University of Maryland University College: UMUC Digital Repository
Not a member yet
6660 research outputs found
Sort by
A tactical approach to influence patient engagement success: Effective strategic interventions to promote healthcare leadership diversity and cultural competence
No full textThe purpose of this systematic review is to transiently appraise literature relative
to achieving cultural competence, their effects on patient engagement/workforce
development, to foster human resource interventions that personify reciprocal
determinism paradigms and that address the issues with population health,
accountable care methods, and leadership diversity.▪
▪
•
•
•
•
Bandura- Reciprocal Determinism Theory
.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Systems thinking as a competency for community college leaders in an era of increasing complexity
No full textThe pluralistic and often competing goals of myriad constituents, the changing demographics of students, the uncertainty of funding, and the growing demands for accountability from stakeholders have increased the complexity of systems which community college leaders must manage. Emerging from the recent literature on community colleges is a call for new models of leadership in the context of leading in an increasingly uncertain and complex environment. Systems thinking offers a potential means to help leaders respond to these growing organizational complexities and move leadership from a traditional bureaucratic model to a more adaptive model better suited for today’s complex organizations. The purpose of this study is to examine the relevancy of systems thinking as a competency for community college leaders in an era of increasing complexity. In the context of this study, systems thinking refers to the ability to view systems as wholes rather than compilations of individual components, to see the interconnectedness and interdependencies of agents within systems, to frame problems as patterns, and to get at underlying causality. Findings from a systematic review of empirical evidence in healthcare and higher education revealed that a leader’s use of systems thinking has a positive impact on organizational performance. A kaleidoscope model of community college leadership that posits systems thinking as a meta-competency for dynamically integrating the American Association of Community College’s leadership competencies is presented.Running Head: SYSTEMS THINKING AS A COMPETENCY FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERS 1
Systems Thinking as a Competency for Community College Leaders
in an Era of Increasing Complexity
Anne Powel Davis
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Dr. Eric B. Dent
Dr. Deborah M. Wharff
August 2, 2013
SYSTEMS THINKING AS A COMPETENCY FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERS 2
Abstract
The pluralistic and often competing goals of myriad constituents, the changing demographics of students, the uncertainty of funding, and the growing demands for accountability from stakeholders have increased the complexity of systems which community college leaders must manage. Emerging from the recent literature on community colleges is a call for new models of leadership in the context of leading in an increasingly uncertain and complex environment. Systems thinking offers a potential means to help leaders respond to these growing organizational complexities and move leadership from a traditional bureaucratic model to a more adaptive model better suited for today’s complex organizations. The purpose of this study is to examine the relevancy of systems thinking as a competency for community college leaders in an era of increasing complexity. In the context of this study, systems thinking refers to the ability to view systems as wholes rather than compilations of individual components, to see the interconnectedness and interdependencies of agents within systems, to frame problems as patterns, and to get at underlying causality. Findings from a systematic review of empirical evidence in healthcare and higher education revealed that a leader’s use of systems thinking has a positive impact on organizational performance. A kaleidoscope model of community college leadership that posits systems thinking as a meta-competency for dynamically integrating the American Association of Community College’s leadership competencies is presented.
Keywords: community college, leadership competencies, systems thinking, complexity, complex adaptive systems
SYSTEMS THINKING AS A COMPETENCY FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERS 3
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would like to thank my students. Over the past twenty-three years I have had the distinct pleasure and honor to share in the educational journey of thousands of community college students. They have enriched my life beyond measure and continue to inspire and invigorate me. I am especially grateful to those who have been my students these last three years – you have been kind, and patient, and forgiving of me when I was drained, distracted, or disorganized. In unexpected ways my doctoral studies have helped me grow as an educator. I remembered what it is like to be a student again and experienced anew the uncertainty, anxiety, and angst that come with making the unfamiliar familiar.
I wish to thank the UMUC faculty and staff that have guided and encouraged me on this journey. Thank you for a rigorous and challenging program that has allowed me to grow and stretch in new ways. I would like to particularly thank Dr. Nick Allen for introducing me to systems thinking and Drs. Eric Dent and Deborah Wharff, my dissertation advisors, for their patience, guidance, and support. I am also indebted to my subject matter experts for their thoughtful insights, especially Dr. Pamela Eddy for suggesting “kaleidoscope” as a description for my model of community college leadership and Dr. Gerald Midgley for his extensive comments and suggestions related to the systems literature.
I am deeply grateful for the encouragement and support from my family, friends, and colleagues. My daughter Lizzie’s late night company across the kitchen table, my daughter Sarah’s graphic expertise, my son Scott’s encouraging words from afar, and my husband Cam’s steadying presence have especially sustained me during this doctoral journey. Finally, to my fellow cohort members, my study buddies MW and SM, and my dear friend and colleague KC – I am blessed to have traveled this journey with you. We will forever share a bond. Thank you SYSTEMS THINKING AS A COMPETENCY FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERS 4
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 3
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 4
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. 8
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ 9
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................. 10
Statement of Problem ................................................................................................................ 11
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 18
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 19
Propositions ............................................................................................................................... 19
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 20
Definitions ................................................................................................................................ 21
Limitations ............................................................................................................................... 23
Summary .................................................................................................................................. 23
Organization of Dissertation ..................................................................................................... 24
Chapter 2: Systematic Literature Review ..................................................................................... 25
Community College Leadership ................................................................................................ 25
Historical context. ................................................................................................................. 25
Challenges facing community colleges................................................................................. 30
Leadership void ..................................................................................................................... 33
Leadership competencies ...................................................................................................... 34
Complexity and Systems Thinking Theory ............................................................................... 38
Complexity theory ................................................................................................................ 38
Complex adaptive systems ................................................................................................ 40
Complexity leadership theory ........................................................................................... 41
Systems thinking theory ........................................................................................................ 42
General systems theory. .................................................................................................... 42
Hard systems thinking....................................................................................................... 43
Cybernetics. ...................................................................................................................... 43
System dynamics. ............................................................................................................. 44
Soft systems methodologies .............................................................................................. 45 SYSTEMS THINKING AS A COMPETENCY FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERS 5
Methodological pluralism ................................................................................................. 45
Critical systems thinking .............................................................................................. 46
Systemic intervention ................................................................................................... 47
Systems Thinking as a Leadership Competency ....................................................................... 50
Systems thinking leadership ................................................................................................. 51
Impact of systems thinking on organizational performance ................................................. 52
Health care ........................................................................................................................ 54
Higher education ............................................................................................................... 64
University setting .......................................................................................................... 67
Community college setting ........................................................................................... 72
Summary .................................................................................................................................. 76
Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................... 78
Restating the Problem ............................................................................................................... 78
Revisiting the Research Questions ............................................................................................ 79
Presenting a Conceptual Model for Systems Thinking Leadership .......................................... 80
Integration of scholarship framing the model ....................................................................... 81
Discovery .......................................................................................................................... 81
Framing ............................................................................................................................. 82
Action ............................................................................................................................... 84
Complexity of community colleges. ................................................................................. 84
Summary .................................................................................................................................. 87
Chapter 4: Research Methodology................................................................................................ 89
Evidence-Based Research ......................................................................................................... 89
Evidence-based medicine ...................................................................................................... 89
Evidence-based management ................................................................................................ 90
Advantages of EBMgt....................................................................................................... 91
Limitations of EBMgt ....................................................................................................... 92
Epistemological considerations ............................................................................................ 93
Systematic review ................................................................................................................. 93
Hierarchy of evidence ....................................................................................................... 94
Typologies of evidence ..................................................................................................... 96
UMUC Dissertation Process ..................................................................................................... 96
Systematic Review Protocols .................................................................................................... 98 SYSTEMS THINKING AS A COMPETENCY FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERS 6
Search strategies .................................................................................................................... 98
Inclusion criteria ................................................................................................................. 100
Quality appraisal ................................................................................................................. 101
Synthesis of evidence .......................................................................................................... 102
Narrative synthesis .......................................................................................................... 103
Subject Matter Experts ............................................................................................................ 103
Consideration of feedback from SMEs ............................................................................... 105
Summary ................................................................................................................................ 107
Chapter 5: Analysis and Discussion ........................................................................................... 109
Restatement of Problem and Purpose ...................................................................................... 109
Exploration of Research Questions ......................................................................................... 110
Research question 1. ........................................................................................................... 110
Finding ............................................................................................................................ 110
Analysis.......................................................................................................................... 110
Research question 2. ........................................................................................................... 116
Finding ............................................................................................................................ 116
Analysis.......................................................................................................................... 116
Discovery .................................................................................................................... 117
