................................................................................................................... 93
Step 4: Screen studies. ....................................................................................................................... 94
Step 5: Describe studies ...................................................................................................................... 95
Step 6: Appraise study quality and relevance ..................................................................................... 95
Step 7: Synthesize findings ................................................................................................................. 96
Step 8: Communicate and engage ....................................................................................................... 96
Chapter Five: Analysis and Discussion ...................................................................................... 101
Propositions and Findings ..................................................................................................................... 102
Warrants ............................................................................................................................................... 107
Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 108
Chapter Six: Conclusions, Implications and Trends ................................................................... 110
Overall Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 111
Curricular Offerings .............................................................................................................................. 112
Pedagogical Improvements ................................................................................................................... 113
Implications of Trend ............................................................................................................................ 114
Implications for Management ............................................................................................................... 115
Limitations ........................................................................................................................................... 116
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 117
References .................................................................................................................................. 119
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................ 131
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................ 133
Appendix C ................................................................................................................................ 135 RECLAIMING RELEVANCE: EMBRACING COMPLEXITY IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE 7
Appendix D ................................................................................................................................ 137
List of Figures
Figure 2.1 Complexity Theory tenets found throughout community college research……...55
Figure 2.2 Complexity Theory tenets found throughout research in other industries…….…62
Figure 3.1 Model for a community college structure……………………………….….........70
Figure 3.2 Tinto‘s model for linking classrooms, learning and persistence…….…...…...…75
Figure 3.3 O‘Banion‘s Learning College principles as they relate to complexity theories....79
Figure 4.1 Steps for a systematic review…………………………………………………….91
Figure 4.2 Hierarchy of relevance for evaluating studies………………….……….………..96
Figure 4.3 Sources of evidence ……….………………………………....…………...……...97
Figure 4.4 Sources of evidence in higher education………………...……………………….98
Figure 4.5 Sources of evidence in Complexity Theory………………………….…………..99
Figure 4.6 Sources of evidence of Complexity Theory in Non-educational settings….….....99
Figure 5.1 Line of argument for restructuring of community colleges…………….…….…102
RECLAIMING RELEVANCE: EMBRACING COMPLEXITY IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE 8
Chapter One: Introduction and Overview of Relevant Literature
―With American students fully prepared for the future, communities will be best
positioned to compete successfully in the global economy.‖
(Center for Education Policy, 2012)
Community colleges were first created in the 1900‘s as an extension of high schools and a viable alternative to four-year institutions. Often called junior colleges, these open-access institutions of higher education offered the first two years of college curriculum and were seen as taking the ‗burden‘ off of the state university system (Vaughan, 2006). The student population in the community college was comprised primarily of 18-22 year old white male students seeking a low-cost, open-access option for their post-secondary education (Bragg, 2001a). Enrollment in these uniquely American institutions experienced a boom immediately following wartime (WWII, Korea, Vietnam) as soldiers returned home looking for educational and vocational opportunities (Kane & Rouse, 1999). After World War II, the government sought to delay the returning service men‘s entrance into the workforce, so a free college education was offered as a reward through the Serviceman‘s Readjustment Act, known to all as the GI Bill of Rights, or the GI Bill for short (Witt, Wattenbarger, Gollattwscheck & Suppiger, 1994). The Truman Commission Report in 1947 stated that 49% of all high school graduates could benefit from at least two years of post-secondary education. The GI Bill, in concert with the Truman Commission report, increased the enrollment in community colleges throughout the United States. The student population however, continued to be comprised primarily of traditional-aged white male students.
Enrollment patterns in community colleges began to change during the Vietnam Conflict era in the 1960‘s. Many members of the Baby Boomer generation realized that being part of the middle class necessitated a college education (Vaughan, 2006). In addition, the GI Bill RECLAIMING RELEVANCE: EMBRACING COMPLEXITY IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE 9
continued to offer returning service men, and now service women, the opportunity to attend college tuition free. However, the most significant change in community college enrollment patterns occurred as a result of the Civil Rights Movement. The 1960‘s era was the first time in the history of community college when the open access mission was tested due to the increasing number of minority students who began to seek access to higher education. The Civil Rights Movement gave new hope to race equality and the community college became the portal to higher education that the poor and minority population needed (Witt et al., 1994). The student population of community colleges became increasingly diverse. In 1963, President Lyndon Johnson signed the Higher Education Facilities Act, which increased the presence of community colleges within the higher education realm. The legislation promised the construction of 25-30 new community colleges each year for ten years, with a goal of doubling the number of enrollments at community colleges by 1973 and expanding access to federal loan programs for students (Johnson‘s remarks, 1963).
Along with this change in volume came a reevaluation of community college missions. During the 1960‘s, many community colleges refocused their mission to not only include the traditional goal of transfer preparation, but they also began to include increased vocational training, certificate programs, workforce development and non-credit lifelong learning credits while continuing to offer open access and low tuition (Kane & Rouse, 1999; Vaughan, 2006). With the President‘s urging, 1960‘s community colleges were asked to take on the new role by offering an expanded curriculum, and they accepted the challenge. Enrollments in community colleges have increased steadily since 1963, from less than 2 million students to a high of 7.5 million students in the 2010-2011 academic year (NCES, 2010). RECLAIMING RELEVANCE: EMBRACING COMPLEXITY IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE 10
A situation similar to the 1960‘s has arisen in the early 21st century. This time, it is not only the President who is asking for a refocused mission, but professional associations, college administrators, faculty and staff. In 2012, the American Association of Community Colleges published a report that criticized community colleges and implored all who would listen to make serious changes to the mission and structure of community college. The 21st Century Commission on the Future of Community Colleges strongly argued that unless community colleges begin to respond to their environment and meet the needs of the students, the institutions will become irrelevant (AACC Report, 2012). The report provided evidence that the pedagogical and curricular needs of students are not being met and that low completion rates and poor student learning outcomes are a result.
Completion of a higher education credential has recently become a topic on the national stage spearheaded by President Obama and the American Graduation Initiative. The goal of the American Graduation Initiative is for the United States to have the highest proportion of college graduates in the world, by 2020- a number one ranking, as opposed to the 16th world ranking that the United States currently holds (OECD, 2011). The impact for community colleges is that an additional 5 million community college graduates are expected by 2020 (American Graduation Initiative, 2009). Although $12 billion was requested on behalf of community colleges to help to achieve this goal, no funds were approved by Congress. This budget crisis leaves community colleges in a situation that requires educating more students with fewer resources. Funding for community colleges differs by state, but as an average, funding comes from county support (18%), state support (46%), federal and other support (16%) and student tuition and fees (20%) (ECS, 2000). The objective presented by President Johnson in 1963, to provide education for RECLAIMING RELEVANCE: EM
Developing a diverse pipeline for community college leadership
No full textCommunity college leaders are confronting multifarious challenges such as raising graduation rates, declining enrollments, increasing budget cuts, balancing workforce preparation and transfer programs, offering baccalaureate degrees, providing a safe campus environment, and increasing diversity concerns. These challenges and many more are steadily increasing and rapidly changing. In addition, the graying of community college leadership is on the rise. Many community college presidents, upper-level administrators, and experienced faculty who began their careers in the sixties, seventies, and eighties are nearing the end of their careers, leaving key leadership openings to be filled. Today, community college leaders are confronted with the task of preparing and recruiting qualified individuals to fill the positions being left vacant by the retirement of a generation of Baby Boomers. At the same time, the demographics of the community college student population are becoming more diverse and there is a lack of diverse candidates in the leadership pipeline. This dissertation is a critical interpretative synthesis of scholarly and grey literature that addresses preparing and recruiting diverse individuals in leadership positions in community colleges. This dissertation examines and analyzes the literature regarding leadership competencies the next generation of leaders will need to have to be effective leaders, identifies strategies community college leaders can employ to prepare the next generation of leaders, and recommends specific strategies on preparing minorities to assume and succeed in leadership positions. The findings provide guidance to institutions on strategies regarding the organizational culture, recruitment and hiring, and professional development as practices to prepare and recruit the next generation of leaders.DEVELOPING A DIVERSE PIPELINE
FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERSHIP i
Developing a Diverse Pipeline for Community College Leadership
Karen C. Wrighten
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the
University of Maryland University College
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Doctor of Management Degree
Advisory Committee:
Trudy Bers, Ph.D.
