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Service innovation through boundary-spanning and collaboration of front-line employees and middle managers
No full textTo explore the boundary-spanning and collaborative behaviors
and characteristics that enable front-line employees and middle
managers to develop innovation in service organizations. The
dissertation will identify the elements that are needed to
effectively manage the innovation process to develop service
innovation.SERVICE INNOVATION THROUGH BOUNDARY-SPANNING AND COLLABORATION
OF FRONT-LINE EMPLOYEES AND MIDDLE MANAGERS
Purpose Statement
This research will enable senior managers in service
organizations to take a proactive approach to hiring and
developing front-line employees and middle managers by
reinforcing and motivating desired behaviors, hiring personnel
with identified characteristics, and ensuring the proper
conditions exist for service innovation to be developed.
Results
To explore the boundary-spanning and collaborative behaviors
and characteristics that enable front-line employees and middle
managers to develop innovation in service organizations. The
dissertation will identify the elements that are needed to
effectively manage the innovation process to develop service
innovation.
Advisors: Dr. Deborah Wharff, Dr. Wanda Wagner
Implications for Practitioners
(Management)
Karen K. Carmack
The Graduate School
University of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD
A systematic review was conducted to answer the research
question:
•A total of 828 articles were initially returned.
•After screening, 57 articles underwent quality appraisal by
applying a standard Weight of Evidence framework.
•Forty-five empirical articles were subsequently selected for
inclusion in a realist synthesis.
•Using MAXQDA, first and second cycle coding processes were
applied to the final data set, resulting in 28 descriptive themes
within four categories.
Research Question
What boundary-spanning and collaborative behaviors and
characteristics enable front-line employees and middle mangers
to develop innovation in service organizations?
Method: The Process of Discovery
• Front-line employees exhibited four boundary-spanning
behaviors: demonstrating situational awareness, generating
ideas, interacting with customers, and absorbing knowledge.
They possessed one boundary-spanning characteristic, being
intrinsically motivated. And two factors identified as both a
behavior and characteristic, exhibiting innovation effort and
sharing knowledge.
• Middle managers exhibited five boundary-spanning
behaviors: facilitating, serving as a conduit for knowledge
sharing, creating a shared perspective, mobilizing creative
talent, and allocating resources. They possessed three
characteristics: having personal power, being
customer-focused, and being engaged. And two factors
identified as both a behavior and characteristic: fostering
team collaboration, and serving as a change agent.
• Collaborative behaviors of front-line employees and middle
managers were: co-creating innovation, stimulating
growth/learning, and providing input into processes. One
collaborative characteristic emerged, which was extrinsic
motivation. Two factors identified as both a behavior and a
characteristic: interpersonal trust, and open communication.
• It is not enough for front-line employees and middle
managers to exhibit boundary-spanning and collaborative
behaviors and characteristics, but other factors such as an
effective innovation climate, senior management support,
and a way to minimize potential barriers must be in place to
enable service innovation.
Implications for Scholars
This dissertation extends research on service innovation.
Future researchers can examine the motivation factors of
front-line employees and middle managers that incent them to
exhibit innovative behaviors in service organizations.
Moreover, further insights can be gained by examining how to
maximize and capitalize upon the innovation effort exerted by
these groups.
Theoretical Framework
• Diffusion of innovation (Rogers, 2003)
• Sensemaking (Weick, Sutcliffe, & Obstfeld, 2005)
• Leader-member exchange (Uhl-Bien, 1995)
• Organizational structure (Rapert & Wren, 1998)
The Problem for Practitioners Conceptual Model
Service organizations need the ability to
effectively develop innovation in order to
distinguish themselves from the competition
and show profit for their shareholders, but
the nature of these organizations is not
conducive to traditional R&D methods
Faith-based social entrepreneurship: The integration of faith and business for sustainable social impact
No full textFaith-based nonprofit organizations face myriad challenges in securing a sufficient donation base within a restricted pool of donors. This funding challenge often limits their ability to conduct their mission. To offset this challenge and model self-sufficiency, many faith-based organizations are looking to evolve into hybrid platforms that operate as faith-based social entrepreneurial ventures and manage to a triple bottom line of social good, financial impact, and spiritual mission. Yet even with the best of intentions, successfully merging a for-profit business model into a preexisting nonprofit organization often fails, even before the faith-factor is in play. This study of social entrepreneurship in faith-based nonprofits is conducted to identify how and why successful integration of the hybrid business model for sustainable social impact occurs. Using a realist synthesis approach, a systematic review of the literature was conducted to identify the mechanisms that correlated to a positive integration of the disparate business models and the outcome of a sustainable organizational structure. Five organizational characteristics and five management practices were identified as key underlying mechanisms that led to the creation of a successful merged hybrid organization. The five characteristics were 1) Institutional Logic, 2) Motivations and Values, 3) Resources, 4) Decision-Making, and 5) Culture. The five practices were 1) Focus on Launch, 2) Cultivation of Staff and Board, 3) Timing of Culture Integration, 4) Addressing Unstable Structures, and 5) View on Generating Profit. These results, along with their implications for managers are presented and discussed within the context of the Business Model Canvas to offer a usable guide for practitioners seeking to successfully move their organizations from a traditional faith-based nonprofit to a hybrid faith-based social entrepreneurial venture.Faith-Based Social Entrepreneurship:
The Integration of Faith and Business for Sustainable Social Impact
Christine Beech
Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of
University of Maryland, University College
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Management
2018
Dissertation Advisors:
W. Christopher Cason, DM
J. Heather Welzant, Ph.D.
K. Candis Best, Ph.D.
FAITH-BASED SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP
ii
Abstract
Faith-based nonprofit organizations face myriad challenges in securing a sufficient
donation base within a restricted pool of donors. This funding challenge often limits their ability
to conduct their mission. To offset this challenge and model self-sufficiency, many faith-based
organizations are looking to evolve into hybrid platforms that operate as faith-based social
entrepreneurial ventures and manage to a triple bottom line of social good, financial impact, and
spiritual mission. Yet even with the best of intentions, successfully merging a for-profit business
model into a preexisting nonprofit organization often fails, even before the faith-factor is in play.
This study of social entrepreneurship in faith-based nonprofits is conducted to identify how and
why successful integration of the hybrid business model for sustainable social impact occurs.
Using a realist synthesis approach, a systematic review of the literature was conducted to identify
the mechanisms that correlated to a positive integration of the disparate business models and the
outcome of a sustainable organizational structure. Five organizational characteristics and five
management practices were identified as key underlying mechanisms that led to the creation of a
successful merged hybrid organization. The five characteristics were 1) Institutional Logic, 2)
Motivations and Values, 3) Resources, 4) Decision-Making, and 5) Culture. The five practices
were 1) Focus on Launch, 2) Cultivation of Staff and Board, 3) Timing of Culture Integration, 4)
Addressing Unstable Structures, and 5) View on Generating Profit. These results, along with
their implications for managers are presented and discussed within the context of the Business
Model Canvas to offer a usable guide for practitioners seeking to successfully move their
organizations from a traditional faith-based nonprofit to a hybrid faith-based social
entrepreneurial venture.
Keywords: Faith-based social entrepreneurship, faith-based social enterprise, social
entrepreneurship, social enterprise, social ventures, hybrid organizations, triple-bottom line,
business model canvas, sustainable social impact
FAITH-BASED SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP
iii
Dedication
First and foremost, this dissertation is dedicated to my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ. I
am grateful that I have a God who sustains me and has given me purpose in life. He has always
known the plans He had for me, and I am thankful that I finally learned to follow Him and trust
Him.
To my husband, George, without whom I would not be here. He is my love, my best
friend, the person I cannot live without. He supported me, encouraged me, and pushed me to
complete this journey. His willingness to put our lives on hold for four years is the only reason
this was possible. For putting up with all the working vacations, weekends lost, declined
invitations, and years of covering for me while I was doing research and writing, my deepest
thanks and appreciation.
To my children, Nichole and Katherine, my son-in-law Alex, and my grandchildren,
Abigail, Zachary, Natalie and Logan. I am so grateful for your support and encouragement.
Thanks for understanding when I had to miss an event, giving me space to write, and being my
greatest cheerleaders.
To my friends and family, especially those that have stood the test of time and been with
me through thick and thin, from my days in the army until now, your encouragement and belief
in me has always been a source of strength.
To the community of faith-filled entrepreneurs, for whom this research was conducted. I
hope and pray this knowledge helps you continue your good work and find ways to adapt and be
relevant in the coming years.
FAITH-BASED SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP
iv
Acknowledgements
As this journey comes to a close, I would like to acknowledge those who helped to bring
this research to fruition.
I am grateful for all the UMUC faculty, and specifically Dr. Witz and Dr. Sherlock who
encouraged me early on and throughout the process to think critically and choose my research
topic wisely. I am also indebted to my dissertation advisors, for their guidance and support,
especially Dr. Cason, whose calm approach to life helped me remain focused when my life was
anything but calm.
My thanks to my cohort members, on whom I relied for a mental pick-me-up each
residency and continual reminders in between of the long game we were playing to get to the
end; without their encouragement it would have been a very lonely process. I also want to thank
my fellow sojourners in this process, Eric Miller and Laura D’Antonio, who remained a needed
sounding board for my ideas and offered welcome advice throughout the process.
I am very grateful to the leadership at Saint Mary’s University for hiring me ABD and for
your willingness to support the completion of this research and the dissertation. Finishing this
dissertation while working through my first year on staff was a challenge, and I am indebted to
my fellow faculty for your encouragement and support.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the faith-based practitioners who supported my
work with cooperation, discussions, and prayers. Your input helped to remind me of the
challenges you face every day and gave purpose to this research.
FAITH-BASED SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP
v
Table of Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... ii
Dedication ............................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. iv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1
Background ........................................................................................................................... 1
Purpose and Scope of Study ................................................................................................. 3
Definitions ............................................................................................................................. 5
Social entrepreneurship (SE) ............................................................................................ 6
Faith-based organization (FBO) ....................................................................................... 6
Hybrid organization .......................................................................................................... 6
Faith-based social enterprise (FBSE) ............................................................................... 7
Conceptual Relationship ....................................................................................................... 7
Research Question, Assumptions and Proposition .............................................................. 8
Research Question ............................................................................................................ 8
Proposition ........................................................................................................................ 9
Problem Statement and Significance ................................................................................... 9
Importance to Management ............................................................................................... 10
Organization of the Dissertation ........................................................................................ 11
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................... 13
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 13
Faith-Based Organizations ................................................................................................. 16
The rise of FBO literature .............................................................................................. 16
FBO typologies ................................................................................................................ 19
FBO versus NGO ............................................................................................................ 21
FBOs, churches, and congregations ............................................................................... 22
FBOs - An anthropological, ethnographic, and historical lens ..................................... 23
The Introduction of Social Entrepreneurship ................................................................... 25
The social aspect of SE .................................................................................................... 25
Being social requires social capital ................................................................................. 26
The double bottom line ................................................................................................... 27
Performance metrics – A reason behind the growth of SE ........................................... 28
Emergence of Hybrid Organizations ................................................................................. 28
FAITH-BASED SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP
vi
For-profit SE versus nonprofit mindset ......................................................................... 31
Benefit and low profit corporations ............................................................................... 32
A New Business Model—FBSEs ......................................................................................... 33
The benefits of a triple bottom line ................................................................................ 35
The continuum of organizational structures .................................................................. 36
Blending organizations ................................................................................................... 38
Blending cultures ............................................................................................................ 38
Theory ................................................................................................................................ 42
Agency theory ................................................................................................................. 43
Grounded theory design ................................................................................................. 43
Social capital theory ........................................................................................................ 44
Institutional theory ......................................................................................................... 45
Chapter Summary .............................................................................................................. 46
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................... 47
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 47
An Evidence-Based Approach ............................................................................................ 47
Systematic Review .............................................................................................................. 49
Stages of the Review ........................................................................................................... 50
A Systematic Review of Integrating SE into FBOs ............................................................ 55
Stage 1: Clarifying the problem and question ............................................................... 55
Stage 2: Identification of the evidence ............................................................................ 56
Stage 3: A Conceptual framework ................................................................................. 63
Stage 4: Synthesis of the Findings .................................................................................. 65
Stage 5: Quality Appraisal of the Evidence ................................................................... 67
Step 6: Engaging Stakeholders ....................................................................................... 73
Chapter Summary .............................................................................................................. 74
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS ...................................................................................................... 76
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 76
Evidence Synthesis Results ................................................................................................. 76
Research Question Answered ............................................................................................. 77
Organizational Characteristic Findings............................................................................. 78
OC 1 - Institutional logic ................................................................................................ 79
OC 2 - Motivations and values ....................................................................................... 85
FAITH-BASED SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP
vii
OC 3 - Organizational resources .................................................................................... 94
OC 4- Decision-making ................................................................................................. 100
OC 5 –Culture ............................................................................................................... 108
Proposition Addressed ...................................................................................................... 113
Management Practice Findings ........................................................................................ 115
MP 1: Focus on launching an FBSE ............................................................................. 115
MP 2: Cultivation of staff and board capacity ............................................................. 116
MP3: Timing of new culture integration ...................................................................... 119
MP4: Addressing unstable structures and a new organizational identity .................. 120
MP5: View towards generating profit .......................................................................... 122
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................ 124
CHAPTER 5: IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ................................................... 126
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 126
A New Focus for FBSE Discussions ................................................................................. 127
Conceptual Framework Revisited .................................................................................... 127
Implications for Practitioners .......................................................................................... 129
Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 137
Future Research ................................................................................................................ 138
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 138
Appendix A ........................................................................................................................... 141
Appendix B ........................................................................................................................... 142
References ............................................................................................................................. 143
FAITH-BASED SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP
viii
List of Tables and Figures
Tables
Table 1. Final Search String………………………………………………………….….57
Table 2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria used in evidence retrieval……………….……58
Table 3. Final Data Set………….……………………………………………………….61
Table 4. Weight of Evidence …...….……………………………………………………68
Table 5. Summary of First and Second Round Coding of the Data………………….….70
Figures
Figure 1. Conceptual relationship between pre-existing FBO and final FBSE………..….8
Figure 2. Continuum of organizational forms supporting faith-based social change.…...36
Figure 3. Blending of commitment and culture supporting FBSE integration……….….38
Figure 4. Stages of the systematic review process……….…………………………...….49
Figure 5. PRISMA diagram of the document search flow……………………………….60
Figure 6. Conceptualizing the hybrid organization in the BMC framework....………….63
Figure 7. A depiction of the study problem in the CIMO framework………….….…….65
Figure 8. Distribution of organizational constructs included in the study. …….….…….69
Figure 9. CIMO model demonstrating divergent outcomes……………………….…….71
Figure 10. Organizational characteristics in the BMC framework……………...……….77
Figure 11. Proposition findings in the BMC framework......……………………..…….111
Figure 12. Conceptual framework revisited with findings……………...……...………125
FAITH-BASED SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP
1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Whatever you do, work at it with all your heart, as working for the Lord, not for human masters
—Colossians 3:23 New International Version
Background
Looking back in history, nonprofit faith-based organizations (FBOs) have worked
throughout the world to feed the hungry and take care of the poor, acting as social entrepreneurs
in seeking societal improvement, for hundreds if not thousands of years (Alderson, 2012). FBOs
have taken on not only global health and poverty issues, but also those of environmental
sustainability (Moyer, Sinclair, & Spaling, 2012). Indeed, the role of faith in social change has
been a volatile but acknowledged factor in the holistic view of human well-being, one that
recognizes the social condition encompasses more than just economic sufficiency (Thomas,
2004). As Sud, VanSandt, and Baugous (2009) contend, social problems span all institutional
boundaries—including government, religion, and education—and so all institutions must be
involved in finding solutions to our social problems (p. 210).