Framing ....................................................................................................................... 119
Action .......................................................................................................................... 121
Research question 3. ........................................................................................................... 122
Findings.......................................................................................................................... 123
Analysis.......................................................................................................................... 123
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 126
A kaleidoscope model of community college leadership. .................................................. 126
Alternative Perspectives .......................................................................................................... 129
Holism revisited .................................................................................................................. 129
Systems thinking and complexity theory ............................................................................ 130
Health care and education ................................................................................................... 131
Timeliness ........................................................................................................................... 131
Summary ................................................................................................................................ 131
Chapter 6: Conclusions, Implications, Trends and Areas for Future Study ............................... 133
Overall Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 133 SYSTEMS THINKING AS A COMPETENCY FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERS 7
Implications for Management ................................................................................................. 136
Discovery practices ............................................................................................................. 137
Framing practices ................................................................................................................ 140
Action practices .................................................................................................................. 144
Implications of Trends ............................................................................................................ 145
Sociocultural shifts .............................................................................................................. 146
Technology ......................................................................................................................... 147
Virtual interaction ............................................................................................................... 148
Legislation ........................................................................................................................... 149
Globalization ....................................................................................................................... 149
Limitations and Areas for Future Research ............................................................................. 150
Summary ................................................................................................................................ 152
References .................................................................................................................................. 153
Appendix A: Criteria for critical appraisal of literature ............................................................. 176
Appendix B: UMUC Executive Director’s Invitation Letter to SMEs ...................................... 178
Appendix C: Subject Matter Expert Evaluation & Feedback Form .......................................... 179
Appendix D: Expert Panel Evaluation & Feedback from Dr. Karen Stout ............................... 181
Appendix E: Expert Panel Evaluation & Feedback from Dr. Pamela Eddy .............................. 184
Appendix F: Expert Panel Evaluation & Feedback from Dr. Gerald Midgley .......................... 189
SYSTEMS THINKING AS A COMPETENCY FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEADERS 8
List of Tables
Table 1 Historical Context of Community College Leadership ................................................ 28
Table 2 Summary of Challenges Facing or Expected to be Facing Community College Leaders in the 21st Century ........................................................................................................ 31
Table 3 American Association of Community College Six Core Competencies for Leaders .. 36
Table 4 General Characteristics of Complex Adaptive Systems (CAS) ...................................
Managing varying levels of emotional intelligence in virtual teams: A systematic review of the evidence
No full textThe purpose of this systematic review was to examine how varying levels of emotional intelligence (EI) can be managed within a virtual team setting. Specifically, this research focused on three main areas: EI, virtual teams, and effective leadership. This study was designed to determine how varying levels of EI amongst virtual team members impact the overall management of the team. Virtual teams are gaining popularity within the workplace as technologies are continually increasing and as more organizations have locations throughout the world. To increase the chances of a team being successful, effective leadership is a critical component to ensure the team remains focused on the task at hand as well as ensuring the appropriate individuals are assigned to the correct tasks. Under the theoretical lens of Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory, this study sought to identify factors that impacted how a leader can manage individuals with varying levels of EI within a virtual team. The research using LMX theory focused on how managers do not treat individuals the same way on their team, resulting in individualized treatment depending on their capabilities. The findings from 14 studies examining managing EI in virtual teams were analyzed and synthesized using a realist methodology. Core concepts and themes across the sample dataset were extracted and coded to identify three main themes (leadership, team traits, and team challenges) as well as four subthemes (effective communication, trust, EI, and employee motivation). Effective communication, trust, and EI were all linked to each of the three main themes, whereas employee motivation was only linked to team traits and team challenges. Overall, leadership traits will directly impact the team outcome and performance, therefore leadership is connected to team traits and team challenges. The ability for a leader to have effective communication skills, EI, and the ability to gain trust within the team were all highlighted as important functions of an effective leader. Therefore, an effective leader is critical for managing varying levels of EI within a virtual team setting. However, a virtual team with varying levels of EI can survive without an effective leader only if the team members can work together to communicate effectively, trust and motivate one another, and be emotionally intelligent as a team.Running Head: MANAGING EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN VIRTUAL TEAMS I
Managing Varying Levels of Emotional Intelligence in Virtual Teams:
A Systematic Review of the Evidence
Ashley Nicole Rimshaw
April 2018
Presented to the
University of Maryland University College
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Management
Advisory Committee
W. Christopher Cason, DM
J. Heather Welzant, Ph.D.
K. Candis Best, Ph.D.
MANAGING EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN VIRTUAL TEAMS II
Abstract
The purpose of this systematic review was to examine how varying levels of emotional
intelligence (EI) can be managed within a virtual team setting. Specifically, this research
focused on three main areas: EI, virtual teams, and effective leadership. This study was designed
to determine how varying levels of EI amongst virtual team members impact the overall
management of the team. Virtual teams are gaining popularity within the workplace as
technologies are continually increasing and as more organizations have locations throughout the
world. To increase the chances of a team being successful, effective leadership is a critical
component to ensure the team remains focused on the task at hand as well as ensuring the
appropriate individuals are assigned to the correct tasks. Under the theoretical lens of Leader-
Member Exchange (LMX) theory, this study sought to identify factors that impacted how a
leader can manage individuals with varying levels of EI within a virtual team. The research
using LMX theory focused on how managers do not treat individuals the same way on their
team, resulting in individualized treatment depending on their capabilities. The findings from 14
studies examining managing EI in virtual teams were analyzed and synthesized using a realist
methodology. Core concepts and themes across the sample dataset were extracted and coded to
identify three main themes (leadership, team traits, and team challenges) as well as four
subthemes (effective communication, trust, EI, and employee motivation). Effective
communication, trust, and EI were all linked to each of the three main themes, whereas employee
motivation was only linked to team traits and team challenges. Overall, leadership traits will
directly impact the team outcome and performance, therefore leadership is connected to team
traits and team challenges. The ability for a leader to have effective communication skills, EI,
and the ability to gain trust within the team were all highlighted as important functions of an
MANAGING EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN VIRTUAL TEAMS III
effective leader. Therefore, an effective leader is critical for managing varying levels of EI
within a virtual team setting. However, a virtual team with varying levels of EI can survive
without an effective leader only if the team members can work together to communicate
effectively, trust and motivate one another, and be emotionally intelligent as a team.
Keywords: emotional intelligence, EI, virtual team, effective leadership, communication, trust,
Leader-Member Exchange theory, LMX theory
MANAGING EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN VIRTUAL TEAMS IV
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ ii
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................................ iv
Dedication ................................................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1
Background ............................................................................................................................................ 1
Research Gap and Relevance ................................................................................................................. 5
Study Purpose......................................................................................................................................... 6
Research Question ................................................................................................................................. 8
Significance of Study ............................................................................................................................... 9
Importance to Management ................................................................................................................. 10
Scope of Study ...................................................................................................................................... 10
Study Limitations ................................................................................................................................. 11
Study Organization ............................................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................. 14
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 14
Emotional Intelligence .......................................................................................................................... 15
Virtual Teams ........................................................................................................................................... 32
Effective Leadership ............................................................................................................................. 44
Theoretical Lens ....................................................................................................................................... 51
Leader-Member Exchange Theory ..................................................................................................... 53
Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................... 60
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 60
Evidence Based Research and Evidence Based Management ........................................................... 60
Systematic Review ................................................................................................................................ 64
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................................ 79
Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 81
CHAPTER 4 – FINDINGS ...................................................................................................................... 83
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 83
MANAGING EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN VIRTUAL TEAMS V
Evidence Synthesis Results ................................................................................................................... 83
Leadership ............................................................................................................................................ 86
Team Traits .......................................................................................................................................... 94
Team Challenges ................................................................................................................................ 103
Conceptual Model of Managing Emotional Intelligence in Virtual Teams ................................... 108
Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 110
CHAPTER 5 – IMPLICATIONS AND FINDINGS ............................................................................ 112
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 112
Using Systematic Review Findings .................................................................................................... 112
Implications for Management ............................................................................................................ 114
Research Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 115
Future Research Opportunities ......................................................................................................... 117
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................... 117
References ................................................................................................................................................ 120
APPENDIX A .......................................................................................................................................... 136
APPENDIX B .......................................................................................................................................... 137
APPENDIX C .......................................................................................................................................... 138
APPENDIX D .......................................................................................................................................... 139
APPENDIX E .......................................................................................................................................... 140
MANAGING EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN VIRTUAL TEAMS VI
Dedication
To my husband, Ryan who has put up with me since beginning this journey several years
ago and has supported me all along the way. Thank you for supporting me through the entire
process and being to put our lives on hold until this degree was completed. I could have never
done this without your continued love and support throughout this process. You have always
believed in me when I was struggling to believe in myself. You are truly my rock and I will be
forever grateful for your support.