Gena Glickman, Ph.D.DEVELOPING A DIVERSE PIPELINE
FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERSHIP ii
Abstract
Community college leaders are confronting multifarious challenges such as raising graduation rates, declining enrollments, increasing budget cuts, balancing workforce preparation and transfer programs, offering baccalaureate degrees, providing a safe campus environment, and increasing diversity concerns. These challenges and many more are steadily increasing and rapidly changing. In addition, the graying of community college leadership is on the rise. Many community college presidents, upper-level administrators, and experienced faculty who began their careers in the sixties, seventies, and eighties are nearing the end of their careers, leaving key leadership openings to be filled. Today, community college leaders are confronted with the task of preparing and recruiting qualified individuals to fill the positions being left vacant by the retirement of a generation of Baby Boomers. At the same time, the demographics of the community college student population are becoming more diverse and there is a lack of diverse candidates in the leadership pipeline. This dissertation is a critical interpretative synthesis of scholarly and grey literature that addresses preparing and recruiting diverse individuals in leadership positions in community colleges. This dissertation examines and analyzes the literature regarding leadership competencies the next generation of leaders will need to have to be effective leaders, identifies strategies community college leaders can employ to prepare the next generation of leaders, and recommends specific strategies on preparing minorities to assume and succeed in leadership positions. The findings provide guidance to institutions on strategies regarding the organizational culture, recruitment and hiring, and professional development as practices to prepare and recruit the next generation of leaders.DEVELOPING A DIVERSE PIPELINE
FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERSHIP iii
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my outstanding and loving support system—my family. To my wonderful husband, William, thank you for your unconditional love and encouragement through this process. I especially appreciate you taking over my “Mommy Duties” as needed. To my daughters, Kailyn and Willow, thank you for being my greatest cheerleaders and inspiration. You all have made me stronger, better and more fulfilled than I could have ever imagined. Thank you to my Mom and the entire family for understanding, sharing words of wisdom, and motivating me to rise to the challenge. Thank you all for EVERYTHING. I love you all to the moon and back!
I started this journey with my best friend…my sissy… right by my side. She persevered and supported me like no other, until God said otherwise. I am a better person for the talks, lessons, laughter, and joy we shared. Her legacy of perseverance and strength lives on through me. This dissertation is dedicated in memory of my sister, Natalie Cooper. DEVELOPING A DIVERSE PIPELINE
FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERSHIP iv
Acknowledgements
I wish to acknowledge and thank all of the faculty and staff of the UMUC’s Doctor of Management in Community College Policy and Administration program for their support, guidance, and encouragement during this process. I am grateful for the amazing experience, many lessons, long hours, and expanded knowledge given to me. This experience has taught me to take on institutional challenges with vigor and new inspiration. A special thank you is extended to my primary advisor, Dr. Trudy Bers. I am truly grateful for your feedback, insight, knowledge, encouragement, patience, and more patience, especially when I could not see the light at the end of the tunnel. A special appreciation is also due to Dr. Gena Glickman and Dr. Pat Keir as my secondary advisors in the process. I appreciate all of the observations and assistance through the different components of this doctoral program.
I would also like to give special appreciation to Dr. Jim Tschechtelin. At one of the most difficult moments of my life, the support, compassion and encouragement given during the passing of my sister was truly appreciated. I am forever grateful for your kindness. A special thank you to the best cohort ever! Derek, Jennifer, Julia, Rachael, and Sara…we came together as a small cohort, emerged to the Sleepless Knights, and will leave as lifelong friends. DEVELOPING A DIVERSE PIPELINE
FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERSHIP v
Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
Background and Context 1
Leadership Pipeline 5
Who is in the Leadership Pipeline? 5
Generation X (GenXers) 7
Millennials 8
LGBTQ 10
Women Leaders 10
Minority Leaders 11
Leadership Pipeline Implications 13
Statement of the Problem 16
Major Causes of the Problem 16
Shortage of Qualified Candidates 16
Lack of Diversity in the Leadership Pipeline 17
Misunderstandings of Succession Planning 18
Significance of the Problem 19
Challenges Facing Community Colleges 20
Need for Diverse, Multigenerational Workforce 21
Benefits of Diversity 22
Purpose 23
Management Theories 23 Transformational Leadership Theory 23 Learning Organization Theory 26
Research Questions 29
Definitions 29
Chapter Summary 30
CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY 32DEVELOPING A DIVERSE PIPELINE
FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERSHIP vi
Methodology of Choice: Critical Interpretative Synthesis 32
The Methodology in Action 35
Literature Search 35
Filtering and Limiting Evidence 37
Criteria for Inclusion/Exclusion 39
Literature Evaluation 41
Literature Focus 41
Scholarly and Peer-Reviewed Literature 42
Grey Literature 45
Expert Panel Review 48
Chapter Summary 50
CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL MODEL 51
Challenges Facing Community Colleges 52
Accountability for Student Success and Completion 52
Operating in a Changing Landscape 55
Fiscal Constraints 55
Online Instruction 57
Competition 58
Baccalaureate Degrees 59
Developmental Education 60
Balancing Workforce Preparation and Transfer Programs 61
Filling Leadership Positions 63
Diversity Concerns 64
Safety and Security Issues 65
Multigenerational Workforces 66
Legal and Personnel Issues 68
Summary Observation on Challenges Facing Community Colleges 70
Leadership Competencies 71
Leadership from the Perspective of a Multigenerational Workforce 79
Literature—Research Question 1 80DEVELOPING A DIVERSE PIPELINE
FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERSHIP vii
Leadership Development Programs 80 National-Sponsored Leadership Development Programs 81 Grow Your Own (GYO) Programs 88 Doctoral Degree Programs 92 Succession Planning 100 Seeking Non-Traditional Candidates 109
Literature—Research Question 2 114 Background of Diversity in Community Colleges 114 Leadership Barriers 116 Barriers to Minority Faculty 117 Barriers to Minority Administrators 120 Barriers to Multigenerational Workforce 122 Barriers to LGBTQ Members 123 Strategies to Increase Minorities in the Leadership Pipeline 124
Increase Minority Faculty 124
Leadership Development Opportunities for Minorities 129
Other Broad Strategies to Increase Minority Candidates 130
Mentoring 132
The Search And Hiring Processes 137
Hiring Diverse Faculty 138
Preparing Board Members to Hiring Diverse Presidents/Chancellors 141
Developing Institutional Policies and Practices for Hiring Diverse Candidates 143
Creating an Institutional Culture that Welcomes Multigenerational Diversity 145
Conceptual Model 147
Chapter Summary 149
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS 150
Expert Panel Feedback 150
Findings—Research Question 1 154DEVELOPING A DIVERSE PIPELINE
FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERSHIP viii
Theme 1--Environment of Uncertainty and Complexity 155
Theme 2—Leaders Need a Broad Range of Competencies 158
Theme 3—New Strategies to Prepare, Recruit and Hire the Next Generation of Leaders 162
Findings--Research Question 2 166
Theme 4—Multiple Approaches to Prepare, Recruit, and Hire Minority Candidates 166
Leadership and Management Theories 167
Transformational Leadership Theory 167
The Learning Organization Theory 168
Unanticipated Findings 170
Limitations 172
Chapter Summary 173
CHAPTER FIVE: IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND FUTURE RESEARCH 174
Recommendations for Practitioners 174
Organizational Culture 174
Create an Inclusive Environment at the Institution 174
Identify a Key Position to Oversee Institutional Diversity and Inclusion Initiatives 175
Recruitment & Hiring 176
Establish Diverse Search and Hiring Committees 176
Use Various Platforms to Publicize Job Openings and Encourage Applications 177
Make The Job Offer and Benefits Attractive to Diverse Recruits 178
Professional Development 178
Create a Grow Your Own Program at the Institution 178
Implement an Emerging Leaders Academy for Employees Under the Age of 40 179
Provide Mentoring Opportunities with Diverse Employees 179
Implications for Scholars 180
Conclusion 181
References 183
DEVELOPING A DIVERSE PIPELINE
FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERSHIP ix
List of Tables
Table 1. Transitions of Community College Presidents 2
Table 2. Generational Cohorts Leadership Styles 14
Table 3. Key Search Terms 36
Table 4. Literature Search of Key Words Totals 38
Table 5. Key References (Scholarly and Peer-Reviewed) 43
Table 6. Key References (Grey Literature) 46
Table 7. Review of Expert Panel Feedback 152
Table 8. Challenges Facing Community Colleges with Sources 155
Table 9. Leadership Competencies 161DEVELOPING A DIVERSE PIPELINE
FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERSHIP x
List of Figures
Figure 1. Mahler’s Leadership Pipeline Model 6
Figure 2. States with Community College Baccalaureate Programs 59
Figure 3. Conceptual Model 148DEVELOPING A DIVERSE PIPELINE
FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERSHIP 1
Chapter One: Introduction
Background and Context
Community college leaders are confronting challenges of finding and recruiting qualified individuals to fill positions being left vacant by the retirement of a generation of Baby Boomers (people born between 1946 and 1964). Rice and O’Keefe (2014) reported, “Given the retirement of the baby boom generation in higher education, particularly in community colleges, a leadership void has developed” (p. 1). These vacancies are occurring at a time when the demands on community colleges have drastically increased. Community colleges serve over seven million students, approximately 41 percent of all students in higher education (American Association of Community Colleges, 2017). As national momentum to improve college student success builds, reform efforts increasingly center on community colleges (The Kresge Foundation, 2013). However, as community colleges are urged to improve graduation rates and better align their programs with labor market needs, the landscape within which they operate is becoming more complex and challenging. Such challenges include budget cuts, student diversity, developmental education, accreditation, regulation changes, online education growth, demands for student success outcomes and completion, authorization to award baccalaureate degrees, student debt, and accountability within community colleges. Given these challenges and the complex expectations on community college leaders, the development of new, talented individuals has become essential to organizational success (Bonner, 2014).