The role of the faith community as a driver for community-led improvement to social and
economic well-being gained more formal acknowledgement with the establishment of the
Federal Government’s Center for Faith-Based and Community Initiatives (CFBCI) within the
United States Agency for International Development (USAID). This center was established to
help integrate faith-based initiatives with other organizations in order to leverage the capabilities
of all organizations working to provide aid within various contexts (Thomas, 2004). Although
the role of FBOs in global societal improvement has been firmly established, the construct, much
as with NPOs, has historically been charitable in nature, with a heavy reliance on donations and
grants to fulfill their mission (Dees, 2012).
FAITH-BASED SOCIAL ENTREPR
Factors that influence successful organizational change in corporations: Examination of change management, employees’ reaction to change, and change outcomes
No full textCorporations are confronted with two challenges today: the increasing demand to change in order to stay competitive and the implementation of successful organizational change. Although they usually bow to the demand for change, studies have found that more change initiatives fail to meet desired outcomes. Organizational change failure is often attributed to management style, employee reaction, and failure to integrate change outcomes. Organizational change is the process in which an institution changes its culture, operational methods, structure, strategies or technologies. This dissertation uses systematic review of literature to examine leadership style, employees’ reaction to change, and change outcomes management. The relationship between these three variables were examined in order to identify the factors that influence successful organizational change in corporations. It was found that transformational leadership style, organizational change readiness, and effective communication are three key factors that influence successful organizational change. Transformational leaders create and provide vision for change and maintain relationship with followers. Organizational readiness involves planning, developing strategies, and implementing change. Specifically, readiness impacts employees’ commitment, beliefs, attitudes, and intentions toward change. Communication provides clarity, direction and enforces commitment to change. In conclusion, the findings imply that a combination of leadership and managerial skills can lead to successful change management. The preparation of an organization for change through effective communication with followers can influence successful organizational change.Running head: SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Factors that Influence Successful Organizational Change in Corporations: Examination of Change Management, Employees’ Reaction to Change, and Change Outcomes
Augustus Dee Roberts
A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Management
University of Maryland University College
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Management
Advisors:
James Gelatt, Ph.D., Primary Dissertation Advisor
Richard Milter, Ph.D., Dissertation Advisor
SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE II
Abstract
Corporations are confronted with two challenges today: the increasing demand to change in order to stay competitive and the implementation of successful organizational change. Although they usually bow to the demand for change, studies have found that more change initiatives fail to meet desired outcomes. Organizational change failure is often attributed to management style, employee reaction, and failure to integrate change outcomes. Organizational change is the process in which an institution changes its culture, operational methods, structure, strategies or technologies. This dissertation uses systematic review of literature to examine leadership style, employees’ reaction to change, and change outcomes management. The relationship between these three variables were examined in order to identify the factors that influence successful organizational change in corporations. It was found that transformational leadership style, organizational change readiness, and effective communication are three key factors that influence successful organizational change. Transformational leaders create and provide vision for change and maintain relationship with followers. Organizational readiness involves planning, developing strategies, and implementing change. Specifically, readiness impacts employees’ commitment, beliefs, attitudes, and intentions toward change. Communication provides clarity, direction and enforces commitment to change. In conclusion, the findings imply that a combination of leadership and managerial skills can lead to successful change management. The preparation of an organization for change through effective communication with followers can influence successful organizational change.
Keywords: change management, leadership style, organizational change, outcomes, readiness SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE III
Acknowledgements
Without the love and support of my family, my dissertation advisors, and friends, I could not have completed this research. I want to express my gratitude to everyone for their support. First to Laura, my wife, thank you for your patience and support through the years. To my children - Dee, Gardea, and Yeatoe, thanks for all your help. I appreciate those nights you stayed up with me to proof read my work.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my dissertation committee- Dr. Jim Gelatt and Dr. Richard Milter. I am grateful to Dr. Gelatt, my primary advisor for making me to believe that completing this dissertation is possible. His guidance, coaching, and communication provided me a clear insight and the courage to reach the finish line. I would also like to thank Dr. Milter for his feedback and encouragement. The personal story about his dissertation served as a source of inspiration for me. I want to thank members of my subject matter expert panel who commented on the premise, evidence, and implications of this dissertation. The SMEs are Lena Slachmuijlder, vice president of Programs at Search for Common Ground, Mr. Martin Kormanik, Professorial Lecturer, Georgetown University and President and CEO of Organizational Development Systems (O.D), and Patricia B. Minikon, J.D., senior attorney and founder of Minikon Law, LLC with offices in Greenbelt, Baltimore, and Rockville, Maryland. Also, I want to express my heartfelt gratitude to my brothers and friends –Garrison Roberts Jr., Andrew Kear Sr., Reuben B. Gboweh (Norr), Peter J. O. Zondo, and Rocky D. Johnson for their suggestions, technical, editorial, and moral support.
SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE IV
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my family, especially to my late parents, Kpanjay and John Roberts for their unconditional love and especially for teaching me not to give-up. To my wife, Laura, for your patience and support, I would like to also dedicate this dissertation. Finally, I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my fellow refugees around the world and especially to refugees living in the Buduburam Refugee Camp in Ghana where I spent eleven years. I just want to let you know that one day, change will come.
SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE V
Table of Contents
Abstract……………………………………………………………………….…..........................II
Acknowledgement...………………………………………………………..................................III
Dedication…………………………………………………………………..................................IV
Table of Contents ....…………………………………………………….……..............................V
List of Tables ……………………………………........................................................................VI
CHAPTER 1 ……………………………………………….…………………….…………….....1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE……….…………....…1
Background of the Dissertation....……. …………………………………………..……………...2
Statement of the Problem ……. ……………………………………………….………………….4
Purpose and Scope of the Dissertation ………..………..……..……..………………..…………..5
Significance of the Study………………….………………………………………………………5
Research Question……………………. …………….……………………………………............6
Discussion of Themes/Concepts and Relevant Literature......................………………..………...6
Successful Organizational Change Management………………………………..………………...6 SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE VI
Planned Change Management ……………….…………………….……………………..……….7
Emergent Change Managing …..………………………………..………………………….……..8
Planned and Emergent Change Management…......................……………………………….…...8
Change Management vs Organization Management..…………….……………………..…….….9
Employee Resistance to Change……………………………………….………..………………...9
Change Outcomes ….………………………….……………………...…………………………10
Outcomes and Organizational Performance ………………….………….......………………….11
Definitions of Terminology…….…………………………...………………………………….. 11
Summary of the Chapter….……………..……………………………………………….……...12
Organization of the Dissertation....................................................................................................13
CHAPTER 2 …………………………………………………………………………………….14
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW………...…………….....…..14
Discussion of Theoretical Framework…………………………….………………………….….15
Literature Review…………………….…………………………………….……………….……17
Transformational Leadership……………………………...…………………...………………...18 SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE VII
Readiness and Communication Themes………. ………………………………………………..20
Employee Resistance to Change Themes………………………..................................................22
Why Employees Resist Change………………………….………………….…………….……..23
Measuring Employee Resistance to Change………….………………..….……………………..24
Change Outcomes Theme ………………………………………….…..………………….….…25
Outcomes Criteria………...…………………………….………………..……………….…......26
Change Outcomes and Organizational Performance……………………….……….……….…. 27
Literature Interpretative Model……. ………………………………………….……….………..28
Narrative of the Interpretative Model………………….……………………………..………….29
Summary of the Chapter ………………………..……….…………….…………….……….….30
CHAPTER 3 ……………………………………………………………..…………….…….….31
METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………..…………………..31
Discussion of Systematic Review of Literature……………………………….....………………32
Aggregative and Configurative Literature Reviews..…….……………………..…………..…...32
Advantages of Systematic Review ……………………………..………………………..………33 SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE VIII
Evidence-Based Management/Evidenced-Based Research……………………………………...34
Discussion of Scholarly Research Tools …………………………………………………….….35
Scope of Analysis..………………………………………………...……….………………..…..35
Standards of Research………………....……………………………………………………........35
Qualitative Research Approach.……………………….……….…….……….……..…………..36
Search Strategy ………………………………………………..…….…………. ……….…..….37
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria.....…………………………..…………...………………….… 37
Quality Appraisal Tools…………………………………..………………….….……….………39
TAPUPAS ………………………………..……………………………………………..……….39
PRISMA………………………………………………………………………………..….….….40
Themes and Coding……………………………………………………………...........................41
Presentation and Discussion of Subject Matter Expert (SMEs)..…………………………..........41
Invitation of SMEs ………………………………………………………………………….…...42
Impact of the Feedback from SMEs.………….…………………………………………….…...43
Summary of the Chapter…………………………………………………………………...…….43 SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE IX
CHAPTER 4………………………………………………………….………………….………44
PRESENTATION OF THE FINDINGS: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION………..…..…......44
Re-statement of the Research Question ……..………………………….…...……………..……45
Analysis of the Findings…………………………………………………....................................46
Analysis of Emergent Themes from Literature………………..…………….………….….……47
Analysis of Transformational Leadership Theme………………...….……………………..........48
Discussion of Transformational Leadership Theme…………..…………………………….…...54
Table of the Summary of Findings……….……………...……………………………….……...55
Analysis of Organizational Readiness Theme…….……………………………..........................56
Discussion of Organizational Readiness Theme …………………….…………………………..61
Table of the Summary Findings…….……………………………………………………………62
Analysis of Communication Theme………………………………………………………….….63
Discussion of Communication theme …………………………………………………… ….….65
Table of the Summary of Findings……………..……………………………….……………….66
Revised Conceptual Model……….…….…………….………..…………………………..….....68 SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE X
Narrative of the Revised Conceptual Model…….…….……………………….………………...69
Alternative Perspectives on Findings…………………………………………………….………71
Summary of the Chapter.………………………………………………………..………….……72
CHAPTER 5: ……………………………………………………………………………...…….73
OVERALL CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS …………………………………………..73
Overall Conclusion of the Dissertation.…….……………………………..…..……………........74
Transformational Leadership Main Theme……. ………………………………………...……..76
Transformational Leadership Sub-themes.……………………………………..……………….76
Readiness for Change Theme…………………………………………………..…….………….77
Communication Theme…………………………………………………………..………………78
Implications for Managers……………………………………….……………….………...……79
Implications for Researchers…....………………………..……….…….......................................80
Limitations of the Study…………………………………………………….……..……………..81
Recommendation for Future Research…………………………………………………..….…....81
Summary of the Chapter………………………………………….………….………….…….…82 SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE XI
References……………………………………………………………………………………..…83
Appendices…………………………………………………………………..………….101
Appendix A Integrated Organizational Change Models…………….………………….101
Appendix B Lewin’s Three-Stage Change Model and Schein’s Elaboration.….............102
Appendix C Transformational Leadership Model……………………...………………103
Appendix D Resistance to Change Model……………………………..…….…………104
Appendix E Systematic Literature Review Model………………………….…….……105
Appendix F Evidence Based Management Model…………..……………..…….…….106
Appendix G Studies and Emergent Themes…………………………………..………..107
Appendix H TAPUPAS Quality Appraisal….…………………………..……..……….110
Appendix I PRISMA Flow Diagram…………………….……………...…………...…116
Appendix J Coding: Frequency of Words…………………….......………...………….117
Appendix K Coding: Themes that Emerged from Literature…………………..............118
Appendix L Coding: Patterns of Text Search Query-Results Preview…………………119
Appendix M Executive Summary of the Dissertation and EBM.....……...…..…..…….120 SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE XII
Appendix N Subject Matter Experts Invitation Letter………….……….……………...123
Appendix O Subject Matter Experts Profile……………………………………………124
Appendix P Feedback from Subject Matter Experts………………..………………..…125
Appendix Q Correlations of Leadership Styles ………………………………..………132
Appendix R Organizational Change Readiness Model…........…....…..……………….133
Appendix S Organizational Change Communication Model………………………......134
SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE
Although the rate of organizational change has increased due to the need for corporations to remain competitive and survive, the rate of successful change has decreased considerably. Several studies have found that approximately 70% of organizational change initiatives failed to produce the intended outcomes (Beer & Nohria, 2000, p.133; Burnes & Jackson, 2011, p.137). Empirical findings from (e.g., Burnes 2009; Sentura, Flees & Maceda, 2008; Smith, 2002 & Tarokh, Sharifi & Nazem, 2008) supported the claim that more organizational change initiatives have failed than have succeeded.