To my mom and dad (Debbie and John), who have always encouraged me to follow my
dreams. The love and support from each of you will be forever appreciated. You helped guide
me through some tough decisions but were always willing to listen and support me when I
needed it the most. I will forever be appreciative for your undying love and support throughout
this doctoral journey.
To my sister and brother (Allison and Brian), who have also supported me throughout
this process. This has been a difficult road, but you both were always there for me when I
needed it the most. Whether it was a shoulder to lean on or just proving a listening ear, I will be
forever appreciative for your dedicated support.
To my extended family and friends, thank you for understanding my inconsistent school
schedules and for always being there for me when I needed someone to vent to. Thank you for
always supporting me through this process. You all were instrumental in helping me throughout
this journey.
MANAGING EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN VIRTUAL TEAMS VII
Acknowledgements
There are so many individuals who have provided me with support throughout this
doctoral journey. To my dissertation advisors, Dr. Welzant, Dr. Cason, and Dr. Best: thank you
for your continued guidance, support, and encouragement to help me find my way through this
process. Dr. Welzant, you guided me off the ledge a couple of times, and I will be forever
grateful for your support and guidance throughout this process.
To all my DMGT professors, you persuaded me early on and throughout this journey that
the DM degree was within my reach and never gave up on me and my aspirations. Thank you
for helping me start this journey and for supporting me through completion. To the rest of the
UMUC doctoral faculty and support staff: thank you for your support and guidance throughout
this process. Your attentiveness to the students shows that you truly care about our success in
this program.
I would also like to thank my work colleagues for pushing me and supporting me through
this journey. Specifically, I would never have been able to get through this without the support
from my previous boss, Joseph G. Finny, PhD. I can’t thank you enough for always pushing me
to be my best and for supporting me when I wanted to pursue this journey. I will be forever
grateful for your guidance and support.
Last, but certainly not least, I would like to thank my cohort members for always being
there and being supportive throughout this process. Our cohort was very special and you all
played an important part in my successful completion of this program. I would specifically like
to thank my sanity hour cohort member (Susan) for the support and accountability you provided
me throughout the dissertation process. There were many times where I was ready to give up,
but you were always willing to listen to me and provided guidance when I needed it most.
MANAGING EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN VIRTUAL TEAMS VIII
List of Figures
Figure 1. Initial conceptual framework on the influence of Emotional Intelligence on Virtual Teams ..... 53
Figure 2. The four elements of EBM (Briner et al., 2009, p. 22). .............................................................. 62
Figure 3. EBP Star Model (Stevens, 2011, p. 530). ................................................................................... 63
Figure 4. The seven elements of a systematic review as explained by Gough et al. (2012). ..................... 66
Figure 5. Factors influencing virtual team performance. ........................................................................... 71
Figure 6. The four stages for a realist synthesis methodology as explained by Pawson et al., 2005. ........ 72
Figure 7. Themes and subthemes generated from the data to answer the research question. ..................... 86
Figure 8. Conceptual model on the influence of leadership behavior on the probability of virtual team
success. .................................................................................................................................................... 109
Figure 9. PRISMA 2009 Flow Diagram as presented by Moher et al., 2009. .......................................... 136
MANAGING EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN VIRTUAL TEAMS IX
List of Tables
Table 1 ....................................................................................................................................................... 74
Table 2 ..................................................................................................................................................... 137
Table 3 ..................................................................................................................................................... 138
Table 4 ..................................................................................................................................................... 139
Table 5 ..................................................................................................................................................... 140
MANAGING EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN VIRTUAL TEAMS 1
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION
Background
Emotional Intelligence (EI) can help an individual determine the difference between
various emotions and feelings and help to distinguish between them. According to Siddiqui and
Hassan (2013), EI is defined as a “person’s ability to manage and control his or her emotions and
to understand the emotions of others” (p. 395). Mathur and Sareen (2013) discussed how EI has
become a popular phrase amongst management experts who claim being aware of one’s own
feelings and individuals’ feelings around you will make an individual a better manager or
employee. Although the concept of EI is relatively recent in the management science literature,
it has “revolutionized management thinking across culture and industry” (Mathur & Sareen,
2013, p. 121). EI is a critical skill that individuals must obtain and develop throughout their
lifetime to establish a successful career in the workplace. An individual with EI has a
competitive advantage over someone who is lacking EI (Colfax, Rivera, & Perez, 2010). Razzaq
and Aftab (2015) argued that emotional competencies develop during social interactions between
individuals and groups. For this reason, it is critical for individuals to develop and maintain a
level of EI in order to understand their emotions as well as the emotions of others. Colfax et al.
(2010) stated that in order to practice EI, “one must asset a conscious effort of awareness and
control of one’s self and how he or she relates to others” (p. 91). According to Collins and
Mirriam (2016), EI is a necessary skill for workers to have, regardless of their position within the
company.
EI plays an important role in individual development (Mathur & Sareen, 2013). EI may
contribute to work performance in various ways, whether through salary or through enabling
individuals to regulate their emotions to cope with stressful situations that may occur in the
MANAGING EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN VIRTUAL TEAMS 2
workplace (Collins & Mirriam, 2016). The level of EI can affect how individuals interact with
one another in various settings in the workplace. Nicholls, Wegener, Bay, and Cook (2012) also
mentioned that EI is an important skill for professional success. Landau and Meirovich (2011)
stated, “EI has also become a concern for companies that face a serious gap between required
and actual level of their employees’ emotional abilities” (p. 89). Individuals with higher levels
of EI can understand their own feelings as well as transfer their feelings onto others (Mathur &
Sareen, 2013).
EI is an important aspect of an individual’s ability to perform in a team setting. With the
fast development of information technologies, virtual teams have become a crucial aspect within
organizations to maintain and keep up with the advances in the marketplace (Gao, Guo, Chen, &
Li, 2016). According to Cramton (2001), advances in communication methods and shared
technologies have made it possible for virtual teams to work together regard
Increasing awareness of minority business brands through social exchange principles: A systematic review
No full textWhile it is clear that minority-owned businesses are growing rapidly in the United States, research shows many tend to have high failure rates because of low profitability and low business growth potential. Given the high failure rates of minority businesses, managers must seek new approaches to extend their customer base. Branding has proven to be an instrumental force in developing emotional connections with consumers, which leads to consumer loyalty and repeat-purchase behavior. Using social exchange theory as a guiding framework, this research provides benefits that companies can obtain through mutually rewarding and reciprocal social interactions. Currently, no evidence synthesis has explored the potential impact of branding on minority business operations, a vital element necessary for business growth and survival. This research utilized a systematic review methodology, an important tool for evidence-based practice and decision-making, to answer the overarching research question: “How can minority-owned businesses utilize social exchange principles to increase brand awareness?” Based on the evidence, minority businesses must adopt some marketing principles embraced by mainstream marketers, namely alliances with reputable brands, development of a strong online presence, and inducement of word-of-mouth communication by consumers and staffers. The research revealed minority firms need not break away from their familiar clientele or ethnic enclave to build their brands. Rather, they may reach wider audiences by targeting other ethnic minorities without alienating a larger population. Implications for practice include: (a) the identification of good fit for co-branding, (b) experimentation and creation of brand pages on a variety of social media networks, (c) fulfillment of psychological contracts with employees to promote brand-building behaviors, and (d) the use of marketing cues that appeal to diverse racial groups.SOCIAL EXCHANGE APPROACH TO BRANDING i
Increasing Awareness of Minority Business Brands through Social Exchange Principles: A