The graying of community college leadership has been on the rise and is well documented. Shults (2001) forecasted a leadership development crisis in community colleges as early as 2001. Many community college presidents, upper-level administrators, and experienced faculty who began their careers in the sixties, seventies, and eighties are nearing the end of their DEVELOPING A DIVERSE PIPELINE
FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERSHIP 2
careers, leaving key leadership openings to be filled (Ebbers, Conover, & Samuels, 2010). Results from the 2015 AACC CEO Survey indicated that CEOs will retire at a high rate of 80 percent within the next 10 years (Phillippe, 2016).
The American Association of Community Colleges’ (AACC) membership database tracked transitions in leadership positions, regardless if these transitions were due to employment changes, retirement, death or termination (Smith, 2016). The following Table 1 provides the number of presidential transitions in community colleges:
Table 1
Transition of Community College Presidents
Year
Number of Transitions
2011 - 2012
134
2012 - 2013
158
2013 - 2014
262
2014 – 2015
269
2015 – March 2016
203
Since 2011, according to Smith (2016), there have been over 1,026 transitions of community college presidents. Correspondingly, she asserted that 75 percent of other senior administrators plan to retire in the next 10 years as well.
However, research from a TIAA-CREF study indicated that due to the economic downturn in 2008, some college administrators and faculty have been delaying retirement for financial reasons (Flaherty, 2013; Milkint, 2011). Milkint (2011) noted that as Baby Boomers’ retirement window has increased, a corresponding decrease in the implementation of succession DEVELOPING A DIVERSE PIPELINE
FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERSHIP 3
planning strategies compromises an organization’s future. As a result of some Boomers extending their careers, Generation X (individuals born between 1965 and 1979) and Millennials (born between 1980 and 2000) are not being adequately prepared to advance in the workforce (Milkint, 2011). DeAcetis (2013) further argued that given the increasing numbers of employees choosing to work well into their later years and the increasing number of younger professionals entering the general workforce, organizations would need individuals with the talent and skills to manage across generations to keep operations running smoothly. Although generational gaps are nothing new in American culture; the differences have increased challenges in the workplace. Such challenges include managing the different preferences, needs and expectations of each group (Higginbottom 2016; DeAcetis, 2013).
The current context of community colleges is being shaped by internal and external factors. The performance depends in part on effective leadership (Yukl, 2012). According to Yukl (2012), institutional leaders articulate the mission and vision of the organization, collaborate with faculty and staff to develop strategies to achieve goals, motivate individuals to carry out the strategies, and use organizational resources to create courses and programs to meet the needs of the community. In recent years, community college leaders have been challenged by internal and external factors. Kirkland (2016) argued that such factors as budget cuts and enrollment declines “test the leadership of community college leaders, requiring them to possess unique skills and competencies to navigate this dynamic environment” (p. 4). Despite some Baby Boomers working later in years, the number of retirements in community colleges will still create a substantial leadership void. The focus of developing a competency framework for current and future community college leaders has taken on greater urgency to prepare individuals in the leadership pipeline (AACC, 2013).DEVELOPING A DIVERSE PIPELINE
FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERSHIP 4
In addition to the need for new talent with specific leadership competencies, community colleges are more likely than four-year institutions to have the highest concentration of students of color, low-income, and first-generation students. Thus, community colleges need to increase the number of minorities in the leadership pipeline within higher education. As the diversity of the community college student population increases, it is necessary to seek opportunities for more diverse individuals to be prepared for senior leadership positions. Diverse college administrators and faculty serve as mentors to the students and they are integral to the overall student experience, productivity, and the creation of inclusive campus environments (White, 2016).
Although there has been a slight increase of minorities in the leadership pipeline, it has not been sufficient to offset the number of vacancies as the student demographics are changing. According to the American Council on Education’s (ACE) latest national survey of college presidents, older white men with a doctorate degree dominate the leadership in higher education (ACE, 2017). Over the past twenty-five years, with few exceptions, the profile has not changed as it relates to all college and university presidents. Furthermore, the survey indicates, “racial and ethnic minorities, who represent 17 percent of college presidents, are slightly up from where they were in 2011, when 13 percent of college leaders were members of minority groups (ACE, 2017). More specifically of the community colleges and according to AACC, fall 2015 enrollment data showed that 52 percent of all community college students are minority/non-white students and 48 percent are white (AACC, DataPoints, 2016). Yet, whites constitute nearly 80 percent of the community college leadership (Stripling, 2012; Nealy, 2008).
As this aging workforce of senior leaders retire, are institutions adequately preparing the next generation of leaders to transition into these positions? Is there an effective organizational DEVELOPING A DIVERSE PIPELINE
FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERSHIP 5
plan to recruit and train replacements to handle the challenges and uncertainty of community colleges? Will a diverse, cross-generational pool of candidates, such as Millennials, minorities and women, be developed for the community college leadership pipeline?
Leadership Pipeline
Who is in the Leadership Pipeline?
Effective leaders are needed at all levels for organizations to be successful. Kirkland (2016) indicated that Jay Conger, Business Professor at Claremont McKenna College and Robert Fulmer, Professor Emeritus at the College of William & Mary, were strong advocates of the idea of creating a leadership pipeline in organizations to develop leaders to assume future leadership roles. Walter Mahler, a human resource consultant and teacher at General Electric during the early 1970s, developed the leadership pipeline model. Mahler asserted that organizations should develop leadership requirements at each level of the organization and should define the various skills and competencies needed for leaders to move from one level to the next (Kirkland, 2016).
Mahler developed the leadership pipeline model with six passages of the major events in the life of a leader as outlined on Figure 1. Understanding what is expected at each passage and the challenges involved at each transition will help build a leadership pipeline. In an effort to prepare for the future, community colleges would also need to build, develop and maintain a pipeline of skilled, prepared leaders from within the institution.DEVELOPING A DIVERSE PIPELINE
FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERSHIP 6
Figure 1
Mahler’s Leadership Pipeline Model
Mahler’s model was designed for the corporate sector. It is presented for this study as an illustrative example and would need to be adapted for a community college, which may not have six levels in its organizational hierarchy.