Majority of organizational change initiatives involve implementing new management practices, adapting new technologies, or changing corporate culture (Cameron & Green, 2011, p.311; Leppitt, 2006, p.128). The selection of these change initiatives is defined by the context of the change, the type of change required, organizational culture, configuration of teams, and employee personalities (Cameron & Green, 2011, p. 331).
Despite these parameters and other new approaches and insights, managing successful organizational change remains a daunting challenge for corporations (Burnes, 2011, p.446). Several studies have found different reasons for the difficulties in managing successful organizational change. Other studies argued that the lack of ethical leadership, proper planning and implementation are factors that have led to the failure of organizational change (Armenakis & Harris, 2009, p. 139; Mitchell, 2013, p.34; Oreg & Berson, 2011, p.629). Yet still, some studies argued that alignment of change initiatives with the value system of employees and the SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 2
consideration of their cognitive state, emotional state, and behavior are essential for successful change (Burnes & Jackson, 2011, p.133; Piderit, 2000, p.785). However, several studies have agreed that successful organizational change initiatives require well planned leadership strategies, skills, and the participation of employees in the change process (Carte, 2008, p. 20; Shin, Taylor & Seo, 2012, p. 741). These diverse views regarding successful organizational change in corporations help to raise an important question regarding the common critical success factors (CSF) for organizational change initiatives (Leppitt, 2006, p.122). Obviously, the lingering question today is: what are the specific factors that influence successful organizational change in corporations? The aim of this dissertation is to gather and synthesize empirical data that provide adequate evidence about the factors that influence successful organizational change in corporations. Organizational change is defined as the continuous renewal of the organization’s direction, culture, technology, structure, and capabilities in order to serve the needs of internal and external customers (Moran & Brightman, 2001, p.111).
Background of the Dissertation
The field of organizational change has been influenced by several theories and concepts about different approaches to successful change. However, one commonality among change theories and models is the drive to achieve successful change outcomes that can add value to the organization. Compared with managing an organization, which involves routine planning and implementation, change management appeals to different approaches that draw on strategy, organizational development, and human relations (Pollack & Algeo, 2014, p.14). SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 3
Early change management approaches focused on the capability of the organization and were influenced by the human relations movement. The movement included influential researchers and theorists (e.g., Argyris, 1957, McGregor, 1960 & Maslow, 1964) who studied workplace groups’ behavior and other concepts in industrial and organizational psychology. The transition from the study of individual behavior to group behavior established the foundation for contemporary Organizational Development approach to change management today (Leppitt, 2006, p.125).
The earliest theory of successful organizational change is credited to Kurt Lewin (1951), who introduced a three-stage model for successful change. In this dissertation, a theory is defined as a coherent description or explanation of an observed phenomenon (Gioia & Pitre, 1990. P. 587). Lewin’s theory three-step theory (unfreeze, change and refreeze) provides a systematic approach that covers change management processes, the management of employees’ resistance, and the internalization and integration of change outcomes (Kritsonis, 2005, p. 2). Schein (1999) argued that Lewin’s theory is not just a formal proposition about change, it brings together variables that help leaders to conceptualize the type of change that suits their specific organization (p. 59).
Over the decades, several studies (e.g., Kanter, 1999; Kotter, 1996; Luecke, 2003; Schein, 1992; Senge, 2000) have developed models for successful organizational change drawing on Lewin’s change theory (See Appendix A). Kanter (1999) developed a ten-step model for successful organizational change which focused on management. Kotter (1996) built an eight point model which focused on the role of leadership and employees in the change process. Luecke (2003) introduced a seven-step model which focused on communication and employee SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 4
involvement in the change process. Senge (2000) built a three-stage model which discussed initiation of organizational change, enforcing the momentum of change, and redesigning and rethinking the outcomes.
Other early studies of organizational change (e.g. Coch & French, 1948; Lawrence, 1954) focused on employee reaction to change and referred to it as resistance to change (Amenakis & Harris, 2009, p. 132). Later, a re-interpretation of Coch and French study by Bartlem and Locke (1981) and Gardner (1977) introduced the term employee readiness to refer to what earlier studies termed resistance. Recent studies emphasized leadership style and the participation of employees as factors that can lead to successful change (Armenakis & Harris, 2009, p.128); Woodward & Hendry, 2004, p.155). Both Armenakis and Harris, (2009) and Woodward and Hendry (2004) argument about leadership and employees’ participation drew on the models of influential organizational change management scholars (e.g., Kanter, 1999; Schein, 1992 & Kotter, 1996) whose change models emphasized leadership and the involvement of employees in the change process. Although much work has been done in the field of organizational change, an integrated change management model is needed in order to identify factors that can lead to successful organizational change (Leppitt, 2006, p. 137).
Statement of the Problem
Much of the evidence in the field of organizational change shows that managing change in corporations is problematic and more change initiatives fail to meet the desired outcomes. The growing challenge is that organizational change initiatives, for example, adapting new technology, changing corporate culture, or restructuring, borrow different theories, concepts, and SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 5
models from other disciplines (Van De Van & Poole, 1995, p. 510). The variation in the application of models and concepts present difficulties for the identification of factors that influence successful change. Other change management studies have argued that the integration of theories and concepts is desirable in order to have common success factors and perspectives that can influence change managers’ understanding of the full process of successful organizational change (Bruckman, 2008, p.211; Todnem, 2005, p.379). However, Burnes (2011) argued that the field of organizational change cannot progress unless the following three problems
Management strategies for implementing community recovery programs after hurricanes
No full textCoastal communities and those in the flood plains of the United States of America are often devastated by hurricanes and the ensuing flooding in the aftermath. Community recovery after each hurricane is often long and mostly chaotic. The problem appears to be a lack of a solid recovery management strategy in place because the challenges of recovery seem to be replicated with each hurricane. In an attempt to address the recurring issue in this dissertation, the researcher explored management strategies for implementing sustainable community recovery after hurricanes. The research method is the systematic review of literature in which the researcher applied Mintzberg’s adhocracy theory. The scope of the study was Category 3–5 hurricanes in the United States from 2005 to 2017. These hurricanes were Hurricane Katrina, Hurricane Wilma, Hurricane Rita, Hurricane Sandy, and Hurricane Matthew. Evidence from existing literature suggested that some management strategies are more effective than others. Some of the effective strategies were using social media, call centers, buyouts, and relocations. Housing was one of the recovery programs that were bedeviled by challenges.iii
Management Strategies for Implementing Community Recovery Programs After Hurricanes
Fatima Musa Alfa
Dissertation
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
In Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Eric B. Dent, Ph.D. (Chair)
G. David Andersen, Ed.D.
December 29, 2017
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
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Abstract
Coastal communities and those in the flood plains of the United States of America are often devastated by hurricanes and the ensuing flooding in the aftermath. Community recovery after each hurricane is often long and mostly chaotic. The problem appears to be a lack of a solid recovery management strategy in place because the challenges of recovery seem to be replicated with each hurricane. In an attempt to address the recurring issue in this dissertation, the researcher explored management strategies for implementing sustainable community recovery after hurricanes. The research method is the systematic review of literature in which the researcher applied Mintzberg’s adhocracy theory. The scope of the study was Category 3–5 hurricanes in the United States from 2005 to 2017. These hurricanes were Hurricane Katrina, Hurricane Wilma, Hurricane Rita, Hurricane Sandy, and Hurricane Matthew. Evidence from existing literature suggested that some management strategies are more effective than others. Some of the effective strategies were using social media, call centers, buyouts, and relocations. Housing was one of the recovery programs that were bedeviled by challenges.
Key words: community recovery, debris or disaster management, dislocated or displaced residents, implementation strategy, hurricane, management strategies, and recovery efforts or programs
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
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Dedication
In loving memory of my amazing and visionary father, Musa Abu, who insisted that I get an education before I got anything else. He did his best to give me a good education. Sadly, he is not here to see me graduate.