Systematic Review
Christa Nyamekye
A Dissertation
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
W. Christopher Cason, D.M.
J. Heather Welzant, Ph.D.
K. Candis Best, Ph.D.
SOCIAL EXCHANGE APPROACH TO BRANDING ii
Abstract
While it is clear that minority-owned businesses are growing rapidly in the United States,
research shows many tend to have high failure rates because of low profitability and low
business growth potential. Given the high failure rates of minority businesses, managers must
seek new approaches to extend their customer base. Branding has proven to be an instrumental
force in developing emotional connections with consumers, which leads to consumer loyalty and
repeat-purchase behavior. Using social exchange theory as a guiding framework, this research
provides benefits that companies can obtain through mutually rewarding and reciprocal social
interactions. Currently, no evidence synthesis has explored the potential impact of branding on
minority business operations, a vital element necessary for business growth and survival. This
research utilized a systematic review methodology, an important tool for evidence-based practice
and decision-making, to answer the overarching research question: “How can minority-owned
businesses utilize social exchange principles to increase brand awareness?” Based on the
evidence, minority businesses must adopt some marketing principles embraced by mainstream
marketers, namely alliances with reputable brands, development of a strong online presence, and
inducement of word-of-mouth communication by consumers and staffers. The research revealed
minority firms need not break away from their familiar clientele or ethnic enclave to build their
brands. Rather, they may reach wider audiences by targeting other ethnic minorities without
alienating a larger population. Implications for practice include: (a) the identification of good fit
for co-branding, (b) experimentation and creation of brand pages on a variety of social media
networks, (c) fulfillment of psychological contracts with employees to promote brand-building
behaviors, and (d) the use of marketing cues that appeal to diverse racial groups.
Keywords: minority business, social exchange theory, brand awareness, brand-building
strategy, collaboration, social network
SOCIAL EXCHANGE APPROACH TO BRANDING iii
Dedication
A popular African proverb reads, “A river that forgets it’s source will surely dry up.”
This dissertation is dedicated to all the special people in my life who give me sustenance. To my
mother, I am grateful beyond words for the many nights you bathed, fed, and put your
granddaughter to bed while I worked late hours into the night or at the library. I could not have
accomplished this without your help. To my father, my Sambiga, thank you for your
encouragement and interest in my research. To my older siblings; Rexford, D. D., and Ken; who
serve as role models and have given me the support and direction when I needed it. Last, but not
least, I dedicate this dissertation to my daughter Zoe. I started this doctoral journey when you
were two years old, and along the way, I missed some playdates, fun activities, and birthday
parties. Mommy promises to make it up to you.
SOCIAL EXCHANGE APPROACH TO BRANDING iv
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge my dissertation committee, Dr. Cason and Dr. Welzant, for
their constructive feedback, and mentorship during the dissertation coursework. To my primary
committee member, Dr. Best, I sincerely appreciate all the guidance and insight you provided
throughout this research. I thank you for the constant checks on my progress and diligence in
helping me develop my study to the standards of the university. To my cohort, I benefited from
having such a strong and clever clique. To all those who played a role in this process, big or
small, thank you. To GOD be the glory!
SOCIAL EXCHANGE APPROACH TO BRANDING v
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii
Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
Background of the Study ................................................................................................................ 1
Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................................ 2
Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................................................... 6
Significance of Study ...................................................................................................................... 7
Research Question .......................................................................................................................... 9
Assumptions ................................................................................................................................. 10
Limitations ................................................................................................................................... 10
Scope of Study .............................................................................................................................. 10
Organization of the Study ............................................................................................................. 11
Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 12
Minority Business Overview ........................................................................................................ 12
Intentions and Motivations of Minority Business Owners ........................................................... 16
Theoretical Framework—Social Exchange Theory ...................................................................... 17
History.................................................................................................................................. 17
Interpersonal Relations in Social Exchange ................................................................................. 23
Critiques of the Social Exchange Theory ..................................................................................... 26
Social Exchange in Marketing ...................................................................................................... 27
Business-to-Business (B2B) Model .............................................................................................. 30
Co-branding ................................................................................................................................. 32
Business-to-Consumer (B2C) Model ............................................................................................ 36
Business-to-Consumer (B2C) Marketing ..................................................................................... 37
Employee-Employer Model .......................................................................................................... 41
Brand Development in the Workplace .......................................................................................... 43
Brands and Branding ..................................................................................................................... 45
Small Entrepreneurial Branding ................................................................................................... 48
Building Brand Equity .......................................................................................................... 51
Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................................. 53
SOCIAL EXCHANGE APPROACH TO BRANDING vi
Literature Review Summary ......................................................................................................... 54
Chapter 3: Research Methodology................................................................................................ 57
Evidence-Based Practice ............................................................................................................... 57
Systematic Review Overview ....................................................................................................... 60
Systematic Review Process........................................................................................................... 62
Stage 1: Review initiation ..................................................................................................... 63
Stage 2: Review question and methodology ......................................................................... 64
Stage 3: Search strategy ........................................................................................................ 65
Stage 4: Description of study characteristics ........................................................................ 68
Stage 5: Quality and relevance assessment ........................................................................... 69
Stage 6: Synthesis ................................................................................................................. 71
Stage 7: Using reviews.......................................................................................................... 73
Summary of Expert Stakeholder Feedback ................................................................................... 74
Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 74
Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ................................................................................................. 76
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 76
Dataset Characteristics .................................................................................................................. 76
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................... 77
Theme Emergence ........................................................................................................................ 78
Fundamental Branding Principles ................................................................................................. 81
Synergic Effects of Co-branding .................................................................................................. 81
Develop Online Presence ...................................................................................................... 84
Brand-Building Behaviors .................................................................................................... 90
Traditional Minority Marketing Techniques ........................................................................ 94
Appeal to Co-Ethnic Community ......................................................................................... 94
Traditional WOM marketing ................................................................................................ 96
Crossover to Mainstream Audiences .................................................................................... 97
Summary .................................................................................................................................... 100
Chapter 5: Implications and Conclusion ..................................................................................... 102
Selecting a good co-branding or alliance partner ............................................................... 103
Creation of fan pages on social media networks ................................................................ 104
Investment in technology and skilled personnel ................................................................. 105
Foster brand-building behaviors ......................................................................................... 105
Devise inclusive marketing strategies ................................................................................. 106
SOCIAL EXCHANGE APPROACH TO BRANDING vii
Limitations ................................................................................................................................. 107
References .................................................................................................................................. 111
Appendix A Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ............................................................................ 132
Appendix B PRISMA Diagram .................................................................................................. 133
Appendix C Characteristics of the 36 Studies Relevant to the Objectives of the Review .......... 134
Appendix D TAPUPAS Scoring Sheet ....................................................................................... 135
Appendix E Thematic Synthesis & Coding ................................................................................ 144
Appendix F Consolidated Codes Used for Theme Identification ............................................... 154
Appendix G Stakeholder Feedback Request Letter .................................................................... 155
SOCIAL EXCHANGE APPROACH TO BRANDING viii
List of Tables
Table 1. Terms Considered in the Database Search Strategy ........................................................66
Table 2. Major Themes: Minority Business Branding Strategies for Success ..............................79
SOCIAL EXCHANGE APPROACH TO BRANDING ix
List of Figures
Figure 1. Influential scholars in social exchange theory ................................................................18
Figure 2. Visualization of social exchange theory .........................................................................23
Figure 3. The customer-salesman dyad .........................................................................................28
Figure 4. Social exchange interactions in brand management .......................................................54
Figure 5. Star model of evidence-based processes ........................................................................61
Figure 6. Getting started with a review ..........................................................................................63
Figure 7. Conceptual model depicting the influence of social exchange principles in increasing
brand awareness of minority firms ................................................................................................99
SOCIAL EXCHANGE APPROACH TO BRANDING 1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Background of the Study
Minorities are the fastest growing group of entrepreneurs in the United States according
to the Census Bureau’s 2012 Survey of Business Owners (McManus, 2016). The survey data
show that minority entrepreneurs have made significant industry contributions in the area of
transportation, healthcare, childcare, personal care, seafood preparation and packaging, grocery
stores, and laundry (McManus, 2016). In 2012 alone, 8.0 million minority-owned businesses
contributed $1.38 trillion dollars in revenues and helped to create 7.2 million jobs in the United
States (McManus, 2016). By 2015, nearly 40% of all new firms created nationwide were
minority-owned (Bates, Bradford, & Seamans, 2017). Given the growth in the overall human
population and increases in immigration and the minority labor force, analysts expect the trend to
continue (Ordonez, 2014). Joset Wright-Lacy, former president of The National Minority
Supplier Development Council (NMSDC), addressed the rise of minority businesses in the
United States stating:
Minorities will be the new majority in the next 30 years. Attention must be placed on the
growth and sustainability of a younger, multiracial population as they become the
foundation of the American economy. If minority businesses are not growing and
succeeding, the U.S. economy and the global economy will be negatively impacted. (as
cited in NMSDC, 2015)
Similarly, The Minority Business Development Agency (MBDA) contended the development of
minority businesses is vital in making America great by boosting the country’s economy. The
MBDA indicated, “By 2044, the Nation’s prosperity will rely even more on minorities, the
fastest growing segment of the population. Entrepreneurship is a sure pathway to wealth
creation and a thriving national economy . . . If MBEs were to obtain entrepreneurial parity, the
SOCIAL EXCHANGE APPROACH TO BRANDING 2
U.S. economy would realize 13 million more jobs” (“The minority business development
agency,” 2017). These statements underscore the importance of minority-owned businesses
globally and to the U.S. economy.