The issue before community colleges is there are not enough well-prepared and diverse individuals in the pipeline for senior leadership positions. Given the challenges and the vast number of transitions in community colleges, the leadership void is concerning for institutions. McLaughlin (2015) concluded, “as the higher education workforce ages, there is a real need to figure out who the next generation of leaders are going to be” (p. 1). As the leadership demographic shifts, the fol
The influence of individual trust on knowledge sharing in distributed work environments: A systematic review using realist synthesis
No full textKnowledge plays a significant role in providing organizations an advantage in a competitive economy. For knowledge to become useful it must be shared. Constraints to knowledge sharing include barriers that impact individual trust. This study focused on the identification of factors that influence individual trust development in support of knowledge sharing in organizations. Following an evidence-based management approach, the study used a systematic review with realist synthesis and a theoretical lens that incorporated social exchange theory and media richness theory. Study findings confirmed individual trust is positively related to knowledge sharing and identified factors that contribute to individual trust development in support of knowledge sharing. The individual actions of communication, relationship building, and providing assistance, along with the individual attributes of competency and dependability, were positively related to individual trust development. By supporting interpersonal exchanges and information sharing, information communication technology competency was found to be positively related to individual trust development. The study findings indicate actions can be taken to encourage the development of individual trust in support of knowledge sharing in organizations. To assist practitioner development of a knowledge sharing environment in organizations, a framework is presented based on knowledge sharing actions, attributes, and tools identified in the findings.Running head: INDIVIDUAL TRUST AND KNOWLEDGE SHARING 1
The Influence of Individual Trust on Knowledge Sharing in Distributed
Work Environments: A Systematic Review Using Realist Synthesis
Mark A. Metzger
Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Management
2017
Advisory Committee:
Deborah M. Wharff, D.M.
Denise A. Breckon, D.M.
INDIVIDUAL TRUST AND KNOWLEDGE SHARING 2
Abstract
Knowledge plays a significant role in providing organizations an advantage in a competitive
economy. For knowledge to become useful it must be shared. Constraints to knowledge sharing
include barriers that impact individual trust. This study focused on the identification of factors
that influence individual trust development in support of knowledge sharing in organizations.
Following an evidence-based management approach, the study used a systematic review with
realist synthesis and a theoretical lens that incorporated social exchange theory and media
richness theory. Study findings confirmed individual trust is positively related to knowledge
sharing and identified factors that contribute to individual trust development in support of
knowledge sharing. The individual actions of communication, relationship building, and
providing assistance, along with the individual attributes of competency and dependability, were
positively related to individual trust development. By supporting interpersonal exchanges and
information sharing, information communication technology competency was found to be
positively related to individual trust development. The study findings indicate actions can be
taken to encourage the development of individual trust in support of knowledge sharing in
organizations. To assist practitioner development of a knowledge sharing environment in
organizations, a framework is presented based on knowledge sharing actions, attributes, and
tools identified in the findings.
Keywords: affective trust, cognitive trust, evidence-based management, individual trust,
information communication technology, interpersonal trust, knowledge, knowledge sharing,
media richness theory, realist synthesis, social exchange theory, trust
INDIVIDUAL TRUST AND KNOWLEDGE SHARING 3
Acknowledgements
Over the past six years, I have learned the dissertation journey is the juxtaposition of two
seemingly opposite concepts. On one hand, the journey is a solitary pursuit with many long
hours spent alone, while on the hand, the journey can only be accomplished with the guidance
and support of many individuals. I would, therefore, like to acknowledge those individuals that
helped me along the way because without them this page would not have been written.
I would like the thank Dr. Claire McInerney, Ms. Cindy Hubert, and Mr. Hal Shelton for
agreeing to be subject matter experts for the study. Their feedback, insights, and perspectives
into trust and knowledge sharing made the dissertation better.
During this journey, I was a member of six different cohorts. I can say, without
exception, that the support and encouragement from the members of each cohort was exemplary.
This journey would not have been the same without the encouragement, academic
enlightenment, and humor each cohort provided in their own unique way.
My eternal gratitude and deepest thanks go to my dissertation advisors, Dr. Deborah
Wharff and Dr. Denise Breckon, for their unending support. During the winding path of this
journey, they provided encouragement when needed and a push when required. It was certainly
my fortunate opportunity to have them guide my way.
Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Donna, for her understanding, patience,
inspiration, and support. She endured many hours alone while I labored on the dissertation.
Thank-you for believing in me. I love you.
INDIVIDUAL TRUST AND KNOWLEDGE SHARING 4
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my grandmother, Pearl Louise Mink. In her 100 years of
life, she taught me two things. First, true riches are not measured in material wealth and, second,
you are never too old to do anything you set your mind to.
INDIVIDUAL TRUST AND KNOWLEDGE SHARING 5
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 3
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... 4
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. 8
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ 9
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................. 10
Background ............................................................................................................................... 14
Problem Statement .................................................................................................................... 16
Purpose of Study ....................................................................................................................... 17
Significance ............................................................................................................................... 17
Research Question ..................................................................................................................... 18
Discussion of Concepts and Relevant Literature ...................................................................... 19
Scope and Limitations ............................................................................................................... 24
Summary and Organization of Dissertation .............................................................................. 24
Chapter 2: Research Framework ................................................................................................... 26
Discussion of Theoretical Framework ...................................................................................... 27
Social exchange theory. ......................................................................................................... 27
Media richness theory. ........................................................................................................... 30
Scoping Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 31
Individual trust is positively related to knowledge sharing. .................................................. 32
Affective communication is positively related to affective trust. .......................................... 41
Perceived competence is positively related to cognitive trust. .............................................. 43
Communication technology competency is positively related to individual trust. ................ 44
Interpretative Conceptual Model ............................................................................................... 47
Summary .................................................................................................................................. 50
Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 52
Research Design ........................................................................................................................ 53
Evidence-based management. ................................................................................................ 53
Systematic reviews. ............................................................................................................... 54
Realist synthesis. .................................................................................................................... 56
Systematic Review Process ....................................................................................................... 59
INDIVIDUAL TRUST AND KNOWLEDGE SHARING 6
Review initiation. ................................................................................................................... 60
Review and methodology. ..................................................................................................... 61
Search strategy. ...................................................................................................................... 62
Study characteristics. ............................................................................................................. 64
Quality and relevance assessment. ........................................................................................ 66
Considerations of the subject matter expert panel. ................................................................ 73
Summary .................................................................................................................................. 74
Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ................................................................................................. 75
Summary of Study Problem and Purpose ................................................................................. 75
Organization of Analysis and Findings ..................................................................................... 76
Analysis and Findings ............................................................................................................... 77
Finding 1 - Individual trust is positively related to KS. ........................................................ 79
Finding 1 - Sub-finding 1: Affective trust is positively related to KS. .................................. 83
Finding 1 - Sub-finding 2: Cognitive trust is positively related to KS. ................................. 86
Finding 1 - Sub-finding 3: Interpersonal trust is positively related to KS. ............................ 87
Finding 2 - Affective communication is positively related to individual trust. .................... 89
Finding 2 - Sub-finding 1: Affective communication is positively related to affective trust. 90
Finding 2 - Sub-finding 2: Affective communication is positively related to interpersonal
trust ....................................................................................................................................... 92
Finding 3 - Perceived competence is positively related to individual trust. .......................... 93
Finding 3 - Sub-finding 1: Perceived competence is positively related to cognitive trust. ... 94
Finding 3 - Sub-finding 2: Perceived competence is positively related to interpersonal trust.