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
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Acknowledgements The idea of pursuing a Doctor of Management degree was born in 2011 in late Dr. Stephen Versace’s class while studying for the Master of Business Administration at University of Maryland University College (UMUC). I thank Dr. Versace for encouraging me to pursue the doctor of management program. He referred me to Ms. Jane Goldberg, the academic specialist for the executive program, who, in turn, referred me to Dr. Robert Goodman. I would like to thank Dr. Goodman for providing me with the application information and Dr. Mike Riley for giving me a reference for the program. I am also grateful to my pastor, Sunday Joseph Adu, for providing a reference for me and for his encouragement through the course of my study. My heartfelt appreciation goes to my lovely children, Stephen, Ephraim, and Anne Alfa, for their patience and understanding these past few years juggling studies with household and family responsibilities. Thank you for always being proud of my doctoral endeavor. I am also grateful to my husband, Dr. Samuel Alfa, for his unflinching support through the course of my study. I am thankful to my late father, Alhaji Musa Abu, who instilled a love for education and strong work ethic in me. Thank you, Baba, for always believing in me and giving me a voice through education in a time when girl’s education was discouraged in our extended family and community. Right from my primary one (first grade), you told me that I would go to the university and become a medical doctor. Unfortunately, I was not interested in healthcare. I did go to the university and now I am becoming a Doctor of Management. Thank you for not giving up on me. MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
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To my mother, Hajiya Rakiya Bala, I say thank you for showing me the meaning of resilience. I grew up watching you fall, get up, and thrive. You are a woman ahead of your time. Your example has enabled me to pick up my broken pieces from each challenging situation. I see a lot of you in me now that I am much older. Thank you, mama, for all you have done for me. My appreciation goes to my cousin, Dr. Momoh Yakubu, who has always been one of my strong supporters since our childhood. Thank you, Momoh, for always believing in me and encouraging me. You are more of a brother than a cousin to me. I would like to thank my dissertation committee without whom this work would not have been completed. I thank Dr. Eric Dent, my dissertation chair, for his guidance, patience, and encouragement on completing my dissertation. I also acknowledge Dr. Deborah Wharff, and Dr. G. David Andersen for their advising. I acknowledge the contributions of the Department of Management faculty particularly, Dr. Nicholas Allen who grilled me in DMGT600 and DMGT810; Dr. Michael S. Frank who laid the foundation in DMGT800; Dr. Leslie Dinauer, who guided me and has encouraged me all the way; Dr. Krista Watson, who showed me the ropes in statistics; Dr. John Sherlock, who taught me systematic reviews; Dr. Subash K. Bijlani, who ensured I produced good quality papers; and Dr. Wanda Wagner and Dr. Kim Kelly, in whose class the light bulb actually went off on the conceptual framework and I actually started drawing one. Marina, what can I say? Thank you for all your help. You were always there to address my concerns and point me to the right direction when you could not answer my questions. Much appreciation goes to my sister friends Genevieve Dodoo, J. D., Dr. Gladys Arome, Valery Jimenez, Oluwafunmilayo Akiyode, and Adejoke Alabi. Genny and Joke, MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
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thanks for keeping Anne during those comprehensive exams. Genny, thank you also for suggesting UMUC to me, I have had a rewarding experience. My entire high school classmates, Queen’s College Lagos, Class of 1979, particularly, Mrs. Bolanle Adekoya, thank you for your moral support and prayers. Not leaving out members of the Queen’s College Alumni, particularly, Dr. Ikwo Ekpo for the edits and conference information on disaster management, Mrs. Subomi Macaulay for stepping up and helping my children, Stephen and Ephraim during their college applications. I am grateful to my cohorts especially, Dr. Trienne Glover, Dr. Carolyn Garcia-Larson, Dr. Tanya Pelcher, and Dr. Mark Livingston for their support. To the UMUC Writing Center, I say thank you for your guidance. I am grateful to the entire UMUC library staff, especially, Ms. Cynthia Thomes for always being available to help. Thank for helping with the Boolean search methods for retrieving materials towards the completion of my dissertation. I am also grateful to my editor, Ms. Kathleen O'Connor; I say thank you for editing various sections of this study. Thank you for checking up on me periodically. Finally, to the almighty God who made a way, I give all the glory. I was in jeopardy of not completing this study, but God kept making a way. Without His enablement, I would not have completed this work given the insurmountable problems that I encountered in the course of this study. Thank you Lord for all you have done for me. I am ever grateful to you, my Redeemer. MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... ix
List of Appendices ...............................................................................................................x
List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................... xi
Chapter 1 ..............................................................................................................................1
Introduction and Overview of the Dissertation ....................................................................1
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1
Problem Statement .................................................................................................. 4
The Significance of the Problem ............................................................................. 5
Purpose and Scope of the Study.............................................................................. 6
Significance of Study to Management Practice and Scholarship ........................... 7
Research Questions ................................................................................................. 8
Discussion of Themes and Concepts and Relevant Literature Definition of Key Terms ............................................................................................................... 8
Variables ..................................................................................................... 9
Management Strategies ............................................................................... 9
Strategy ....................................................................................................... 9
Implementation of Strategy....................................................................... 11
Community Recovery ............................................................................... 15
Community Recovery Measurement Criteria ........................................... 15
Determination of Achieving Recovery ..................................................... 16
Debris ........................................................................................................ 18 MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
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Cleanup ..................................................................................................... 19
Hurricane................................................................................................... 19
Hurricane Category ................................................................................... 21
Disaster or Community Recovery ............................................................. 22
Social Impacts ........................................................................................... 23
Organization of the Dissertation ........................................................................... 23
Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................................26
Research Framework .........................................................................................................26
Introduction and Review of Study Background.................................................... 26
Discussion of the Theoretical Framework ............................................................ 27
Synthesis of Literature .......................................................................................... 30
Federal Community Recovery Programs .............................................................. 30
The Use of Call Centers ............................................................................ 31
Community Participation Through Charretes–Redevelopment or Relocation ................................................................................................. 39
Mississippi Cottage Program .................................................................... 46
Alternative Housing Pilot Program ........................................................... 50
Nonprofit Housing Project ........................................................................ 54
Resident Tracing ....................................................................................... 55
Dislocated or Displaced Residents............................................................ 61
Debris or Waste Management ................................................................... 71
Debris or Disaster Waste Management Phases ......................................... 72
Disaster Waste Management Strategies .................................................... 75
The Use of Social Media........................................................................... 80 MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
v
National Mass Care Strategy .................................................................... 82
Summary of the Systematic Review of Literature Summary and Conclusion ..... 84
Literature Interpretative Model and Narrative ...................................................... 85
Chapter 3 ............................................................................................................................89
Methodology ......................................................................................................................89
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 89
Discussion of the Evidence-Based Research and Systematic Review of Literature for Management ................................................................................... 89
Evidence-Based Research ......................................................................... 89
Realist Synthesis ....................................................................................... 91
Discussion of Scholarly Research Evidence Tool ................................................ 95
Search Strategy ......................................................................................... 95
Inclusion–Exclusion Criteria .................................................................... 97
Relevance .................................................................................................. 97
Transparency ............................................................................................. 98
Description of Study Characteristics, Data Extraction, and Coding ......... 98
Quality Appraisal of Literature ............................................................... 102
Synthesis Methodology ........................................................................... 104
Expert Panel Review ........................................................................................... 105
Introduction ............................................................................................. 105
Expert Panel Members ............................................................................ 106
Panel Member’s Impact .......................................................................... 111
Summary ............................................................................................................. 111
Chapter 4 ..........................................................................................................................113 MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
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Analysis and Findings ......................................................................................................113
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 113
Argument, Problem, and Purpose Reviewed .......................................... 113
Systematic Review of Evidence for Research Questions and Propositions ....... 114
Presentation of Findings and Analysis .................................................... 114
Finding 1: Call center strategy .................................................... 115
Finding 2: Debris and waste management strategy .................... 116
Finding 3: Resident tracing and dislocated or displaced residents strategy ......................................................................... 117
Finding 4: Charrettes or town hall meeting strategy ................... 119
Finding 5: Temporary and permanent housing program strategy ........................................................................................ 120
Finding 6: National Mass Care strategy...................................... 122
Finding 7: Use of social media strategy ...................................... 122
Finding 8: Relocation or buyout program strategy ..................... 124
Finding 9: Nonprofit housing program strategy ......................... 124
Summary of the Findings .................................................................................... 125
Conceptual Model (Revised) and Narrative ....................................................... 129
Chapter 5 ..........................................................................................................................132
Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations for Future Study ..............................132
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 132
Global Community Recovery Management Trends ........................................... 133
Using Solar Technology ......................................................................... 133
Using Geographic Information Systems ................................................. 133 MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
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Restatement of Problem, Purpose, and Research Question ................................ 134
Implications for Management ............................................................................. 135
Implications for Scholars .................................................................................... 137
Implications of Trends ........................................................................................ 138
Convergence of Technology ................................................................... 138
Globalization ........................................................................................... 140
Sociocultural Shift .................................................................................. 140
Legislation............................................................................................... 140
Summary ............................................................................................................. 141
Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 143
Recommendations for Future Study ................................................................... 143
References ........................................................................................................................144
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
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LIST OF TABLES
1 Category Ranking and Cost (in Millions) Ranking of Hurricanes and Devastation From 2004 to 2017 ..................................................................................7
2 Criteria for the Determination of Recovery Achieved ..............................................17
3 Hurricane Categories ................................................................................................22
4 Ratio of Total 2-1-1 Calls Adjusted by Population Size per County in Texas, Fall 2005 ...................................................................................................................36
5 Steps for Realist Synthesis ........................................................................................94
6 Additional Databases Retrieved from University of Maryland University College Library .........................................................................................................96
7 Inclusion–Exclusion Criteria ....................................................................................97
8 Sample of Included and Excluded Data ....................................................................98
9 Quality Assessment Categories...............................................................................103
10 Panel Member Comments .......................................................................................106
11 Summary of findings and results ............................................................................125
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Theoretical framework using Mintzberg’s adhocracy theory ............................29
Figure 2. Conceptual framework: Management strategies for hurricane disaster community recovery. ................................................................................................87
Figure 3. PRISMA flow diagram. ....................................................................................101
Figure 4. Summary of findings. ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 5. Conceptual frame (revised): Management strategies for hurricane disaster community recovery. ........................................
Management strategies to diffuse healthcare options: A systematic approach
No full textThis dissertation investigates management strategies that middle management in healthcare insurance firms can utilize to promote alternative forms of treatment to minimize the impact of rising healthcare insurance costs and unavailability of healthcare treatment options. The researcher also explores the strategies that middle management can use to persuade front-line employees to participate in the diffusion of an innovation process. The researcher conducted a systematic review and utilized the thematic synthesis to analyze the dataset. The systematic review is based on Rogers’s (1983) diffusion of innovation and Festinger’s (1962) cognitive dissonance theoretical lenses. The results show that many health insurance subscribers prefer to learn and gain knowledge about alternative forms of treatment to make informed decisions. The following thematic strategies for middle management to persuade front-line employees’ participation in the diffusion process are identified: knowledge sharing, high-stake communication, interpersonal relationships, client-oriented innovation, and consideration of values, beliefs, and past experiences. Front-line employees can play a significant role in diffusing the information to potential subscribers. The research concludes that both healthcare insurance firms and subscribers can benefit by adding homeopathy as part of the health insurance plan. The addition of supplemental health insurance can make health insurance more affordable to consumers, and health insurance companies can have fewer insurance cancellations. The addition of homeopathy in health insurance packages can help the subscribers who want to choose from available healthcare options and not be restricted to one form of treatment.Running head: MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES TO DIFFUSE HEALTHCARE OPTIONS
Management Strategies to Diffuse Healthcare Options: A Systematic Approach
Hajra U. Kirmani
A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Management
Dissertation Advisors:
Dr. James Gelatt, Ph.D.
Dr. Wanda Wagner, D.M.
December 2018
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES TO DIFFUSE HEALTHCARE OPTIONS ii
© 2018
Hajra U. Kirmani
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES TO DIFFUSE HEALTHCARE OPTIONS iii
Abstract
This dissertation investigates management strategies that middle management in healthcare insurance firms can utilize to promote alternative forms of treatment to minimize the impact of rising healthcare insurance costs and unavailability of healthcare treatment options. The researcher also explores the strategies that middle management can use to persuade front-line employees to participate in the diffusion of an innovation process. The researcher conducted a systematic review and utilized the thematic synthesis to analyze the dataset. The systematic review is based on Rogers’s (1983) diffusion of innovation and Festinger’s (1962) cognitive dissonance theoretical lenses. The results show that many health insurance subscribers prefer to learn and gain knowledge about alternative forms of treatment to make informed decisions. The following thematic strategies for middle management to persuade front-line employees’ participation in the diffusion process are identified: knowledge sharing, high-stake communication, interpersonal relationships, client-oriented innovation, and consideration of values, beliefs, and past experiences. Front-line employees can play a significant role in diffusing the information to potential subscribers. The research concludes that both healthcare insurance firms and subscribers can benefit by adding homeopathy as part of the health insurance plan. The addition of supplemental health insurance can make health insurance more affordable to consumers, and health insurance companies can have fewer insurance cancellations. The addition of homeopathy in health insurance packages can help the subscribers who want to choose from available healthcare options and not be restricted to one form of treatment.
Keywords: alternative medicine, complementary medicine, employee, front-line, holistic medicine, homeopathy, innovation, insurance, middle manager, natural healing MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES TO DIFFUSE HEALTHCARE OPTIONS iv
Acknowledgements
My doctoral journey provided me great learning opportunities and helped me enhance my relationships with faculty and cohort. Today, I have improved critical thinking and research skills because of all the influences that helped me to complete this dissertation. I would like to acknowledge my advisors who guided me, helped me grow, and expanded my horizon. Dr. Gelatt, thank you for making me a better researcher. Our meetings and discussions gave me confidence that I could meet my goals. You taught me how to ask questions from the audience’s perspective, how to appraise research to answer questions, and how to simplify my writing style. Dr. Wagner, thank you for your support and guidance over past semesters and throughout the dissertation process. I have learned from you how important it is to drill down the research by paying attention to details. When I started my doctoral journey, I took my first course with Dr. Dinauer. Thank you, Dr. Dinauer, for your support and encouragement to continue this journey. Thank you, Ms. Thomes for your guidance and instruction as I conducted my research. I gained significantly from your library and research skills. Thank you, Mrs. Lefurge, for helping me with the editing process. Finally, but not least, I would like to acknowledge my cohort. Our discussions enhanced my knowledge and led me to look at the research from different perspectives. MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES TO DIFFUSE HEALTHCARE OPTIONS v
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my family. Who I am today is because of you. Thank you, my family, as I am nothing without you.