In this dissertation, minority-owned businesses or minority business enterprises (MBEs)
refer to companies owned and controlled on a daily basis by African Americans, Hispanics,
Asian Americans, American Indians, Alaskan natives, and/or Portuguese by 51% (Myers &
Chan, 1996, p. 204). Minority-owned businesses are generally small and fall within the category
of small and medium-sized enterprises (Christopher, 1998; Jamal, 2005). Blount, Smith, and
Hill (2013) reported minority business owners on average possessed lower levels of education,
lower startup capital, and less entrepreneurial experience. Nevertheless, the group listing clearly
involves the minority status of African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Native Americans
(American Indian, Alaska Native), and Asian Pacific Americans. Likewise, the SBA categorizes
members of these group as persons subjected to racial or ethnic prejudice or cultural bias because
of their identity as members of a minority group (Blount et al., 2013).
Statement of the Problem
Although minorities display an inclination toward entrepreneurship, research has
indicated the obstacles encountered decrease the likelihood of business success. McManus
(2016) spoke to this point writing that despite the growing entrepreneurial ratio, minority
enterprises account for smaller shares of sales and revenues. The literature has shown minority
businesses lag behind nonminority-owned firms when it comes to human/financial capital and
their access to mainstream markets (Bates, 2011). The literature also indicated weak business
and industry-specific experience, and difficulties establishing credibility in the industry. The
business challenges facing minority entrepreneurs have been well-documented by Adkins and
SOCIAL EXCHANGE APPROACH TO BRANDING 3
Samaras (2013); Bates (2001); Bates (2011); Edelman, Brush, Manolova, and Greene (2010);
and Efrat (2008).
African American firms reportedly have the lowest survival rate (35%) within a four-year
period compared to 48% average for all other fi
One-at-a-time parameter sensitivity analysis of particle swarm optimization solving the Ackley Function
No full textA Particle Swarm Optimization, or PSO, is a social algorithm designed to determine an
optimal point within a target space. At present, there is limited information regarding how to
establish the appropriate parameter values for the inputs required to perform a PSO. Our research
performs a One-at-a-Time parameter sensitivity analysis on these inputs when utilizing a PSO to
solve the Ackley function. Within this approach to a sensitivity analysis, all parameters are given
a baseline value, and then for each parameter the value is incrementally adjusted while the
remaining values are maintained at the baseline value. After each parameter has been
independently adjusted the comparative results are reviewed to determine the most significant
parameter to the overall performance of the PSO.
The results indicate that the number of particles parameter is, in most scenarios, the most sensitive to the overall performance of the optimization function, while the cognitive coefficient (c1) parameter was the least impactful. While it continues to be difficult to specify an exact value where the parameter swarm optimization function is the most effective, our research provides an effective range of values for each parameter that consistently provides a successful execution of
the test problem presented. Further research will be required both on different parameter sensitivity analyses as well as on different test functions beyond the Ackley function.Running head: PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF PSO 1
One-at-a-Time Parameter Sensitivity Analysis of Particle Swarm Optimization
Solving the Ackley Function
By
Erika Lopresti
Suraj Mali
Bryant Noel
Maura Swart
Bo Yu
A research paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Software
Engineering Project (SWEN 670)
Master’s of Science in Information Systems with Specialization in Software Engineering
University of Maryland University College
2019
PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF PSO 2
I hereby certify that this research paper, submitted by Erika Lopresti, Suraj Mali, Bryant
Noel, Maura Swart and Bo Yu, conforms to acceptable standards and is fully adequate in scope
and quality to fulfill the Software Engineering Project (SWEN 670) requirements for this class.
Michael Scott Brown 5/1/2019
Program Chair
PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF PSO 3
An Abstract of One-at-a-Time Parameter Sensitivity Analysis of Particle Swarm
Optimization Solving the Ackley Function
by
Erika Lopresti
Suraj Mali
Bryant Noel
Maura Swart
Bo Yu
April 28, 2019
A Particle Swarm Optimization, or PSO, is a social algorithm designed to determine an
optimal point within a target space. At present, there is limited information regarding how to
establish the appropriate parameter values for the inputs required to perform a PSO. Our research
performs a One-at-a-Time parameter sensitivity analysis on these inputs when utilizing a PSO to
solve the Ackley function. Within this approach to a sensitivity analysis, all parameters are given
a baseline value, and then for each parameter the value is incrementally adjusted while the
remaining values are maintained at the baseline value. After each parameter has been
independently adjusted the comparative results are reviewed to determine the most significant
parameter to the overall performance of the PSO.
The results indicate that the number of particles parameter is, in most scenarios, the most
sensitive to the overall performance of the optimization function, while the cognitive coefficient
PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF PSO 4
(c1) parameter was the least impactful. While it continues to be difficult to specify an exact value
where the parameter swarm optimization function is the most effective, our research provides an
effective range of values for each parameter that consistently provides a successful execution of
the test problem presented. Further research will be required both on different parameter
sensitivity analyses as well as on different test functions beyond the Ackley function.