.............................................................................................................................................. 95
Finding 4 - ICT competency is positively related to individual trust. ................................... 96
Re-interpreted Conceptual Model ............................................................................................. 98
Study concepts and sub-concepts. ......................................................................................... 99
Limitations .............................................................................................................................. 101
Alternative Perspectives .......................................................................................................... 103
Summary ................................................................................................................................ 104
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ................................................................................... 106
Implications and Recommendations for Management Practitioners ....................................... 107
Knowledge sharing actions, attributes, and ICT tools framework. ..................................... 109
Implications and Recommendations for Management Scholars ............................................. 114
INDIVIDUAL TRUST AND KNOWLEDGE SHARING 7
Implications for Future Research ............................................................................................ 114
Study Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 115
References .................................................................................................................................. 117
Appendix A. Search Strategy ...................................................................................................... 141
Appendix B. Databases Utilized ................................................................................................. 143
Appendix C. PRISMA Diagram ................................................................................................. 144
Appendix D. Intervention, Mechanism, and Outcome Stage and Concept Alignment ............. 145
Appendix E. Data Capture Matrix Data Elements ...................................................................... 152
Appendix F. Quality Assessment Summary Matrix ................................................................... 153
Appendix G. Descriptive Statistics for Articles Included in Synthesis ...................................... 156
Appendix H. Subject Matter Expert Panel Members .................................................................. 158
Appendix I. Subject Matter Expert Evaluation and Feedback Form .......................................... 159
Appendix J. Subject Matter Expert Input ................................................................................... 161
INDIVIDUAL TRUST AND KNOWLEDGE SHARING 8
List of Tables
Table 1. Inclusion Criteria ............................................................................................................ 63
Table 2. Retrieved Data Supporting Creation of the Sub-Concept Relationship Building .......... 66
Table 3. Qualitative Appraisal Tool Questions ............................................................................. 67
Table 4. Quantitative Appraisal Tool Questions ........................................................................... 68
Table 5. Quality Assessment Summary ........................................................................................ 69
Table 6. Study Concepts and Associated Sub-Concepts .............................................................. 79
Table A1. Keywords ................................................................................................................... 141
Table A2. Search Strings ............................................................................................................ 142
Table F1. Qualitative Appraisal Tool ......................................................................................... 153
Table F2. Quantitative Appraisal Tool ....................................................................................... 154
Table J1. Subject Matter Expert Input ........................................................................................ 161
Table J2. Action Taken on Subject Matter Experts’ Input ......................................................... 162
INDIVIDUAL TRUST AND KNOWLEDGE SHARING 9
List of Figures
Figure 1. Basic communication process. ...................................................................................... 21
Figure 2. SECI model describing the process of knowledge conversion. .................................... 35
Figure 3. Conceptual model: the relationship between individual trust and knowledge sharing. 48
Figure 4. Generative explanation in realist program theory. ........................................................ 58
Figure 5. Systematic review process steps. ................................................................................... 60
Figure 6. Selected research articles, by geographic distribution. ................................................. 70
Figure 7. Selected research articles, by industry type. .................................................................. 71
Figure 8. Selected research articles, by publication year. ............................................................. 72
Figure 9. Selected research articles, by research methodology. ................................................... 72
Figure 10. Selected research articles, by research design methodology. ...................................... 73
Figure 11. Study propositions, findings, and sub-findings crosswalk. ......................................... 78
Figure 12. Re-interpreted conceptual model. ................................................................................ 99
Figure 13. Knowledge sharing actions, attributes, and ICT tools framework. ........................... 108
INDIVIDUAL TRUST AND KNOWLEDGE SHARING 10
Chapter 1: Introduction
The ability to share knowledge plays a significant role in providing organizations an
advantage in a competitive economy. To thrive in uncertain environments, organizations are
under constant pressure to leverage knowledge, expanding the traditional focus of resources to
include the aptitude to manage and share knowledge (Iyengar, Sweeney, & Montealegre, 2015,
p. 616). As a source of both innovation and invention, knowledge has been viewed as more
valuable than capital, land, and labor (Arazy & Gellatly, 2012, p. 88; Bell, 1999, p. xviii; Hyun,
Mukhopadhyay, & Kraut, 2016, p. 134; Wang & Noe, 2010, p. 115). To become a source of
competitive advantage, knowledge must be shared (Chowdhury, 2005, p. 310).
Knowledge sharing (KS) is a way for organizations to leverage the diverse talents of their
employees to create value and to distinguish themselves from their competition (Haas, Criscuolo,
& George, 2015, p. 704). Employee knowledge, skills, and expertise are part of an
organization’s competitive advantage and, therefore, KS between employees across the
organization is critical to innovation, continuous improvement, and profitable operations
(Chowdhury, 2005, p. 310; Hanan & Stemke, 2014, p. 24). Through KS, individuals can
capitalize and exploit mission-critical information by creating opportunities to maximize
efficiency and productivity for the organization’s benefit (Chow, 2012, p. 34; Wang & Noe,
2010, p. 115).
Although KS is considered necessary for organization success, a 2015 global survey of
2,162 technical professionals in the industrial sector revealed that only 43% of the survey
respondents indicated their companies have formal practices in place dedicated to retaining and
sharing information (IHS, 2015, p. 4). Additionally, estimates are that 80% of problems in
organizations are related to handling repeat issues, suggesting that KS is not occurring (Carey,
INDIVIDUAL TRUST AND KNOWLEDGE SHARING 11
2015). Recreating the wheel, repeating the same mistakes, and spending time searching for
information results in productivity and opportunity costs (Myers, 2015, p. 2). Estimates are that
Fortune 500 companies lose at least $31.5 billion a year by failing to share knowledge
adequately (Leonard, 2014, p. 2).
In a knowledge economy, the demand for knowledge workers is high and efforts to retain
talented and knowledgeable people can be challenging. Organizations can be significantly
disadvantaged and even crippled by the loss of a skilled worker’s knowledge (Leonard, 2014, p.
2). For example, there are 10,000 baby boomers reaching retirement age every day and, on
average, they have 35 years of experience (Hanan & Stemke, 2014, p. 24). While expert
knowledge may be out-dated by the time some retirees leave the organization, their skills, know-how,
and capabilities about critical operations are not (Leonard, 2014, p. 2). It is in the interest
of organizations to keep the knowledge possessed by these individuals (Chow, 2012, p. 34).
Barriers that constrai
A systematic review of the factors influencing an effective university partnership with external entities for regional and local economic development
No full textBackground: Current literature suggests that solutions to complex socioeconomic problems require cross-sector collaborations. The public now expects higher education institutions (HEIs) to explicitly advance regional and local economic development through collaborative engagement with external stakeholders. This expectation is in addition to fulfilling traditional roles regarding education and research. There is a lack of cumulative understanding of factors that significantly influence the effectiveness of external university partnerships.
Methods: This study was an investigation of factors that influence the effectiveness of university partnerships using a systematic review methodology with a dataset of 51 sources in a thematic synthesis. The purpose was to identify the most prominent influences on HEI partnership effectiveness. The criteria for inclusion in this research required that all university partners be comprehensive, research institutions. The study was limited to market-economy nations that are members of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development.
Results: Findings from the systematic review suggested that university partnership effectiveness depends on approximately 25 barriers and enablers, which fall into three themes that impact economic development: (a) factors internal to the university; (b) factors external to the university; and (c) factors affecting direct interactions among collaborators.
Implications: Implications for research and practice include gaining faculty commitment for external engagement, building a strong innovation infrastructure, bridging differences in perspectives, and establishing spoken and unspoken agendas of each actor in the partnership. Universities should embrace various roles for their survival and the success of external collaborations that support economic development.A Systematic Review of the Factors Influencing an Effective University Partnership with External Entities for Regional and Local Economic Development
by
Karen D. Matthews
December 2018
Presented to the
University of Maryland University College
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Management
Approved by: ________________________________________
John J. Sherlock, Ed.D, DM Dissertation Advisor
Approved by: ________________________________________
Kuan H. Collins, DM, Committee Memberii
Abstract
Background: Current literature suggests that solutions to complex socioeconomic problems require cross-sector collaborations. The public now expects higher education institutions (HEIs) to explicitly advance regional and local economic development through collaborative engagement with external stakeholders. This expectation is in addition to fulfilling traditional roles regarding education and research. There is a lack of cumulative understanding of factors that significantly influence the effectiveness of external university partnerships.
Methods: This study was an investigation of factors that influence the effectiveness of university partnerships using a systematic review methodology with a dataset of 51 sources in a thematic synthesis. The purpose was to identify the most prominent influences on HEI partnership effectiveness. The criteria for inclusion in this research required that all university partners be comprehensive, research institutions. The study was limited to market-economy nations that are members of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development.