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES TO DIFFUSE HEALTHCARE OPTIONS vi
Table of Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iv
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... v
Table of Figures ........................................................................................................................... viii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ................................................................... 9
Background ................................................................................................................................ 9
Evolution of homeopathy ...................................................................................................... 10
Rising Health Insurance Cost ................................................................................................ 12
Side-Effects and Avoidable Surgical Procedures ................................................................. 13
Diffusion of Innovation Process in Organizations ................................................................ 13
Problem Statement .................................................................................................................... 14
Purpose and Scope of the Study................................................................................................ 15
The Significance of Study to Management Practice and Scholarship ...................................... 15
Research Question ................................................................................................................ 16
Propositions.......................................................................................................................... 17
Initial Development of Themes ................................................................................................ 17
Knowledge Sharing (KS) or Education (ED) ....................................................................... 17
Client-Oriented Innovation (COI)......................................................................................... 18
High-Stake Communication (HSCOMM) ............................................................................ 19
Values, Beliefs, and Past Experiences (VBE) ...................................................................... 19
Interpersonal Relationships (IREL) ...................................................................................... 20
Definitions and Terminology .................................................................................................... 20
Summary .................................................................................................................................. 21
Organization of Dissertation ..................................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................... 22
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 22
Theoretical Lens: Diffusion of Innovation Theory ............................................................... 23
Theoretical Lens: Cognitive Dissonance Theory .................................................................. 25
Literature Review...................................................................................................................... 26
Knowledge ............................................................................................................................ 26
Persuasion ............................................................................................................................. 26
Thesis Statement ....................................................................................................................... 28
Conceptual Framework and Narrative ...................................................................................... 28 MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES TO DIFFUSE HEALTHCARE OPTIONS vii
Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 30
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................ 31
Search Strategy ......................................................................................................................... 32
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ........................................................................................... 33
Data Extraction ..................................................................................................................... 33
Quality Appraisal of Literature ................................................................................................. 34
Synthesis Methodology ............................................................................................................. 35
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 36
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION .................................................... 37
Results ...................................................................................................................................... 38
Knowledge Sharing (KS) or Education (ED): P1, P2, P3, P4 .............................................. 38
High-Stake Communication (HSCOMM): P1, P2, P3, P4 ................................................... 47
Client-Oriented Innovation (COI): P1, P2, P3, P4................................................................ 51
Values, Beliefs, and Experiences (VBE): P1, P2, P3, P4 ..................................................... 55
Interpersonal Relationships (IREL): P1, P2, P3, P4 ............................................................. 59
Conceptual Model ................................................................................................................. 63
Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 65
Alternative Perspectives........................................................................................................ 69
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 70
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND EMERGING TRENDS ................................................... 71
Overall Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 71
Implications for Practice ....................................................................................................... 76
Implications for Scholarship ................................................................................................. 77
Limitations ............................................................................................................................ 77
Future Research and Emerging Trends ................................................................................. 78
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 79
References .................................................................................................................................... 82
Appendix A. Weight of Analysis .................................................................................................. 94
Appendix B. Articles Selected in Systematic Review, with Themes Identified ........................... 97
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES TO DIFFUSE HEALTHCARE OPTIONS viii
Table of Figures
Figure 1. A model of five stages of the diffusion of innovation process. ..................................... 23
Figure 2. Updated conceptual map of best persuasion practices for diffusion of innovation. ...... 29
Figure 3. Common stages in a systematic review. ........................................................................ 32
Figure 4. PRISMA flow chart. ...................................................................................................... 34
Figure 5. Themes and sub-themes. ............................................................................................... 38
Figure 6. Knowledge sharing theme, with five subthemes. .......................................................... 41
Figure 7. High-stake communication, with three subthemes. ....................................................... 48
Figure 8. Client-oriented innovation, with three subthemes. ........................................................ 52
Figure 9. Values, beliefs, and experiences, with two subthemes. ................................................. 56
Figure 10. Interpersonal relationships, with two subthemes......................................................... 60
Figure 11. Conceptual model of best persuasion practices for diffusion of innovation. .............. 65
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES TO DIFFUSE HEALTHCARE OPTIONS 9
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
Insurance companies are struggling to meet the healthcare needs of American citizens. While technology has created breakthrough advances in the medical field, it is also expensive. To cover the costs of medical procedures using high-tech machines and instruments, insurance premiums rose to a point that many families could not afford those costs. The result is subscribers dropped their health insurance (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2017). The insurance cancellations resulted in financial losses for health insurance firms and higher costs for individuals and families who chose to remain insured. This dissertation seeks to identify strategies appropriate to the promotion of affordable, convenient, complementary, and alternative healthcare options by the health insurance industry. To identify these strategies, a systematic review was used. The systematic review allows for available evidence to be efficiently processed and provides a common framework for analysis of the acceptable research. As a theoretical framework, the systematic review uses diffusion of innovation theory by Rogers (1983) and cognitive dissonance theory by Festinger (1962).
Background
As much as American citizens need reliable and affordable healthcare options, health insurance firms need to be able to retain insured subscribers. Companies responsible for providing health insurance struggle to keep Americans insured, but rising healthcare costs are beyond their control (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2017). As a result, 28.2 million low-income American families remain uninsured (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2017). In 2016, 45% of uninsured adults claimed that they stayed uninsured because the cost of coverage was too high (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2017). MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES TO DIFFUSE HEALTHCARE OPTIONS 10
Exploring low-cost and effective healthcare options that can be offered along with conventional treatment would allow patients to decide what option suits them best. Homeopathic medicine is proposed as a low-cost, less invasive, and more reliable mode of treatment (Poitevin, 1999) and has been proven to work when all other forms of treatment fail (Canadian College of Homeopathic Medicine, 1994). Homeopathy is known to cure all types of ailments including but not limited to infertility (Sherwani, 2018), different forms of ulcers and hair loss (Sherwani, 2015a, Sherwani, 2015b), and, in some cases, coma (Vithoulkas et al., 2017). Homeopathy is a popular therapy in France, Germany, India, Sri Lanka, Scotland, and the United Kingdom (Poitevin, 1999; Ross, Simpson, & McLay, 2006); Indian hospitals provide homeopathic treatment for complex chronic cases. Dr. Peter Fisher, a physician to Her Majesty The Queen, called for homeopathy to be prescribed alongside traditional or standard medicines (Knapton, 2015; Poitevin, 1999; Ullman, 1999).
The major healthcare insurance providers in Canada, including Claim Secure, Green Shield, Medavie Blue Cross, and Pacific Blue Cross, include homeopathy in health insurance coverage (Canadian Society of Homeopaths, 2018) as an extended and affordable health insurance option. In the United States, insurance firms cover only conventional forms of treatment and have not seriously considered alternative care (such as homeopathy) as a possible addition to health insurance plans. The strategy of offering homeopathy as part of insurance coverage could help keep Americans insured and provide them with an opportunity to explore more affordable options.
Evolution of Homeopathy
Homeopathy, as a complementary treatment, was first published in 1796 by Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1843). Born in Meissen, Germany, Hahnemann attended medical school in MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES TO DIFFUSE HEALTHCARE OPTIONS 11
Erlangen, Germany, and received his degree in 1779. Homeopathy was introduced as a curative therapy that focused on natural conditions and symptoms faced by individual patients instead of focusing on the disease. He discovered the power of a drug to cure an illness arises from its ability to produce similar symptoms as the illness. Hahnemann argued that homeopathic remedies work along the same lines as Edward Jenner's creation of a vaccination from cowpox to prevent smallpox, following the “principle of similar” or “like cures like.” Hahnemann also argued that every human body and living organism is unique and the symptoms experienced cannot be classified together as a disease. Even if two individuals have the same functional disorder in their bodies, their bodies react differently to treatment and may produce different symptoms with varying intensity.
When Hahnemann introduced his homeopathic treatment method, physicians believed in treating a disease rather a symptom and opposed its use (Poitevin, 1999). Yet, in the intervening 200 years, the scholarly research contributed by Ullman (2007) confirms that many famous people and cultural heroes (including Charles Darwin, Mother Teresa, 11 American Presidents, seven Popes, and many more) deeply appreciated homeopathic treatment and confirmed its use. Research today suggests homeopathy has a place alongside conventional treatment. Ullman’s (1999) review of public and private research confirmed the effectiveness of homeopathic medicine. He argued that homeopathic treatment is a way to empower consumers to take control of their health and to reduce hospitalizations and visits to the doctor’s office. He also suggested that there is a need for healthcare firms to advocate for consumers to learn about homeopathy and to utilize it for non-emergency, self-care ailments (Ullman, 1999). MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES TO DIFFUSE HEALTHCARE OPTIONS 12
Rising Health Insurance Costs
Several sources in the literature argued that insurers should seriously consider including complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in health policies for its potential cost savings in the management of pain and chronic disease (Almeida & Gabe, 2016; Corp, Jordan, & Croft, 2018; Niskar, Peled-Leviatan, & Garty-Sandalon, 2007; Su, Li, & Pagán, 2008; Ullman, 1999). According to Niskar et al. (2007), there is a continuous debate in Israel about whether CAM (most commonly acupuncture, homeopathy, reflexology, naturopathy, and chiropractic therapies) should be covered by health insurance as part of the basket of serv
More than just numbers: Strategies for improving the use of data to increase community college student progress and success
No full textThe purpose of this dissertation is first, to describe and analyze the use of community college data for accountability, institutional assessment, and tracking and monitoring student progress; and second, to recommend strategies to improve the use of data by community colleges. A critical interpretive synthesis (CIS) of the literature was used to analyze how data are and could be used by the various community college stakeholders to measure the progress and success of community college students. Modified case studies, including interviews with staff from three award-winning community colleges, corroborated the findings from the literature. They are as follows:
• Accountability data are collected but not always used by external stakeholders. These data are and can provide transparency for public investment, inform development of federal and state policy, gauge institutional system-wide performance, measure access and identify equity gaps, and measure the economic contribution of public education to society.
• Institutional assessment data are used to support accreditation; program planning, review, and assessment; strategic planning; budgeting and resource allocation; and development of institutional policy.
• Student monitoring data and success measures have expanded and include measures consistent with the community college mission. There has also been a concerted effort to measure the efficiency and cost effectiveness of education.
An effective strategy begins with addressing the obstacles and barriers to using data. The recommendations for community college leaders are designed to ensure appropriate staffing, training, and technology to support robust data collection; data are accessible, accurate, relevant and actionable; stakeholders are trained and empowered with the resources and authority to take action to improve student success; and data are used in decision making about student success interventions and when creating institutional policies related to student success.Running Head: MORE THAN JUST A NUMBERS
More than Just Numbers:
Strategies for Improving the Use of Data to Increase
Community College Student Progress and Success
Sara Thompson Tweedy
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Maryland University College
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Doctor of Management Degree
Advisory Committee
Trudy Bers, Ph.D.
Gena Glickman, Ph.D.
MORE THAN JUST NUMBERS ii
Abstract
The purpose of this dissertation is first, to describe and analyze the use of community college
data for accountability, institutional assessment, and tracking and monitoring student progress;
and second, to recommend strategies to improve the use of data by community colleges. A
critical interpretive synthesis (CIS) of the literature was used to analyze how data are and could
be used by the various community college stakeholders to measure the progress and success of
community college students. Modified case studies, including interviews with staff from three
award-winning community colleges, corroborated the findings from the literature. They are as
follows:
Accountability data are collected but not always used by external stakeholders. These
data are and can provide transparency for public investment, inform development of
federal and state policy, gauge institutional system-wide performance, measure access
and identify equity gaps, and measure the economic contribution of public education to
society.
Institutional assessment data are used to support accreditation; program planning, review,
and assessment; strategic planning; budgeting and resource allocation; and development
of institutional policy.
Student monitoring data and success measures have expanded and include measures
consistent with the community college mission. There has also been a concerted effort to
measure the efficiency and cost effectiveness of education.
An effective strategy begins with addressing the obstacles and barriers to using data. The
recommendations for community college leaders are designed to ensure appropriate staffing,
training, and technology to support robust data collection; data are accessible, accurate, relevant
and actionable; stakeholders are trained and empowered with the resources and authority to take
action to improve student success; and data are used in decision making about student success
interventions and when creating institutional policies related to student success.
MORE THAN JUST NUMBERS iii
Dedication
This is dedicated to
My parents, Virginia and Curtis, who instilled in me the importance of education and the
personal fulfillment that comes with devoting oneself in service to others.
My sons, Maximillian Frederic and Rowan Crawford Tweedy-Marcell, may you, too,
know that a life well-lived is full of learning and service.
My wife, Kristin Marcell, whose support and encouragement have meant the world to
me.
And to all the students whom I have had the privilege to serve: you are more than just a
number. Individually and collectively, you have inspired me. Thank you for allowing me to be
part of your journey.
MORE THAN JUST NUMBERS iv
Acknowledgements
I extend my heart-felt gratitude to the faculty and staff of the University of Maryland
University College Doctor of Management program. I learned so much from each of you.
Specifically, I’d like to thank Monica Graham and Marina Caminis for your guidance as we
progressed through the program. Dr. Virginia Pilato, thank you for your support as I prepared for
my SOARS presentation and at other points along the way. You clearly care for your students.