Keywords: Particle swarm optimization, PSO, One-at-a-Time parameter sensitivity
analysis, Ackley function, inertia weight, control parameter values
PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF PSO 5
Table of Contents
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Introduction 9
Background 9
Problem Statement 9
Research Goal 10
Literature Review 10
Particle Swarm Optimization 10
Background. ............................................................................................................... 10
Control parameters. ................................................................................................... 12
Number of particles. .................................................................................................. 12
Number of iterations. ................................................................................................. 13
Cognitive coefficient. ................................................................................................ 14
Social coefficient. ...................................................................................................... 14
Inertial coefficient. .................................................................................................... 15
Parameter Sensitivity Analysis 16
Background. ............................................................................................................... 16
One-at-a-time sensitivity analysis. ............................................................................ 16
Design of experiment analysis. .................................................................................. 17
One-at-a-time vs design of experiment. .................................................................... 18
Ackley Function 19
Methodology 21
Overview 21
One-at-a-time sensitivity analysis. ............................................................................ 21
Parameter analysis. .................................................................................................... 22
Format of Results 22
Parameter Configuration Selection 23
Results 24
Overview 24
Experiment Results 25
Analysis of Results 30
PSO Behavior and Parameter Configuration 30
Program Execution 1: Equal configuration, zero w. .................................................. 30
Program Execution 2: Equal configuration, positive w. ............................................ 32
Program Execution 3: Equal configuration, negative w. ........................................... 33
Program Execution 4: Social configuration, zero w. ................................................. 35
PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF PSO 6
Program Execution 5: Social configuration, positive w. ........................................... 36
Program Execution 6: Social configuration, negative w. .......................................... 38
Program Execution 7: Social configuration, low negative w. ................................... 39
Program Execution 8: Social configuration, high positive w. ................................... 41
Program Execution 9: Cognitive configuration, positive w. ..................................... 42
Sensitivity Analysis 44
Sensitivity Calculation. .............................................................................................. 44
Sensitivity Ranking. .................................................................................................. 44
Summary. ................................................................................................................... 45
Output is the most sensitive to changes in the value of c2. 45
Recommended Parameter Values 45
Conclusion 46
Future Research 46
Summary 47
References 49
PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF PSO 7
List of Tables
Table 1 Example PSO Program Execution ................................................................................... 22
Table 2 Summary of PSO Program Executions ............................................................................ 24
Table 3 Program Execution 1 Results ........................................................................................... 25
Table 4 Program Execution 2 Results ........................................................................................... 26
Table 5 Program Execution 3 Results ........................................................................................... 26
Table 6 Program Execution 4 Results ........................................................................................... 27
Table 7 Program Execution 5 Results ........................................................................................... 27
Table 8 Program Execution 6 Results ........................................................................................... 28
Table 9 Program Execution 7 Results ........................................................................................... 28
Table 10 Program Execution 8 Results ......................................................................................... 29
Table 11 Program Execution 9 Results ......................................................................................... 29
Table 12 Sensitivity Ranking of Parameter Configurations ......................................................... 44
Table 13 System Behavior by Inertial Coefficient (w) Value ...................................................... 45
Table 14 Best Performing Parameter Values ................................................................................ 46
PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF PSO 8
List of Figures
Figure 1 The schematic diagram of the Ackley function. ............................................................. 20
Figure 2 Program Execution 1: Average Output (global minimum) vs. Input ............................. 31
Figure 3 Program Execution 1: Change in Output vs Input .......................................................... 31
Figure 4 Program Execution 1: Failure Rate vs. Input ................................................................. 31
Figure 5 Program Execution 2: Average Output (global minimum) vs. Input ............................. 32
Figure 6 Program Execution 2: Change in Output vs Input .......................................................... 32
Figure 7 Program Execution 2: Failure Rate vs. Input ................................................................. 33
Figure 8 Program Execution 3: Average Output (global minimum) vs. Input ............................. 34
Figure 9 Program Execution 3: Change in Output vs Input .......................................................... 34
Figure 10 Program Execution 3: Failure Rate vs. Input ............................................................... 34
Figure 11 Program Execution 4: Average Output (global minimum) vs. Input ........................... 35
Figure 12 Program Execution 4: Change in Output vs Input ........................................................ 35
Figure 13 Program Execution 4: Failure Rate vs. Input ............................................................... 36
Figure 14 Program Execution 5: Average Output (global minimum) vs. Input ........................... 37
Figure 15 Program Execution 5: Change in Output vs Input ........................................................ 37
Figure 16 Program Execution 5: Failure Rate vs. Input ............................................................... 37
Figure 17 Program Execution 6: Average Output (global minimum) vs. Input ........................... 38
Figure 18 Program Execution 6: Change in Output vs Input ........................................................ 38
Figure 19 Program Execution 6: Failure Rate vs. Input ............................................................... 39
Figure 20 Program Execution 7: Average Output (global minimum) vs. Input ........................... 40
Figure 21 Program Execution 7: Change in Output vs Input ........................................................ 40
Figure 22 Program Execution 7: Failure Rate vs. Input ............................................................... 40
Figure 23 Program Execution 8: Average Output (global minimum) vs. Input ........................... 41
Figure 24 Program Execution 8: Change in Output vs Input ........................................................ 41
Figure 25 Program Execution 8: Failure Rate vs. Input ............................................................... 42
Figure 26 Program Execution 9: Average Output (global minimum) vs. Input ........................... 43
Figure 27 Program Execution 9: Change in Output vs Input ........................................................ 43
Figure 28 Program Execution 9: Failure Rate vs. Input ............................................................... 43
PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF PSO 9
Introduction
Background
A Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm provides a methodology for
systematically determining the maximum or minimum of a function. This determination is
accomplished with the selection of a variety of input parameters that impact the accuracy of the
determination. When utilizing a PSO algorithm, there is limited information available for
selecting the best parameter values for each optimization problem.
At present when a PSO is executed, there is no set standard to determine which parameter
settings to utilize. In this paper we establish and execute a parameter sensitivity analysis to
determine the impact of change on these parameters. This will further assist with determining the
significance of the variance in parameters utilized and which parameters impact the end results
of the system most significantly. Additionally, we will establish recommended ranges of
execution for parameters when considering a PSO to solve the Ackley function. With the
establishment of these, we anticipate furthering the accuracy of PSO result sets and the initial
standup and execution of a PSO. The accurate execution of a PSO is of significant value to the
continued improvement of evolutionary algorithms. PSO and other evolutionary algorithms
provide computational solutions to multidimensional problems (Chan & Chen, 2015).
Problem Statement
Selection of parameters for PSO is critical for optimal convergence speed and avoiding
premature convergence on local minima (Zhang, Ma, Wei, & Liang, 2014), but determining the
sensitivity of various input parameter configurations on the algorithm's search performance
remains a difficult problem. One of the primary reasons for this difficulty is the nondeterministic
PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF PSO 10
nature of the algorithm which means one set of input can create differing output each time the
PSO is executed.
Research Goal
The goal of this research is to provide a more accurate determination of parameter inputs
and to establish a parameter sensitivity resulting in a better understanding of the impact of
change on a single parameter for PSO.
Literature Review
Particle Swarm Optimization
Background.
PSO is a computational intelligence technique which models the behavior of an
individual in a group in response to a changing local environment and interactions with its
neighbors (Jamous, Tharwat, El-Seidy, & Bayoum, 2015). Inspired by the group movements of
animals, such as birds in a flock or fish in a school, Kennedy and Eberhart developed the PSO
algorithm as a search optimization method to model human social behavior (Kennedy &
Eberhart, 1995). The algorithm calculates velocity and position of moving particles, including a
social influence between these particles, to find the optimal points in working space (Bansal et
al., 2011). Many versions of the PSO exist today, but this paper will focus on the original
nondeterministic algorithm with the addition of an inertial factor added by Eberhart and Shi in
1998 (Shi & Eberhart, 1998). PSO is popular for use in optimization problems because it is
simple to understand and straightforward to put into practice, the computation is efficient, and it
does not have as many parameters that need to be adjusted compared to other evolutionary
algorithms (Chan & Chen, 2015).
PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF PSO 11
During iterations of the PSO algorithm, individual particles within a population, or
swarm, move through a search space (Harrison, Engelbrecht, & Ombuki-Berman, 2018) based
on the function being optimized. The best position of any particle within the swarm is called the
global best value (gbest) and is calculated through the application of repeated iterations across
the many particles within the optimization application. This results in evolving direction and
velocity of the individual particles in pursuit of the global best value of the function under
evaluation. The velocity and next position of each individual particle within the search space at
any given iteration is determined by three components: the inertial component, which is a
memory of its previous velocity and direction; the cognitive component, which is the memory of
its previous best position (pbest); and the social component or experience of the group known as
gbest (Jamous et al., 2015). With each iteration the global best and personal best positions
converge to an optimum location of the problem (Cai, Cui, Zeng, & Tan, 2009; Trelea, 2003).
The formula in Equation 1 is used to calculate the velocity v of the next particle based on
the momentum or influence of its current path, the personal best position, and the global best
position.
(i+1)= '(())
*+,-.*/0 23453+,+.
+ '8C8C:CCC(C−CCC(C))B
23D+*.*E, 23453+,+.
+ 'FCFC:CCC(C−CCC(C))B
H32*/0 23453+,+.
(1)
Using the velocity calculated in Equation 1, the formula in Equation 2 calculates the
position of the next particle.
( + 1) = () + ( + 1) (2)
where:
v Velocity of the particle
x Position of the particle
w Inertial coefficient
c1 Cognitive coefficient
PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF PSO 12
c2 Social coefficient
pbest Particle personal best position
gbest Global best position
r1/r2 Random numbers between 0 and 1
The fundamental quality of the PSO algorithm that sets it apart as a unique problem-solving
tool is the incorporation of not only the movement of the particles within the space, but
how they interact over time within a social network and the surrounding landscape of the
function to find a solution (Kennedy, 2011).
Control parameters.