Results: Findings from the systematic review suggested that university partnership effectiveness depends on approximately 25 barriers and enablers, which fall into three themes that impact economic development: (a) factors internal to the university; (b) factors external to the university; and (c) factors affecting direct interactions among collaborators.
Implications: Implications for research and practice include gaining faculty commitment for external engagement, building a strong innovation infrastructure, bridging differences in perspectives, and establishing spoken and unspoken agendas of each actor in the partnership. Universities should embrace various roles and deliberate change strategies for their survival and the success of external collaborations that support economic development. iii
Keywords: systematic review, economic development, higher education, community engagement, cross-sector collaborations, public-private partnerships, triple helix. iv
Acknowledgments
I want to acknowledge the tremendous support and understanding of several individuals that walked and talked with me through this doctoral experience and the writing of my dissertation. I am afraid that I will overlook the many individuals, particularly among my work colleagues, who provided me with kind words and understanding when they encountered me at various stages of my graduate school journey. I want to acknowledge Adrianne and Bill, whom I encountered most frequently with updates on my research and spoke of the challenges I still faced. I am equally grateful to Dr. Stephen Deck and Dr. Susan Buskirk, graduates of the DM program, for their words of encouragement and offerings of support throughout this process. Then, of course, there are my colleagues too many to name, who provided me with feedback and intellectual stimulation to value my topic as worthwhile for probing.
I next want to acknowledge my dissertation advisor, Dr. John J. Sherlock, for his guidance and weekly discussions that certainly improved my dissertation writing but also for challenging me to speak my voice with confidence. His counseling, feedback, and professionalism provided invaluable insight into this project, improving the final product. To my cohort, you all were exceptional examples of professional camaraderie and unending support. I am proud that I completed this journey with all of you. I also send my warmest and sincerest thanks to Dr. Jay Perman MD, President, the University of Maryland, Baltimore, for exemplifying the leadership and spirit necessary to move our institution toward prioritizing external engagement and setting an example for other universities to follow; he also served as my inspiration to pursue this line of research. To Dr. Roger J. Ward EdD, JD, MSL, MPA, Senior Vice President for Operations and Institutional Effectiveness, and Vice Dean of the v
Graduate School, University of Maryland, Baltimore, thank you for continuing to exemplify for me the value of education regardless of age or situation and for the counsel you provided me.
To my family, my dad, brother, and extended family, who strengthened me in so many different ways when I most needed it but with loving insistence and care. I thank my mom, Loretta, who was not in the physical form to see me accomplish this goal, but her spirit lived in me throughout this journey. My mother would have been proud of me in the self-effacing way that she expressed her joy. To my companion, Michael, and sister from another mother, Claydee, who were regrettably on the receiving end of many postponed and canceled engagements; they showered me with constant words of encouragement and support. To Marilyn, she provided me with motivation and not always a gentle insistence on getting it done! In the end, it was just what I needed to push me over the finishing line.vi
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
Background ................................................................................................................................ 1
Problem Statement ...................................................................................................................... 4
Purpose and Scope of Study...................................................................................................... 13
Significance to Management..................................................................................................... 14
Research Question..................................................................................................................... 15
Definitions and Terminology .................................................................................................... 15
Chapter Summary...................................................................................................................... 16
Organization of Dissertation ..................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 2: Literature Review........................................................................................................ 18
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 19
Literature Review...................................................................................................................... 24
Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................. 43
Chapter Summary...................................................................................................................... 44
Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 46
SR for Management .................................................................................................................. 46
Search Strategy......................................................................................................................... 49
Quality Appraisal of Literature ................................................................................................. 52
Synthesis Methodology............................................................................................................. 54
Chapter 4: Findings....................................................................................................................... 57
Review of the Evidence............................................................................................................. 57
Description of Themes .............................................................................................................. 58
Modified Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................. 95
Chapter Summary...................................................................................................................... 96
Chapter 5: Implications and Conclusion....................................................................................... 98
Implications for Practitioners .................................................................................................. 100
Limitations of Research .......................................................................................................... 106
Future Research Areas ............................................................................................................ 107 vii
Summary ................................................................................................................................ 108
References.................................................................................................................................. 109
Appendix A. Subject Matter Experts Contributing to this Research.......................................... 133
Appendix B. PRISMA Diagram of Research Process ................................................................ 136
Appendix C. Quality Appraisal Using Weight of Evidence and TAPUPAS Framework .......... 137
Appendix D. SR Codes and Definitions ..................................................................................... 143 viii
List of Tables
Table 1. Motivation for Collaboration in Cross-Sector Partnerships ........................................... 25
Table 2. University’s Internal Influence on External Partnership Effectiveness.......................... 70
Table 3. External Factors Influencing University Partnership Effectiveness ............................... 83
Table 4. Dynamics and Relationship Issues ................................................................................. 94 ix
List of Figures
Figure 1. The continuum of organizational engagement reflecting its social responsibility........ 22
Figure 2. Lewin’s three-stage change model ................................................................................ 29
Figure 3. Austin’s collaboration continuum ................................................................................. 39
Figure 4. The triple helix model of relationships.......................................................................... 40
Figure 5. Factors influencing an effective university partnership for regional and local economic development................................................................................................................................. 44
Figure 6. Seven common stages in a systematic review............................................................... 47
Figure 7. Quality ranking tool utilizing WoE and TAPUPAS frameworks. ................................ 54
Figure 8. The process of influencing an effective university partnership with external entities. . 96 1
Chapter 1. Introduction
The role of universities in the 21st century is changing. Higher education institutions (HEIs) have responsibilities beyond creating and transferring knowledge and conducting research that results in innovation; they must also engage directly and purposely with a range of stakeholders in the external environment to increase the economic validity of the region and nation wherein it resides. Universities use human capital, knowledge transfer, and economic resources to address the causes of “social and economic inequalities” to make society healthy and wealthy (Mulroy, 2008, p. 505). This expectation includes addressing persistent, endemic, and complex societal issues that are specific to the university’s respective communities and constituencies while findings new ways to create, promote, and increase such economic viability of the region and nation wherein it resides.
Background
The evolution of the contemporary American university since 1900 included a shift from an instruction focus to one of innovation and discovery. “What has made [U.S.] universities the greatest in the world is not the quality of our undergraduate education but the production of new knowledge through the discoveries that change lives and the world” (Cole, 2011, p. 27). The U.S. system built upon the German model of higher education’s focus on research and the British model’s emphasis on undergraduate instruction. Following World War II, the U.S. federal government began to invest heavily in science and technology policy to invigorate the economy, compete globally, and safeguard the nation’s long-term economic survival in areas that were most vulnerable (Rossiter, 1985). This action led to the development of modern research universities, essential constituents of economic advancement. The core values that U.S. universities embrace and the government endorses set them apart from the higher education 2
sector in many other nations. These core values include advancing democratic values, “the free and open communication of ideas…free inquiry and academic freedom” without government intervention (Cole, 2011). The university’s core values guide researchers as they generate new scientific knowledge and establish the foundation for what distinguishes great universities from those that do not hold this distinction (Cole, 2011). Accordingly, many universities appended their prime mission of teaching to include a second mission, that of research and discovery, and the science and technology that ensues.