And I am especially grateful for Dr. Patricia Keir, Dr. Gena Glickman and Dr. Trudy Bers, my
faculty advisors. Pat, thank you for beginning this process with me. You helped me sort and tame
my associate thinking in order to focus on a topic. Gena, in addition to doing all the normal
things that advisors do, you also provided me with all the right emotional support at all the right
times. You have become a trusted mentor to me. Trudy, you are an oracle of insight and you
repeatedly went above and beyond to see me through this process. You are, without doubt, one
of the most intelligent and giving educators I have ever encountered.
I also want to shout-out my colleagues at Westchester Community College who provided
me much needed encouragement and humor. I cherish and respect you all so much. And a special
word of thanks to Macoco for providing some editorial assistance in crunch time.
When I began this process, I posted on Facebook that I would be starting my doctoral
studies. Many of my friends wished me good luck. In response, my sister posted, “My best of
luck goes to Kristin Marcell.” Indeed, my wife, Kristin, carried a heavy load through this process
without complaint. Thank you. I look forward to the hiking, skiing, camping, and traveling ahead
of us and the boys.
One final word to Max and Rowan: from now on, the answer to “Mom, can you come
play soccer?” is “Yes!”
MORE THAN JUST NUMBERS v
Table of Contents
More than Just Numbers: ............................................................................................................. i
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... ii
Dedication .................................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... iv
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... ix
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter One: Background and Context of Data in the Community College ......................... 1
Calls for Accountability .............................................................................................................. 2
IPEDS Data Source ..................................................................................................................... 3
Beyond IPEDS ............................................................................................................................ 7
Performance-based Funding Models. ..................................................................................... 7
Volunteer Initiatives................................................................................................................ 8
Progress Metrics...................................................................................................................... 9
Outcomes. ............................................................................................................................. 10
NSC, CCSSE, and SENSE.................................................................................................... 14
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 15
Significance of the Problem ...................................................................................................... 16
Statement of Purpose ................................................................................................................ 17
Theoretical Base: Stakeholder Management Theory ................................................................ 17
Introduction to Stakeholder Theory. ..................................................................................... 17
The Applicability of Stakeholder Theory and Data .................................................................. 19
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 20
Definition of Terms................................................................................................................... 21
Summary .................................................................................................................................. 24
Chapter Two: Methodology ....................................................................................................... 26
Methodologies.......................................................................................................................... 27
Critical Interpretive Synthesis (CIS) ..................................................................................... 27
Case Study Methodology. ..................................................................................................... 44
Research approach. .............................................................................................................. 45
Selection of participants. ...................................................................................................... 46
Data analysis. ....................................................................................................................... 50
Expert Panel .............................................................................................................................. 51
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 53
MORE THAN JUST NUMBERS vi
Chapter 3: Review of the Literature and Case Studies ........................................................... 54
Literature Review: How Data are Used .................................................................................... 54
Demonstrating accountability. .............................................................................................. 55
Improving the collection and use of data. ............................................................................. 67
Aligning data for external and internal stakeholders. ........................................................... 76
Data and accreditation........................................................................................................... 88
Data and Decision Making........................................................................................................ 99
Achieving The Dream’s Culture of Evidence. .................................................................... 109
Conclusion of Literature Review ............................................................................................ 121
Review of the Case Studies..................................................................................................... 122
Harper College. ................................................................................................................... 122
Pierce Community College District. ................................................................................... 123
Miami Dade Community College District. ......................................................................... 125
College A. ........................................................................................................................... 126
College B. ........................................................................................................................... 132
College C. ........................................................................................................................... 136
Stakeholder Management Theory ........................................................................................... 141
Internal stakeholders. .......................................................................................................... 142
External Stakeholders. ........................................................................................................ 144
Introduction of the Conceptual Model .................................................................................... 146
Conceptual Model ................................................................................................................... 149
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 150
Chapter 4: Findings and Analysis ........................................................................................... 151
Analysis of Findings from Research Question 1a: Accountability ......................................... 151
Transparency of public investment. .................................................................................... 151
Development of state policy. .............................................................................................. 153
Institutional performance within a state system.................................................................. 154
Addressing equity gaps in completion. ............................................................................... 156
Access. ............................................................................................................................... 157
Economic contribution of public education. ....................................................................... 158
Conclusion. ......................................................................................................................... 159
Analysis of Findings from Research Question 1b: Institutional Assessment and Effectiveness
................................................................................................................................................ 159
Accreditation. ...................................................................................................................... 159
Program planning, review and assessment. ........................................................................ 161
MORE THAN JUST NUMBERS vii
Strategic plans and assessment. .......................................................................................... 162
Budgeting and resource allocation. ..................................................................................... 163
Institutional policy and practices. ....................................................................................... 163
The impact of multimodal mission. .................................................................................... 164
Aligning data reporting mandates. ...................................................................................... 164
Conclusion. ......................................................................................................................... 167
Analysis of Findings from Research Question 1c: Student Tracking and Progress Monitoring
................................................................................................................................................ 168
Analysis of Findings from Research Question 2: Strategies to Improve the Use of Data ...... 171
Challenges and obstacles to the effective use of data. ........................................................ 172
Strategies for using data effectively. ................................................................................... 173
Conclusion. ......................................................................................................................... 185
Analysis of Feedback from Expert Panel................................................................................ 186
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 190
Chapter Five: Implications for Practice ................................................................................. 191
General Findings ..................................................................................................................... 191
Implications............................................................................................................................ 195
The culture of the organization. .......................................................................................... 195
Staff and Faculty. ................................................................................................................ 197
The use of data. ................................................................................................................... 197
Recommendations to improve the use of data in the community college .............................. 198
Professional development/training...................................................................................... 198
Technology. ........................................................................................................................ 199
Organizational culture. ........................................................................................................ 200
Identification of Gaps in the Literature ................................................................................... 200
Suggestions for Future Research ............................................................................................ 202
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 203
References ................................................................................................................................. 205
Appendix A ............................................................................................................................... 224
Literature Identified through Purposive Sampling and Reviewed for Relevancy .................. 224
Appendix B ............................................................................................................................... 225
Types of Resources ................................................................................................................. 225
Appendix C ............................................................................................................................... 242
Articles Cross-Referenced by Research Question .................................................................. 242
Appendix D ............................................................................................................................... 249
MORE THAN JUST NUMBERS viii
Email to Secure the Willingness of the Leadership to Participate in the Study ..................... 249
Appendix E ............................................................................................................................... 250
Email to College Staff/Faculty ................................................................................................ 250
Appendix F ............................................................................................................................... 251
Informed Consent Form .......................................................................................................... 251
Appendix G ............................................................................................................................... 253
Harper Scorecard .................................................................................................................... 253
Appendix H ............................................................................................................................... 255
Pierce College District’s 2016 Institutional Effectiveness Scoreca
Beyond Placement Testing: Improving Student Placement in Community Colleges (CC)
No full textAs outlined by the U. S. Department of Education (2015) Forum Guide to College and Career Ready Data (2015), the percentage of employment opportunities for individuals with a high school diploma or less will drop from 70% in 1973 to 35% by 2020. As the growth in employment opportunities is in areas that require more training beyond high school, newly graduating individuals from high school must be prepared to take some type of college-level courses. This dissertation examined the problem with students being inaccurately placed into developmental courses based on existing placement methodologies, even though the research evidence has shown that some of these same students could have been successful if placed into college-level courses. Scott-Clayton, Crosta, and Belfield (2013) stated that “nearly one in five students who take a math test, and more than one in four students who take the English tests, are placed into remediation even though they could have earned a B or better in the college-level course” (p. 19). The high number of students testing into developmental courses affects their employment and earnings prospects because developmental students are less likely to receive a degree and fewer than 10% graduate within a 3-year period (Bidwell, 2014).
The research evidence indicated that the usage of “multiple measures” more accurately places students into appropriate courses and results in more students successfully completing their assigned course. Additionally, the research evidence indicated that aligning K-12 and the higher education sector (Woods, Park, Hu, & Betrand-Jones, 2018) would help students understand the implications of the college placement-testing process (Behringer, 2008; Chen, 2016; Venezia, Braceo, & Nodine, 2010). Adding training resources to help faculty, staff, and administrators understand the placement process is needed because, as Safran and Visher (2010) stated, these individuals are charged with designing, implementing, evaluating, and interpreting developmental education placement policies and assessments without having the proper knowledge and technical skills to do so. Lastly, providing co-requisite courses or additional support services to students testing at or near the cutoff score (Park et al., 2016) would greatly improve student success rates for those student testing near the cutoff score.IMPROVING STUDENT PLACEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES
Beyond Placement Testing: Improving Student Placement in Community Colleges (CC)
Cleveland Wilson, Jr.
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of the
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Doctor of Management in Community College Policy and Administration
Degree
Charlene Nunley, Ph.D.
Susan McMaster, D.M.
IMPROVING STUDENT PLACEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES
Abstract
As outlined by the U. S. Department of Education (2015) Forum Guide to College and Career Ready Data (2015), the percentage of employment opportunities for individuals with a high school diploma or less will drop from 70% in 1973 to 35% by 2020. As the growth in employment opportunities is in areas that require more training beyond high school, newly graduating individuals from high school must be prepared to take some type of college-level courses. This dissertation examined the problem with students being inaccurately placed into developmental courses based on existing placement methodologies, even though the research evidence has shown that some of these same students could have been successful if placed into college-level courses. Scott-Clayton, Crosta, and Belfield (2013) stated that “nearly one in five students who take a math test, and more than one in four students who take the English tests, are placed into remediation even though they could have earned a B or better in the college-level course” (p. 19). The high number of students testing into developmental courses affects their employment and earnings prospects because developmental students are less likely to receive a degree and fewer than 10% graduate within a 3-year period (Bidwell, 2014).
The research evidence indicated that the usage of “multiple measures” more accurately places students into appropriate courses and results in more students successfully completing their assigned course. Additionally, the research evidence indicated that aligning K-12 and the higher education sector (Woods, Park, Hu, & Betrand-Jones, 2018) would help students understand the implications of the college placement-testing process (Behringer, 2008; Chen, 2016; Venezia, Braceo, & Nodine, 2010). Adding training resources to help faculty, staff, and administrators understand the placement process is needed because, as Safran and Visher (2010) stated, these individuals are charged with designing, implementing, evaluating, and interpreting IMPROVING STUDENT PLACEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES
developmental education placement policies and assessments without having the proper knowledge and technical skills to do so. Lastly, providing co-requisite courses or additional support services to students testing at or near the cutoff score (Park et al., 2016) would greatly improve student success rates for those student testing near the cutoff score.
Key Words: Remedial education, developmental education, community college or two-year colleges, junior colleges, placement test, community college placement test, Scott-Clayton, college placement exam, Achieving the Dream, best practices, strategic planning, ethical leadership IMPROVING STUDENT PLACEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES iv
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my parents, my older sister, my sons, and my grandson. To my parents, Lettie and the late Cleveland Sr., for always giving me the power to find my own voice and to be extremely independent. To my sister Carolyn, who has always been there for me for as long as I can remember and has always supported me in everything I do. To my oldest and very accomplished son Michael, who has always done his best to be the best son and young man in the world. To my son Douglas, as he continues to grow, learn, and navigate the path from youth to adulthood. To my grandson Brycen, who has brought enormous life back into our home with a smile and attitude that make everything I do worth it. The love, strength, and encouragement from each of you have allowed me to accomplish this goal. Thank you all; I love you all.
IMPROVING STUDENT PLACEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES v
Acknowledgements
The University of Maryland University College (UMUC) Doctor of Management in Community College Policy and Administration (DMCCPA) program has been one of the most rigorous, intense, and challenging programs I have ever attempted. This program has also been one of the most rewarding—and this is directly attributed to the program’s faculty, support staff, and members of the cohort who allowed me to be a part of their world, even though I was a few courses behind them. The DMCCPA program allowed me to take my first step from behind the Cipher Locked doors of the IT world and become a greater part of the College’s administration team, while at the same time allowing me to solve real-world work issues with knowledge gained from the coursework.
I must acknowledge my two dissertation advisors, Dr. Charlene Nunley and Dr. Susan McMaster, for their never-ending guidance, patience, and commitment in getting the entire cohort through the dissertation process. I must give each of them special thanks for working with me through the dissertation process and having that extra patience with me, while always encouraging me to continue because I was almost there. Without both of you, I know I would not have made it this far in the dissertation process. So, I say again, thank you, thank you, thank you.
I would also like to thank each member of the UMUC faculty for the dedicated manner in which they taught each of their respective courses and imparted their knowledge on each cohort member. So, a big thank you to Dr. Gena Glickman (DMCC 800), Dr. Ronald Head (DMCC 830), Dr. Darrell Cain (DMCC841), and Dr. Roderick Nunn (career coaching) for your never-ending support and dedication to the DMCC cohort and the University of Maryland University College’s DMCCPA program. Additionally, I would also like to thank UMUC staff members IMPROVING STUDENT PLACEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES vi
Monica Graham and Marina Caminis for all of the support they have given to the cohort and to me over the years.