PSO algorithm performance is improved when control parameters are tuned in such a
way that the likelihood of exploring new areas in the search space is balanced with the
probability of exploiting known regions that are promising contenders for the function's optimum
value. Harrison, Engelbrecht, and Ombuki-Berman (2018) reviewed six studies that looked at the
effects of PSO parameter configurations on performance, but did not find among them an
agreement for the parameter configurations associated with the best performance (Harrison et al.,
2018). This remains an important subject of study, because if the parameter values are not set
properly, the algorithm is prone to premature convergence in a local optimum. The following
sections summarize the current literature on the impact of control parameter values on PSO
performance.
Number of particles.
The number of particles used in the loop, usually set to an integer between 10 and 100,
affects the performance of the PSO as they simultaneously travel in the search space and test new
values (Kennedy, 2011). The particles cluster around promising areas to find solutions in the
search space, combining their personal best experience with that of all other particles in the
PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF PSO 13
group to refine and direct the search (Chan & Chen, 2015). This behavior, reminiscent of
swarming insects, earned the group of particles the name particle swarm (Kennedy, 2011).
Trelea (2003) tested different PSO parameter configurations to solve five functions: a
sphere and the Rosenbrock, Rastrigin, Griewank, and Schaffer functions. Results of this testing
found that increasing the number of particles in the swarm increased the success rate and
decreased the required number of iterations (Trelea, 2003). However, when the number became
too large, the convergence rate became too slow, with diminishing returns for each iteration of
the loop (Trelea, 2003). The higher the number of particles in the swarm, the greater the chance
that one will land in the global optimum value. There needs to be enough particles to cover a
meaningful area of the search space so that they do not get stuck in a local optimum (Voulgaris,
2018). A greater number of particles comes at a higher cost because each additional particle
means another function calculation for every iteration. The ideal number of particles will depend
on the specific problem being solved and the values of the other parameters (Trelea, 2003).
Number of iterations.
The number of iterations is the number of times the particles will be moved to a new
position based on the formulas in Equations 1 and 2. This determines the overall duration of the
loop, thereby increasing the chance of the particle landing on the optimum. The PSO may solve a
given problem or find the optimum of a function before the number of iterations set by the
program is reached. This is because the particles have already reached equilibrium at an earlier
iteration (Trelea, 2003). However, when the convergence rate is low, the PSO may not get a
chance to solve the problem if the number of iterations is not high enough (Eberhart & Shi,
2001).
PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF PSO 14
Cognitive coefficient.
The cognitive coefficient (c1) represents the tendency of a particle to move toward its
personal best rather than the global best. Changing the value of c1 affects the cognitive
component in the velocity calcula
Engineering management: Managing technology appropriation by Global Virtual Tiger Teams
No full textWith the continual expansion of global businesses, there is ever-increasing pressure for companies and agencies to address engineering latent design issues, eliminate operational shortcomings, and reduce lifecycle costs associated with products and services across geographical, political, and cultural boundaries. Engineering teams often are faced with reaction-based time pressure to identify failures, design, fix, implement, and produce capabilities for specific outcomes. To support these teams, leaders have continued to adapt business practices, moving from local to international models. Simultaneously, advancements in technology and the maturation of knowledge-based worker skills have developed to meet these challenges. Within this virtual environment, managers of these teams are faced with challenges to provide effective support technology resources while also guiding their teams through the process of determining the origins of failures and then finding and implementing solutions to quickly address the task at hand. This dissertation is concerned with managing global virtual tiger teams (GVTTs) that are formed outside of the normal course of business to solve unanticipated problems that require time-critical solutions. GVTTs are comprised of experts in specific yet disparate fields who are recruited and then disbanded after their assignment has been completed. Thus, the need to manage the appropriation and use of technology that supports virtual teams to accomplish their reactionary tasking is particularly challenging. This study found that GVTTs differ significantly from routine engineering organizations as they are propelled into an environment without long-term engineering lifecycle benefits, time to adjust culturally, and time to build trust. The resulting conceptual model encompasses tasking motivation, appropriation and facilitation of support technology, social structures, the reconciliation of cultural differences, and satisfaction of outcomes. This research addresses this topic by providing a holistic conceptual model effectively transposing theory into practice.Engineering Management:
Managing Technology Appropriation by Global Virtual Tiger Teams
by
William Joseph Harris
April 2018
Presented to the
Graduate School
University of Maryland University College
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Management
Approved by:
W. Christopher Cason, DM
J. Heather Welzant, Ph.D.
K. Candis Best, Ph.D.
Abstract
With the continual expansion of global businesses, there is ever-increasing pressure for companies and agencies to address engineering latent design issues, eliminate operational shortcomings, and reduce lifecycle costs associated with products and services across geographical, political, and cultural boundaries. Engineering teams often are faced with reaction-based time pressure to identify failures, design, fix, implement, and produce capabilities for specific outcomes. To support these teams, leaders have continued to adapt business practices, moving from local to international models. Simultaneously, advancements in technology and the maturation of knowledge-based worker skills have developed to meet these challenges. Within this virtual environment, managers of these teams are faced with challenges to provide effective support technology resources while also guiding their teams through the process of determining the origins of failures and then finding and implementing solutions to quickly address the task at hand. This dissertation is concerned with managing global virtual tiger teams (GVTTs) that are formed outside of the normal course of business to solve unanticipated problems that require time-critical solutions. GVTTs are comprised of experts in specific yet disparate fields who are recruited and then disbanded after their assignment has been completed. Thus, the need to manage the appropriation and use of technology that supports virtual teams to accomplish their reactionary tasking is particularly challenging. This study found that GVTTs differ significantly from routine engineering organizations as they are propelled into an environment without long-term engineering lifecycle benefits, time to adjust culturally, and time to build trust. The resulting conceptual model encompasses tasking motivation, appropriation and facilitation of support technology, social structures, the reconciliation of cultural differences, and satisfaction of outcomes. This research addresses this topic by providing a holistic conceptual model effectively transposing theory into practice.
Key Words: global virtual teams, engineering tiger teams, advanced information technology, technology-use mediation, adaptive structuration theory, sociotechnical systems, and digital sociology Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I would like to express my appreciation to Drs. Candis Best, Chris Cason, and Heather Welzant, who served as my dissertation committee. Their systematic approach, timely feedback, and impactful residency experiences were indispensible in the completion of this work. Furthermore, Dr. Tony Clear, my “virtual” panel member and a subject matter expert on this research topic, provided focused recommendations and guidance for the unique nature of my research. There have been many educators over the years who guided me, such as Ms. Diane Zuercher, my 7th-grade social studies teacher, who made me feel unique and allowed me to explore and present alternative answers to social issues. In addition, I was fortunate to be a member of a cohesive and brilliant cohort at UMUC; we encouraged and challenged each other throughout our doctoral journey. I believe, without this cohort, my work would not be as rich and compelling or the experience as satisfying – I will miss our camaraderie.
I would like to thank my family – those who encouraged me and made uncounted sacrifices over the years, enabling me to pursue learning to improve my life activities. Having grown up in the 1960s with my single-parent mother, Celeste Louise Retynski (1936-2012), I was constantly aware of my economic disadvantage and my mother’s encouragement to overcome our circumstance – through education. My stepmother, Mary Ortiz (1926–2017), picked up in the 1970s to teach me the value and quality of my worth to myself and to others. I am grateful to my wife, Susan B. Gollub, for her relentless encouragement and review feedback – time after time, her suggestions helped me “crank out” the vast array of research papers, thereby improving the quality of my work. In addition, my hope is that my lifelong learning inspires my sons William and Troy and especially my10 grandsons: Hunter, Hayden, Jett, Grant, Tyler, Heath, Hudson, Brennyn, Bryson, and Brody, to excel and be passionate in their life activities.