Technology and scientific advances can contribute to major disruptions in society by way of impacting social, economic, or environmental inequities that national governments cannot solve independently. For example, economic inequities may occur, for instance, when a HEI’s research contributes to the development of the self-driving car. The HEI, ultimately, could be party to the aforementioned major disruptions in society, triggering governmental responses such as more public planning for less vehicle congestion and more vehicle or traffic regulation (Litman, 2017). Moreover, this same HEI supported technology could lead to higher unemployment, i.e., the need for less Uber drivers, chauffeurs, taxi cabs, car services, etc. (Litman, 2017). A disruption in the automobile industry like with the introduction of self-driving vehicles can place a greater need for workforce development and training to provide skills to those individuals who relied on driving as a major source of their income generation. Also, the rise in the unemployment rolls can burden the regional and local economies that now must direct resources to address the needs of the unemployed. This example reflects why a prudent HEI would consider the nature and course of its research objectives and how its presence in the research industry can come with the burden of effecting societal well-being. 3
In the United States and other developed nations, the social responsibility literature indicates that governments often offload the provision of public goods and services to other sectors or share in the obligation to improve emergent and entrenched socioeconomic problems (Besley & Ghatak, 2001; Drucker, 1984; Moon, 2004). At the subnational levels, that is “region, [state], city and neighborhood [local],” there is demand for governmental intervention (Selsky & Parker, 2005, p. 850). As an example, many regions responded to the public’s demand to repair aging infrastructure, update transportation systems, and address housing, education, healthcare access, and employment issues (Mulroy, 2008; Trencher, Yarime, McCormick, Doll, & Kraines, 2014). As a response, the government entreated HEIs and other public and private institutions to participate in developing solutions to deep-rooted socioeconomic problems, to reduce negative impacts of technical progress and to demonstrate greater social responsibility in addressing economic viability for all (Jongbloed, Enders, & Salerno, 2008). As such, HEIs have now taken on the commission of tackling problems of economic development (Chatterton & Goddard, 2000).
HEIs are playing a significant role in bolstering innovation, and fostering entrepreneurship, as alluded by Schumpeter (1947) who envisioned expanding the capacity of all individuals to increase productivity and contribute to economic growth. “Economic development is about positioning [an] economy on a higher [long-term] growth trajectory” (Feldman, Hadjimichael, Kemeny, & Lanahan, 2014, p. 2). Indicators of a pursuit of such economic health trajectories include amongst other things, literacy rates, birth outcomes, employment statistics, and new business start-ups (EDAC.ACDE, 2011). Innovation (i.e., actualizing knowledge for commercialization purposes) is fundamental to economic growth and requires the work of several actors in a “transaction space” (Leydesdorff & Etzkowitz, 2001, p. 2). 4
Universities, though often uncredited, contributed to society’s well-being through the discovery and the exchange of knowledge that informs innovation and business development (Bok, 2009). In this context, universities must apply knowledge creation abilities and other competencies to enhance or mitigate systemic issues that contribute to a society’s economic decline or prosperity. Universities are pursuing relevant economic growth while improving their competitiveness.
Problem Statement
Universities’ leadership feel pressure to recognize and address deep-rooted, socioeconomic problems that may stem from their involvement in technology and innovation as it impacts regional and local sectors. For example, when participating in the development of the self-driving car, the HEI could partner with local sectors to initiate training programs for the care and maintenance of self-driving vehicles, thus affecting the societal issue of unemployment. One must explore what variables influence the effectiveness of such partnerships. Enhancing local and regional economic development is clearly a challenge that the HEI can undertake. Issues of homelessness, wage inequalities, lack of healthcare access and quality, and the increasing digital divide that impacts poorer households are just an additional sampling of the challenges that can be addressed through the joint efforts of universities and other sectors to find sustainable solutions.
As knowledge creators and disseminators, universities add significant value to society (Boucher, Conway, & Van Der Meer, 2003). Past researchers asserted that no one sector in isolation could solve complex problems (Austin & Seitanidi, 2012). What is necessary is a multidisciplinary, multi-sector approach to problem identification, solution development, and strategy execution (Austin, 2000). There is a lack of comprehensive evidence regarding factors 5
that impact such multi-disciplinary, multi-sector partnership effectiveness upon regional economic development (RED), defined below, and l
Knowledge management in higher education online learning environments
No full textThrough an exploratory systematic review of empirical scholarly literature from 2014 to 2018, this dissertation investigated how knowledge management has been applied to higher education online learning environments. A preliminary literature review found that higher education leadership and institutional context, organizational structure, organizational culture, and technology were environmental factors that can inhibit or enable the application of knowledge management within the online learning environment. With increasing enrollment in open and accessible higher education online learning opportunities, educational managers need to accurately interpret complex knowledge from multiple geographic locations and transfer knowledge in a social format that is effective and conducive for learning. With the increasing rate of technological advancement, educational managers are using knowledge management theory to advance knowledge acquisition, knowledge creation, knowledge sharing and knowledge transfer in online learning environments. Written for higher education management, this dissertation’s findings inform on current knowledge management application and technology transfer employed in online learning environments. From a global perspective, knowledge management application and the technologies that support this practice were found to be a strategic asset and when applied, were found to improve the quality of learning designs, engagement in learning, learning performance, and innovations in teaching and learning.Running head: KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION i
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION
ONLINE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
By
Kimberly Miller
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctorate of Management
2018
Dissertation Advisors:
James Gelatt, Ph.D. (Primary)
Deborah Wharff, D.M. (Secondary)
Wanda Wagner, D.M.KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION ii
ABSTRACT
Through an exploratory systematic review of empirical scholarly literature from 2014 to 2018, this dissertation investigated how knowledge management has been applied to higher education online learning environments. A preliminary literature review found that higher education leadership and institutional context, organizational structure, organizational culture, and technology were environmental factors that can inhibit or enable the application of knowledge management within the online learning environment. With increasing enrollment in open and accessible higher education online learning opportunities, educational managers need to accurately interpret complex knowledge from multiple geographic locations and transfer knowledge in a social format that is effective and conducive for learning. With the increasing rate of technological advancement, educational managers are using knowledge management theory to advance knowledge acquisition, knowledge creation, knowledge sharing and knowledge transfer in online learning environments. Written for higher education management, this dissertation’s findings inform on current knowledge management application and technology transfer employed in online learning environments. From a global perspective, knowledge management application and the technologies that support this practice were found to be a strategic asset and when applied, were found to improve the quality of learning designs, engagement in learning, learning performance, and innovations in teaching and learning.
Keywords: higher education, knowledge, knowledge management, organizational learning, online learning environmentsKNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION iii
Acknowledgments
This doctoral journey would not be possible without my faith and the encouragement, collective efforts, and support of my faculty, colleagues, family, and friends, who continually remind me that we are strong together. I am humbled, through Jesus Christ, that I was provided this opportunity to learn, to be challenged, and to open my mind to new knowledge. Throughout this journey, I have been challenged to seek to understand where knowledge originates and how the human heart interprets it. With so many different perspectives, we can always learn from each other. I am blessed to be surrounded by people that strive for excellence and strive to keep their minds open to new knowledge.
I would like to thank and acknowledge Dr. James Gelatt, Dr. Deborah Wharff, and Dr. Wanda Wagner for imparting their knowledge, expertise, and wisdom. I want to thank Dr. Gelatt, my primary advisor, for his scholarship and commitment to excellence. Your thoughtful questions challenged me to dig deeper into my research, enhancing my scholarship. I have learned so much from your breath of knowledge and expertise, and I am forever grateful that I had an opportunity to be mentored by you. You are a treasure. As a secondary reader and advisor, I sincerely appreciate and thank Dr. Wharff for challenging me to make my writing better, and for providing detailed feedback. Dr. Wharff, thank you for your commitment to excellence, and for your expertise, and guidance. I was also fortunate to have Dr. Wagner for four courses, and I will never forget our conversations on management theory or the books you have lent to me and shared. Thank you, Dr. Wagner, for growing my passion in teaching and learning. I extremely blessed for the excellence and expertise exhibited by these educators and I am so very fortunate for their sense of service and commitment to impart and share their knowledge.KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION iv
I would also like to acknowledge UMUC’s doctoral program’s faculty, administrators, and staff. I want to acknowledge and thank Dr. Kathryn Klose, Dr. Bryan Booth, and Dr. Leslie Dinauer for their leadership and Marina Caminis and Monica Graham for their excellent support. I am sincerely grateful for the recommendations of Dr. Dinauer and Dr. Gelatt for which I was able to participate the Engaged Scholarly Management Conference & Doctoral Consortium and present my research. It was an amazing experience. I also so grateful to have learned so much through my faculty and I would like to acknowledge and thank Dr. Bryan Booth, Dr. Thomas Mierzwa, Dr. Sharon Hadary, Dr. Cynthia Thomas, Dr. Laura Witz, Dr. John Sherlock, Dr. Chris Cason, Dr. Richard Milter, and Dr. Wanda Wagner. It was the collective expertise and support of this program that provided an excellent learning experience.