One of the best gifts from this program has been the support, friendship, and new family of those in my cohort. I want to thank Michael Ayers, Alexa Beshara-Blauth, Jessica Frost, Lisa LaVigna, Jeff Newbern, and Jennifer Nuñez for helping to get me through this program.
IMPROVING STUDENT PLACEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES vii
Table of Contents
Chapter One: Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
Background and Context.................................................................................................. 1
Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................. 4
Significance of Problem ................................................................................................... 6
Course Placement Misalignment Based on Placement Methodology ................. 6
Developmental Student Completion Rate ............................................................ 7
Developmental Student Socioeconomic Backgrounds ........................................ 8
Developmental Education Costs .......................................................................... 8
Statement of Purpose ....................................................................................................... 9
Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 10
Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................... 10
Strategic Management Theory ............................................................................. 10
Ethical Leadership Theory ................................................................................... 13
Definitions of Key Terms ................................................................................................ 15
Summary .......................................................................................................................... 18
Chapter Two: Methodology ......................................................................................................... 20
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 20
Choice of Research Methodology .................................................................................... 20
Systematic Review Process.............................................................................................. 21
Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 23
Availability of Research Studies ...................................................................................... 24
Literature Search Methodology ....................................................................................... 26
Key Words ........................................................................................................... 26
Key References .................................................................................................... 26
Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria ............................................................................................ 46
Expert Panel ..................................................................................................................... 67
Methodology for Use of Expert Panel ................................................................. 67
Credentials of Expert Panelists ............................................................................ 69
Summary .......................................................................................................................... 70
Chapter Three: Literature Review ............................................................................................... 71
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 71
Background of Placement Testing ................................................................................... 71
History of Traditional Placement Tests for Community College Admissions ................ 72
Growing Need for Community College Graduates ......................................................... 74
Mandate to Increase Student Success and Standardize Placement/Assessment
Methodologies...................................................................................................... 75
Mandates by States to Improve Initial Student College Placement ..................... 75
Changes to Developmental Education ................................................................. 77
Placement Testing ............................................................................................................ 78
Purposes of Placement Testing ............................................................................ 78
Validity of Placement Testing ............................................................................. 79
Existing Placement Test Policies and Placement Test Procedures .................................. 82
Attempts to Adopt Uniform Policies Regarding Placement ............................................ 84 IMPROVING STUDENT PLACEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES viii
Chapter Three (continued)
Impact of Placement Testing ........................................................................................... 85
Lack of Student Preparation for Placement Testing ............................................ 86
Academic Performance After Placement ............................................................. 87
The Cost of Developmental Education ................................................................ 87
Current/Emerging Issues and Concerns Affecting Placement Tests ............................... 88
Best Practices ................................................................................................................... 89
High-stakes Placement Testing ............................................................................ 89
Combination of Metrics for Placement ................................................................ 90
The Usage of Multiple Measures ......................................................................... 91
The Usage of Noncognitive and Cognitive Measures ......................................... 93
Preparation for Placement Testing ....................................................................... 93
Summary of Best Practices for Placement Testing Strategies ............................. 94
Checklist to Evaluate Placement Policies ........................................................................ 95
Theoretical Framework for Improving College Placement ............................................. 98
Strategic Planning/Management Theory.............................................................. 98
Ethical Leadership Theory ...................................................................................100
Conceptual Model ............................................................................................................107
The History of College Placement Exams .......................................................................109
Current College Placement Trends ......................................................................109
Existing policies and procedures ................................................................109
Inaccuracy of current placement methodologies ........................................109
Overplacement of students in developmental studies .................................110
Placement test limitations ...........................................................................110
Problems With Current Placement Rates .............................................................110
High placement error rates in math and English .........................................111
Decrease in overall student success ............................................................111
Pressures to Improve Placement Rates ................................................................111
Increasing higher education costs ...............................................................112
Demands for policymakers and government regulations ............................112
Leadership Theories .........................................................................................................112
Updates Based on Continuous New Data ........................................................................113
Improved College Placement ...............................................................................113
Summary ..........................................................................................................................114
Chapter Four: Analysis and Findings ..........................................................................................115
Introduction ......................................................................................................................115
Expert Panel .....................................................................................................................115
The Expert Panel Feedback Form ........................................................................116
Analysis of the Expert Reviews .......................................................................................119
Expert Summaries ................................................................................................119
The accuracy and completeness of the problem statement .........................119
The significance of the problem relative to community college
stakeholders.............................................................................................119
How well the evidence presented support the problem statement ..............120
The relevance of the theories to the problem ..............................................120 IMPROVING STUDENT PLACEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES ix
Chapter Four (continued)
The completeness of the theoretical background relative to
providing perspective(s) on the problem ................................................124
The scope and focus of the research questions in providing improved
practices within the research field...........................................................124
The organization of Chapter One ................................................................125
The doctoral writing research quality .........................................................125
The adequacy of the list of major references ..............................................125
Additional theories and concepts that may better frame the problem ........126
Additional authors, studies, or literature the student should read ...............126
Other scholars, community college leaders, stakeholders, and
businesses that would provide additional information to the
student, if contacted ................................................................................127
Research Findings ............................................................................................................127
Research Question #1 ..........................................................................................128
Research Question #2 ..........................................................................................130
Research Question #3 ..........................................................................................133
Strategic management theory ......................................................................133
Ethical leadership theory.............................................................................135
Unanticipated Findings ....................................................................................................138
Limitations of the Research Study ...................................................................................139
Contrarians ...........................................................................................................142
Summary ..........................................................................................................................143
Chapter Five: Implications for Practice, Product, and Future Research ......................................144
Introduction ......................................................................................................................144
Summary of Significant Research Findings ....................................................................145
Current Placement Methodologies .......................................................................145
Research Question #1 ..........................................................................................146
Research Question #2 ..........................................................................................148
Multiple measures .......................................................................................149
Noncognitive measures ...............................................................................149
Ali
Marijuana-tourism: Disruptive Innovation for Small Island Developing States
No full textThe Caribbean region consists of many small island developing states (SIDS) that are dependent on a sun, sea, and sand (3-S) tourism product. These SIDS are facing declining competitiveness vis-à-vis other tourism destinations and need to differentiate and rejuvenate their tourism product offerings. This study investigates the extent to which marijuana-tourism can lead to disruptive innovations (DI) in SIDS that are tourist dependent. A systematic review, using 53 research articles and a thematic synthesis analyzing seven different themes: (1) demographic profile of marijuana users and potential market size, (2) marijuana-tourism motivations, (3) common uses of marijuana, (4) types and structures of legal and regulatory frameworks, (5) cultivation, distribution, and marketing factors, (6) economic impacts of legalized recreational marijuana; and (7) adverse health and safety impacts were elaborated. The principal findings are that the regulatory framework for legalization acts as a mediating variable for defining the scope and structure of marijuana-related businesses and tourism niches that appear. When the recreational regulatory framework permits private competition, as evidenced in the early pioneering jurisdictions, significant economic benefits have resulted and at the same time social and health costs have been attenuated to date. In the context of SIDS, legal regimes are still largely prohibitionist, and in a few instances, partial liberalization has occurred. As liberalization progresses, structural and governance challenges exist that may moderate benefits. Further research is needed in many areas, given that the liberalization of marijuana laws is a recent phenomenon. More research is needed in areas, such as in-depth economic and social impacts analysis; the profile, composition, and expenditure patterns of marijuana tourists; the comparative advantages of different regulatory frameworks; and the public health and safety impacts for residents, marijuana tourists, and hospitality sector workers.Running Head: MARIJUANA-TOURISM: DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION FOR SIDS
Marijuana-Tourism: Disruptive Innovation for Small Island Developing States
Gemma Antonine Wenner
A dissertation submitted to the graduate faculty of the
University of Maryland University College in partial
fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of
Doctor of Management
December 2018
Dissertation Committee Chairs:
Dr. Kriesta Watson (Primary)
Dr. John Sherlock (Secondary)
MARIJUANA-TOURISM: DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION FOR SIDS
iii
© Copyright by
Gemma Antonine Wenner 2019
MARIJUANA-TOURISM: DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION FOR SIDS
iii
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation: MARIJUANA-TOURISM: DISRUPTIVE
INNOVATION FOR SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING
STATES
The Caribbean region consists of many small island developing states (SIDS) that are
dependent on a sun, sea, and sand (3-S) tourism product. These SIDS are facing declining
competitiveness vis-à-vis other tourism destinations and need to differentiate and rejuvenate their
tourism product offerings. This study investigates the extent to which marijuana-tourism can lead
to disruptive innovations (DI) in SIDS that are tourist dependent. A systematic review, using 53
research articles and a thematic synthesis analyzing seven different themes: (1) demographic
profile of marijuana users and potential market size, (2) marijuana-tourism motivations, (3)
common uses of marijuana, (4) types and structures of legal and regulatory frameworks, (5)
cultivation, distribution, and marketing factors, (6) economic impacts of legalized recreational
marijuana; and (7) adverse health and safety impacts were elaborated. The principal findings are
that the regulatory framework for legalization acts as a mediating variable for defining the scope
and structure of marijuana-related businesses and tourism niches that appear. When the
recreational regulatory framework permits private competition, as evidenced in the early
pioneering jurisdictions, significant economic benefits have resulted and at the same time social
and health costs have been attenuated to date. In the context of SIDS, legal regimes are still
largely prohibitionist, and in a few instances, partial liberalization has occurred. As liberalization
progresses, structural and governance challenges exist that may moderate benefits. Further
research is needed in many areas, given that the liberalization of marijuana laws is a recent
phenomenon. More research is needed in areas, such as in-depth economic and social impacts
analysis; the profile, composition, and expenditure patterns of marijuana tourists; the
comparative advantages of different regulatory frameworks; and the public health and safety
impacts for residents, marijuana tourists, and hospitality sector workers.
MARIJUANA-TOURISM: DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION FOR SIDS
iv
Keywords: Cannabis, marijuana, disruptive innovation, drug policy, legalization, the motivation
for drug tourism, tourism expenditure patterns, marijuana tax revenue, health and safety effects
of marijuana, tourism life cycle, tourism product differentiation
MARIJUANA-TOURISM: DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION FOR SIDS
v
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to Mark D. Wenner. You are my rock, my strength, my
muse, my sounding board, my best friend, and husband. When I doubted my abilities, when I
was ready to quit, when things got to be too much, you continued to stand by me, you pushed all
those negative thoughts away, motivated and encouraged me not to give up. You stood by me
and supported me all the way to the end. Thank you. The love I have for you is unfathomable
and unwavering.
MARIJUANA-TOURISM: DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION FOR SIDS
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I want to acknowledge my parents: Rachel and Jean Pierre-Nicolas
Gaetjens (RIP). I am very fortunate to have been born as your daughter and thank you for the
guidance given, the opportunities provided, and values imbued. You insisted on travel, learning
about other cultures, making sure that we spoke French and Spanish at home. You had me
listening to a wide variety of music genres. You taught me to be empathic, to being curious, to be
tolerant, and to dream big. I appreciate the love and support you have given me throughout my
life. Because of you, I have had a life of travel, cultural enrichment, superior educational
opportunities, and have pursued a career in tourism/hospitality. I love you both and owe you so
much.
To my children, Felicia and Carlos, I also owe a debt of gratitude. Felicia, you are my
pride and joy and my source of inspiration. You always encouraged me to pursue a graduate
degree. I love you and thank you for supporting my quest for advanced degrees. Carlos, not a day
goes by that I don’t think about you. I miss you so much. May you rest in eternal peace. My
extended family—Steve, Alex, Lane, Mark, Jr., Mariah, and Jules—you “kids” keep me young,
make me laugh, make me very happy to be your mother-in-law and stepmom. I am so blessed to
have you all in my life.
I also would like to acknowledge my thesis advisor, subject matter experts, copy editor,
and cohort members. To my dissertation chair, Dr. Kriesta Watson, she kept me in check.
Whenever I veered off my topic, she would often say, "I do not want you freelancing. You need
to stay focused.” I will never forget those words. You are awesome, Dr. Watson! To my subject
matter experts (SME), Dr. Ernest Boger and Dr. Joyce Cacho, your reviews and encouragements
MARIJUANA-TOURISM: DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION FOR SIDS
vii
helped me. To my copy editor, Dr. Elaine Whitlock, your help in editing and formatting was
invaluable. To all of you a big thank you.
To my amazing cohort members, I also want to express my gratitude for all the mutual
support. You are, by far, the finest group of people I have had the pleasure of meeting. A special
thank you is extended to "my same advisor group": Lomax, Barbara, and Loretta. I will miss our
group sessions. To Sherese Bishop, thank you for setting up the DM Student UMUC Facebook
page. It was my "go-to-web-page," where it was safe to lament and laugh about the doctoral
experience but, most importantly, to get questions answered quickly and to share valuable
information. Finally, to all my friends who listened to me ramble on and on about this topic,
thank you for your patience.