Finally, my deep appreciation to my editor, Kathleen Kline, whose patience and language artistry has helped to produce this important work.i
Table of Contents
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................v
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... vi
Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................1
Background and Problem Context .................................................................................1
Environment: Tiger Teams – Unique Problem-Solving Organizations .............2
The Cultural Challenges of Global Virtual Tiger Teams ...................................5
Global Virtual Tiger Teams and Technology Appropriation ............................6
The Relationship to Management Theory......................................................................7
Research Gap and Relevance .........................................................................................8
Study Purpose ..............................................................................................................10
Significance of the Study .............................................................................................11
Dissertation Originality ....................................................................................11
Clear Relevance to the Field of Management ..................................................13
Importance Within the Realm of Evidence-Based Management and Research ...........................................................................................................14
Research Questions ......................................................................................................15
Primary Research Question..............................................................................15
Supporting Research Question .........................................................................16
Study Scope .................................................................................................................16
Study Limitations .........................................................................................................17 ii
Discussion of Key Terms .............................................................................................17
Dissertation Chapters ...................................................................................................19
Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................21
Introduction to the Literature Review ..........................................................................21
Literature Interrelationships: Theorists and Foundational Research ...........................23
Contemporary Management Theorists: Establishing Research in the Scientific Technical Revolution .......................................................................................27
Predominant Scholars and Research: Advanced Information Technology as Group Support Tools in the Information Digital Revolution ..........................29
Current Underlying Global Virtual Team Anchor Research .......................................35
Sociology and the Digital Computer Age ........................................................36
Global Virtual Tiger Team Tasking and Motivation Theories ........................40
Global Virtual Team Support Technology and Cultural Relationships ...........50
Advanced Information Technology and Group Structure ...............................57
Inherent Risks in Global Virtual Tiger Teams .................................................76
The Importance of Trust and Constructive Distrust in Tiger Teams ...............77
Global Virtual Team Satisfaction: Process and Outcomes ..............................83
Global Team Performance, Issues, and Outcomes ..........................................84
Description of Selected Study Characteristics .................................................85
Data Set Descriptions and Relevancy ..............................................................86
Chapter 2: Recapitulation ................................................................................91
Chapter 3: Methods ............................................................................................................93 iii
Methodological Approach .................................................................................................93
Epistemology, Ontology, and Axiology ..........................................................94
Systematic Review Process and Method .........................................................95
The CIMO (Context – Intervention – Mechanism – Outcomes) Approach ..........................................................................................................97
Search Strategy ................................................................................................99
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ....................................................................101
Assessment and Appraisal of Relevance and Quality....................................102
Conceptual Coding and Theming the Data ....................................................103
Configurative Thematic Synthesis Conceptualization ...................................105
Configurative Mapping ..................................................................................106
Chapter 4: Findings ..........................................................................................................107
Introduction to Findings .............................................................................................107
GVTTs Differ From Established Organizations ........................................................107
Managing GVTT Technology Appropriation and Outcomes: Conceptual Model ..........................................................................................108
Thematic Activity: Episode Task Environment Influenced by Time Constraints .....................................................................................................113
Thematic Activity: AIT Technology Facilitation and Mediation ..................120
Thematic Activity: Technology Appropriation and Goal Attainment ...........124
Thematic Activity: Social and Technology Structures, and Trust .................131
Thematic Activity: Cultural Collaboration and Conflict Resolution .............139 iv
Thematic Activity: Performance Objectives and Outcomes ..........................141
Chapter 4 Summary: Resulting Research Claim .............................................................143
Chapter 5: Implications of the Findings and Recommendations for GVTT Managers ..............................................................................................................144
The Four Stages of GVTT Management and Appropriation of Support Technology ..........................................................................................................144
Stage 1: Project Objective Definition, Characterization, and Launch .................145
Stage 2: Support Technology Identification, Facilitation, and Appropriation .................................................................................................146
Stage 3: GVTT Structural Operation, Culture, and Ideation ...............................149
Stage 4: Outcomes and GVTT Completion .........................................................151
Research Limitations .......................................................................................................153
Suggestions for Future Research .....................................................................................153
Conclusions ......................................................................................................................154
References ........................................................................................................................156
Appendix A: PRISMA Diagram ......................................................................................172
Appendix B: Selected Studies Quality and Relevance Assessment ................................173
Appendix C: Extracted Thematic Analysis and Coding Results .....................................176
v
List of Tables
1. Interrelationships of Performance, Issues, and Outcomes ............................................ 85
2. Research Source Search Results ................................................................................ 100
vi
List of Figures
1. Theorist foundations, the influence building of research for the management of GVTTs’ technology appropriation .................................................................................... 25
2. Sociotechnical model: Three interrelated analytic dimensions of organizational
shifts ............................................................................................................................ 40
3. The dynamic of top-down/bottom-up processes across levels of culture ..................... 52
4. Hofstede’s Regional/Countries Matrix of Cultural Differentiation .............................. 55
5. GVTT Adaptive Structuration (TUMAST) Theory Domain and IPO Diagram .......... 62
6. The systematic review approach ................................................................................... 97
7. Conceptual model for managing GVTT technology appropriation for outcomes….. 109
8. Episode task environment ........................................................................................... 116
9. Combined AIT and technology facilitation and mediation, coupled with technology appropriation and goal attainment .................................................................................. 124
10. Team and technology interaction from a sociotechnology, trust, and collaboration perspective ...................................................................................................................... 138
11. GVTT performance is assessed based on satisfaction of outcomes ......................... 143
12. Project management stage 1: Define, characterize, and launch ................................ 146
13. Project management stage 2: Technology identification, facilitation, and appropriation.. ................................................................................................................. 148
14. Project management stage 3: Structural operation, culture, and ideation ................. 151
15. Project management stage 4: Outcomes and GVTT completion .............................. 152
MANAGING TECHNOLOGY APPROPRIATION BY GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 1
© 2018 William J Harris
Chapter 1: Introduction
Background and Problem Context
At times, technological systems, products, and services experience failures or disruptions, and companies, agencies, or other types of organizations must correct them. In many instances, temporary engineering project teams are tasked to quickly resolve these unanticipated problems or shifts in needs. The teams that are focused on solving problems, as well as developing capabilities and sustaining operations, have their own lifecycles. These lifecycles evolve from the first stage of identifying a problem or requirement to creating capabilities, introducing new capability features to existing products, and then, through to production, technical services, sustainment, and operations (Defense Acquisition System, n.d.). The full lifecycle of a project, whether creating products or providing services, will eventually include a stage of needing to address design issues and problems, as well as phasing out or replacing capabilities.
Most engineering projects are preplanned, ongoing, and take place within the normal course of business. These projects entail single or multiple engineering disciplines to produce capabilities and provide services that are defined, designed, and implemented. Common to these engineering projects – and in each phase of their lifecycle – is the emergence of critical problems, such as design flaws, that cannot be anticipated and yet must be addressed and solved in a short period of time. For example, although failure modes may also be forecasted and planned, they become time-critical tasks when unforeseen events bring unexpected issues to the fore. As a result, response to engineering problems is oftentimes reactionary; that is, the team needs to quickly address emerging issues or unanticipated failures that may affect people’s health and well-being or the viability or prosperity of a business.
This study is concerned with managing global teams that are formed as a result of unanticipated problems or issues that require time-critical solutions as a nonroutine function. The nature of these problems is that they must be solved outside of the normal course of business, and the teams assembled to solve them often include experts in MANAGING TECHNOLOGY APPROPRIATION BY GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 2
© 2018 William J Harris
specific yet disparate fields who are recruited globally and then disbanded after the task has been completed. As a result of this virtual environment, managers of these teams are faced with efficiently providing effective resources along with guiding teams through the process of determining the origins of failures, as well as finding and implementing solutions to quickly address the task at hand. These virtual teams rely on technology to execute engineering processes, collaborate in their activities, and to validate and share knowledge. The project manager is thrust into this environment and given little time to plan and to coordinate effective resources to support the team. Thus, the need to manage the appropriation and use of technology that supports virtual teams to accomplish their reactionary tasking is critical for successful outcomes.
Environment: Tiger Teams – Unique Problem-Solving Organizations
This research will delve into the managerial environment under which these problem-solving teams work to find solutions to short-term problems. The issues associated with these teams’ objectives are anticipated to differ significantly from sustained engineering team problems in nearly all aspects, including tasking, structure, objective, motivation, technology appropriation, and social interaction (Thomas, Bellin, Jules, & Lynton, 2014). In doing so, team leaders must address and solve unique, time-critical problem situations. In this environment, increasingly, managers work with diversely skilled temporary teams whose members are located throughout the globe, thus their name: global virtual tiger teams (GVTTs).
These specialty teams, which are given the moniker “tiger teams,” have their genesis in the 1960s when the US