I want to also thank and acknowledge my cohort for whom I had the privilege of getting to know over last three years and from whom I have learned so much. At times, not wanting lose my cohort kept me going when life seemed so overwhelming. I was so fortunate to make my first connection with Deanna Codling as we attended our very first SOARS together and Leonard Brown, who offered much support as we navigated our courses. I appreciated our DMGT group calls as we worked on our dissertations. Thank you, Deanna and Leonard. Residencies and class discussions unleashed the exceptional experience and talent of my classmates. Thank you to Sir Randy Fisher, Bonnie Berdej, Pam Boyle, Karen Carmack, Maxville Frost, Jeffrey Victor, Matthew Hisrich, Janice Hamby, Hajra Kirmani, and Darrell Williams.
Professionally, I am fortunate to have so many people of excellence surround me in my career. It was through the urging and recommendation of Dr. Barbara Viniar, Dr. Dawit Teklu, and Dr. Kathy Warner that I began this journey. I have been fortunate to work with supervisors that recommend and strive to be builders of people. Thank you for your support. I also want to KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION v
acknowledge Gayle Fink, Dr. Natasha Jankowski, Dr. Lisa McIntyre-Hite, and Dr. Heather Welzant for taking time out or your busy schedules to review my research, and give feedback and guidance. I have acknowledged and acted on your excellent feedback. Thank you.
Near to my heart, it was my family and friends love and support that were a lifeline to gaining the strength necessary to find balance and achieve the work of learning. Thank you to my friends and family for your grace as I was absent working on my research. I want to thank my daughter, Megan, who was my main motivation on this journey and who exhibited grace and understanding as I worked through my coursework and dissertation. I love you to the moon and back, Megan. I also want to thank my mom, Peggy Driver, my dad, W. B. Driver, my sister Suzanne and my brother Chris for their love and support. I was also extremely grateful for my little study buddy, our family’s miniature dachshund, Carrie, who encouraged me to take frequent breaks and walks, and who was always by my side as I worked through my research. While I lost her in September of this year, I will never forget her sweet presence.
My friends are an extension of my family. I am forever grateful to Angela and Ken Zieleck’s “can do” attitude, support and encouragement as they themselves achieved many athletic events. You both are a constant inspiration. I am also sincerely blessed and grateful to Kay and Phil Albert, their belief in me, and through the weekly phone calls offering support and priceless prayers for which I know have carried me through the program with our Lord’s grace. I also sincerely appreciated the support of Amalia Carty and Angela Zieleck for bravely taking on the task of proof reading my earlier papers in this program. To my extended family down the road, thank you to Pati & John Hall, Luli & Pat Albornoz, Bob De Young, Kathryn Palm, Connie Kangas, Nicola Kangas, Irene Jones, and Teri Fox. I sincerely appreciate your prayers, comfort, and reminding me to relax every now and then. Thank you to my pastor and theologian, Dr. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION vi
Glenn Parkinson, who I continually learn so much through your sermons and guidance. I am also so blessed to have so many talented and beautiful souls as nieces, nephews, and Godchildren, and it is your future that also inspired me as worked on my research. I hope you will always know the value and positive impact that you can make each day. My faculty, colleagues, friends, family, and 4-paw family have blessed me tremendously. I am forever grateful.KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION vii
Dedication
I would not have been able to complete this journey without my faith, and my family.
I dedicate my dissertation to:
My Lord & Savior, Jesus Christ
My daughter, Megan Ashley Miller
And in loving memory of
Our family dachshund, Carrie Miller (2002-2018)KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION viii
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgments..........................................................................................................................iii
Dedication.....................................................................................................................................vii
CHAPTER 1: THE ESSENCE OF KNOWLEDGE INNOVATION .............................................1
Background.....................................................................................................................................2
Organizational Learning ..............................................................................................................3
Knowledge Management .............................................................................................................4
The Mission and Climate of Higher Education ...........................................................................5
Problem Statement..........................................................................................................................8
Purpose and Scope of the Study.......................................................................................................9
Research Question .........................................................................................................................10
Thesis Statement ............................................................................................................................12
Discussion of Themes/Concepts ....................................................................................................13
Chapter Summary ..........................................................................................................................16
Organization of Dissertation..........................................................................................................17
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................................19
Discussion of Theoretical Framework ...........................................................................................19
Organizations as a Systems........................................................................................................19
Knowledge and Knowledge Construction through Learning.....................................................22
Sociocognitive conflict theory ...............................................................................................23
Sociocultural theory...............................................................................................................24
Social cognitive theory ..........................................................................................................26
Learning & Organizational Learning.........................................................................................28
Knowledge Management ...........................................................................................................34
Knowledge Creation ..............................................................................................................35
Knowledge Transfer and Technology Transfer .........................................................................43
Knowledge Transfer...............................................................................................................43
Technology Transfer..............................................................................................................44
Literature Review..........................................................................................................................46
Knowledge Management in Higher Education Institutions.......................................................46
Organizational Knowledge Management Enablers and Barriers ...............................................48
Leadership.............................................................................................................................49KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION ix
Organizational Structure and Institutional Context................................................................50
Culture ..................................................................................................................................51
Technology ............................................................................................................................52
Conceptual Framework..................................................................................................................53
Chapter Summary ..........................................................................................................................55
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................58
Evidence-Based Systematic Review for Management ..................................................................59
Systematic Review.................................................................................................................62
Search Strategies...........................................................................................................................64
Search Methodology ..................................................................................................................65
Sampling ...................................................................................................................................67
Quality Appraisal of Literature......................................................................................................69
Synthesis Methodology..................................................................................................................73
Expert Panel Review......................................................................................................................76
Chapter Summary ..........................................................................................................................78
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION......................................................81
Description of Secondary Data Set ................................................................................................81
Dataset Quality Appraisal Results .................................................................................................87
Results of Synthesis of the Articles in the Dataset ........................................................................88
Knowledge Management Process ..............................................................................................88
Framework Analysis ..................................................................................................................95
Institutional Organizational Level. ......................................................................................101
Program Organizational Level.............................................................................................114
Knowledge Management External to the Higher Education Institution. .............................139
Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................144
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND EMERGING TRENDS..................................................147
Overall Conclusions....................................................................................................................147
Implications and Recommendations for Management.................................................................150
Limitations ..................................................................................................................................152
Future Research and Emerging Trends........................................................................................153
Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................155
References...................................................................................................................................156
Appendix A Literature Review Definitions/Terminology ...........................................................171
Appendix B Figure A.1. PRISMA Flow Diagram......................................................................175KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION x
Appendix C List of Databases .....................................................................................................176
Appendix D Concept References.................................................................................................177
Appendix E Table E1 TAPUPAS Scores ...................................................................................187
Appendix F List of Codes & Definitions.....................................................................................193
Appendix G Subject Matter Experts ............................................................................................209
Appendix H Table H1 Studies Document Variables and Findings by Author ...........................210
Appendix I Knowledge Management Processes..........................................................................243
Appendix J Knowledge Maps’ Descriptions ...............................................................................248
Appendix K Open Access Technology Innovations....................................................................251KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION xi
List of Tables
Table 1 The Knowledge Management, Organizational Learning Processes compared to Evidence-Based Management Practice ........................................................................................ 14
Table 2 UMUC One Search Methodology and Results ............................................................... 66
Table 3 The Number of Articles by Publication........................................................................... 68
Table 4 TAPUPAS Evaluation Rubric ......................................................................................... 72
Table 5 Number of Studies by Year of Publication...................................................................... 82
Table 6 TAPUPAS Critical Appraisal Scores.............................................................................. 88
Table 7 Knowledge Management Process................................................................................... 90
Table 8 Number of Studies in Analysis by Organizational Level and Environmental Context ... 97
Table 9 Authors and Publication Year by Organizational Level................................................. 98
Table E1 Evidence TAPUPAS Scores................................................................................