MARIJUANA-TOURISM: DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION FOR SIDS
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. iii
DEDICATION .............................................................................................................. v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................... vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................ viii
LIST OF TABLES...................................................................................................... xiii
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................... xiv
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 1
Statement of Problem ......................................................................................... 4
The Purpose of the Study ................................................................................... 6
Research Question.............................................................................................. 6
Propositions ....................................................................................................... 6
Significance of the Study ................................................................................... 7
Preliminary Conceptual Framework ................................................................... 7
Tourism Area Life Cycle .......................................................................10
Disruptive Innovation ............................................................................12
Innovative Clusters ................................................................................14
Design, Limitations, and Assumptions ..............................................................15
Design ...................................................................................................15
Limitations ............................................................................................15
Assumptions ..........................................................................................16
Definition of Key Terms ...................................................................................17
MARIJUANA-TOURISM: DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION FOR SIDS
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Cannabis/Marijuana ...............................................................................17
Disruptive Innovation ............................................................................18
Legalization ...........................................................................................18
Mediate .................................................................................................18
Regulatory Framework ..........................................................................19
Small Island Developing States..............................................................19
Organization of Dissertation Chapters ...............................................................19
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................21
The Significance of Tourism as an Engine of Growth and Development............22
Economic, Health, and Social Impacts of Cannabis as a Tourism Product .........26
Economic Impacts .................................................................................26
Health Impacts.......................................................................................28
Social Impacts .......................................................................................29
Leadership Skills and Socio-political Mobilization Needed for Legalization .....31
Complexity Leadership Theory ..............................................................31
Leadership and Advocacy Organizations in Achieving Social
Change ............................................................................................33
History of Advocacy for Legalization of Marijuana in the US ................36
Linkages Between Agriculture and Tourism: Agritourism .................................39
Disruptive Innovations and Clusters ..................................................................42
Disruption Innovation ............................................................................42
Clusters .................................................................................................44
Summary...........................................................................................................47
MARIJUANA-TOURISM: DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION FOR SIDS
x
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ...................................50
Introduction ......................................................................................................50
Organization of the Chapter ..............................................................................50
The Purpose of the Study and Research Question ..............................................51
Explanation of Systemic Review .......................................................................51
Step 1: Review Organization and Planning ............................................55
Step 2: Framing the Question Using Context-Intervention-Mechanism-
Outcome (CIMO) Framework ........................................................56
Step 3: Defining Search Strategy and Methods ......................................59
Search strategy ...........................................................................59
Scholarly electronic databases ........................................59
Description of search protocol ........................................60
Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and
meta-analyses (PRISMA) ........................................62
Exclusion criteria ................................................64
Inclusion criteria .................................................64
Data collection ...........................................................................65
Step 4: Relevance and Quality Assessment ............................................65
Publication bias ..........................................................................68
Step 5: Synthesis ...................................................................................68
Computer-assisted coding—Atlas.Ti ..........................................69
Coding............................................................................69
Step 6: Strategy for Findings Interpretation ............................................74
MARIJUANA-TOURISM: DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION FOR SIDS
xi
Consideration of Expert Panel ....................................................76
Expert Panel Review Members ..................................................76
Expert Panel Members’ Feedback ..............................................77
Summary .......................................................................................78
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS .......................................................................................79
Presentation of Findings ....................................................................................79
Analysis of Coding: Frequency Analysis ...........................................................80
Analysis of Coding: Elaboration of Themes ......................................................85
Theme 1: Demand: Potential Market Size and Demographic Profile
of Marijuana Users and Tourists (14 Articles) ...................................85
Theme 2: Demand: Motivation for Marijuana-tourism (18 Articles) ......88
Theme 3: Demand: Uses (5 Articles) .....................................................90
Theme 4: Legal and Regulatory Framework (14 Articles) ......................90
Theme 5: Supply (6 Articles) .................................................................95
Theme 6: Economic Impacts (17 Articles) .............................................96
Theme 7: Adverse Health and Safety Impacts (10 Articles) ...................97
Summary of Themes .......................................................................................98
Analysis of Findings .......................................................................................99
Refined Conceptual Framework ...................................................................... 103
Extrapolations and Implications for Small Island Developing Tourism
Development ..................................................................................... 106
Summary ..................................................................................... 111
MARIJUANA-TOURISM: DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION FOR SIDS
xii
CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ................................................ 113
Discussion Summary ........................................................................... 113
Implications for Management and Practitioners ................................... 118
Limitations .......................................................................................... 119
Suggestions for Areas of Future Research ............................................ 120
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A Keywords ......................................................................... 122
APPENDIX B Legal Status of Marijuana in the United States (as of
November 2018) ..................................................................... 123
APPENDIX C Quality Appraisal, Scoring, nd Rating (TAPUPAS) ............... 124
APPENDIX D List of Academic Articles Selected for Quality Review and
Final Decisions ....................................................................... 126
APPENDIX E Publications in Systematic Review Dataset and Used for
Thematic Synthesis ................................................................. 131
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 133
MARIJUANA-TOURISM: DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION FOR SIDS
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1 Research Propositions ...................................................................................... 7
Table 2 Questions and Methods ...................................................................................53
Table 3 Enhancing Transparency in Reporting the Synthesis of Qualitative Studies .....54
Table 4 CIMO Explained and Applied to the Topic of Marijuana-tourism ...................58
Table 5 Marijuana Keyword Strings and Results (Databases) .......................................61
Table 6 Article Selections by Snowball Technique.......................................................61
Table 7 Hand-picked Gray Literature ...........................................................................61
Table 8 Exclusion Criteria ...........................................................................................64
Table 9 Generic Standards and Definitions ..................................................................66
Table 10 Quality Appraisal Rating Category .................................................................67
Table 11 Quality Assessment Ranking Criteria and Distribution for Marijuana
Academic Articles ....................................................................................68
Table 12 Criteria Used in Coding ..................................................................................71
Table 13 Thematic Synthesis Coding Stages .................................................................75
Table 14 A Simple Regulatory Framework for Legal Cannabis .....................................92
Table 15 Evidence Supporting P1 ............................................................................... 100
Table 16 Evidence Supporting P2 ............................................................................... 101
Table 17 Evidence Supporting P3 ............................................................................... 101
Table 18 Evidence Supporting P4 ............................................................................... 102
Table 19 Areas for Research ....................................................................................... 120
Table C Article Quality Appraisal, Scoring, and TAPUPAS Rating ........................... 124
MARIJUANA-TOURISM: DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION FOR SIDS
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1 Hypothetical evolution of the tourism area .....................................................12
Figure 2 The constructs of performance trajectories and the classification of
sustaining and disruptive innovations. ......................................................13
Figure 3 Organizing folders. ........................................................................................56
Figure 4 PRISMA flow chart for marijuana articles screening criteria. .........................63
Figure 5 Hierarchy chart of keyword frequencies. ........................................................81
Figure 6 Groundness-frequency of codes depicting benefits. ........................................82
Figure 7 Groundness-frequency of codes depicting adverse impacts. ...........................83
Figure 8 Groundness-frequency of codes depicting legal and regulatory concerns ........83
Figure 9 Groundness-frequency distributions of codes depicti
Human-resource strategy in healthcare services: Systematic review of best practices
No full textThe study will extract various key elements of strategic human-resource management (HRM) from proven practices in healthcare management (HCM), to produce a model for healthcare service providers to strategize their HRM operations based on valid strategic principles.Human-Resource Strategy in Healthcare Services:
Systematic Review of Best Practices
Catherine Avonyoh
The Graduate School
University of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD
Dissertation Committee:
Dr. John J. Sherlock
Dr. Kuan Collins
MANAGEMENT PROBLEM
THE EVIDENCE
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
In the last few decades of the 20th century, increasing federal regulation, in effect, trained the healthcare industry to behave non-strategically (Porter, 2009). In the past decade, sweeping changes in regulation, primarily with the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA), suddenly put healthcare providers in a position of having to compete for customers in the same manner as standard industries in the private sector (Porter & Lee, 2015). Healthcare service providers now need new strategic models to keep up with these changes.
Assemble—examples of effective HRM practices to fit specific types of strategic environments
Search process—produced 33 articles
o Weakest link—context specificity:
General strategic posture—indirectly or vaguely described in most studies
Implications for strategic context—influences linkage between inputs and outputs, often ambiguous or difficult to discern
o Institutional contexts—clearly described
o Nature of institutions—most articles discussed institutions at a relatively high level of development (many large, well-financed entities)
Linkage between specific HRM practices (inputs) and outcomes (outputs) clearly visible in sources
————————————————————————
PURPOSE STATEMENT
The study will extract various key elements of strategic human-resource management (HRM) from proven practices in healthcare management (HCM), to produce:
A model for healthcare service providers to strategize their HRM operations based on valid strategic principles
KEY
Strategic inputs ........ HRM policy choices
Strategic outputs ...... Positive effects on competitiveness
Strategic contexts ..... Major forms of strategic positioning
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
RQ1 What strategic inputs in HRM are crucial to healthcare providers’ competitive success in the US today?
RQ2 What strategic outputs from HRM decisions promote competitive success for healthcare service providers?
RQ3 What strategic contexts mediate the effect of each strategic HRM input on each strategic output?
General strategic models: Miles and Snow (1978), Mintzberg (1988), Porter (1998)
General strategic models in healthcare: Payne (2001), Smith (2011)
HRM strategy: Anthony, Kacmar, and Perrewé (2010); Bal (2011); Fottler (2008); Ulrich (2016)
Healthcare service provider strategy: Hamdan (2017)
HRM strategists (top HRM professionals)—should align HRM policies vertically (with organizational strategy) and horizontally (across all HRM functional areas)
Organizational strategists (top generalist executives)—should define strategic positioning clearly in terms of fit with environmental forces and include HRM strategists in top management decisions
METHOD
FINDINGS
IMPLICATIONS FOR SCHOLARSHIP
Systematic review—with thematic analysis
Article search—targets empirical or case studies in the overlapping areas of HRM and HCM, using:
o OneSearch—composite tool in online library
o Consultation—with librarian to refine search string:
strateg* AND (“human resource* management” OR “hr management” OR hrm) AND (hospital* OR medical OR “health care” OR healthcare)
Inclusionary/exclusionary criteria—additionally aimed to retain only those articles with implications for HRM in healthcare service provision
RQ1: Strategic HRM inputs—mostly overlapping with general industry outside of healthcare services, but greater emphasis on information flow and research support, consistent with the complex nature of the intellectual talent that characterizes the healthcare provider environment
Strategic HRM inputs—training, job analysis, communication, information flow, team structures, research promotion, career development, employee engagement, recruitment, performance-driven practices, high-performance work teams
RQ2: Strategic outputs (HRM + org-level)—outputs specific to HRM, and outputs recognizable at the level of the full organization: outputs overlap less with general industry, more specific to healthcare services, emphasizing nurse retention, patient safety, and error control
Strategic outputs—improvements in innovation, commitment, retention (especially nurses), succession planning, patient safety, error detection and reduction, safety culture
RQ3: Strategic contexts (org level)—only challenging aspect of findings, need to infer strategic positioning from institutional descriptions
Strategic contexts—drawing on Porter’s (1998) generic strategies: differentiators favor comprehensive strategies; focused cost leaders favor quality management interventions; focused differentiators favor training and staffing interventions; cost leaders are unpredictable
For scholarship—groundwork for a model of how specific HRM practices may serve strategic purposes of healthcare service providers
Testable hypotheses—to support future studies that can refine the model based on actual healthcare service practice FUTURE RESEARCH
HRM practices—future research should further examine the linkage between specific HRM inputs and strategic outputs in different strategic contexts
Strategic contexts—future research should further define the strategic contexts of healthcare service providers based on known models of generic strategie
The influence of social identity on perceptions of diversity training effectiveness: A systematic review of the evidence
No full textThe purpose of this systematic review was to examine the influence of social identity factors on perceptions of diversity training effectiveness. Shifting workforce demographics means managers must seek new approaches to develop inclusive organizational environments. A key strategy for this undertaking is implementing an effective diversity training program. Yet, scholars have increasingly criticized diversity training as an outdated, generally ineffective method for creating inclusive environments. Using social identity theory as the theoretical framework, this research sought to identify social identity factors impacting perceptions of diversity training effectiveness. Data were collected from a sample of 54 studies examining organizational diversity training effectiveness. This systematic review utilized a thematic analysis-synthesis methodology to extract core concepts and themes, identify recurring ideas, and translate them into eight relevant themes across three social identity levels. At the individual identity level, perceptions of diversity training effectiveness were impacted by preconceived opinions of diversity, bias towards diversity training, and diversity training internalization. At the group identity level, diversity training was impacted by conflict based on informal and formal groupings, as well as general group conflict. At the organizational identity level, diversity training was influenced by whether the organization exhibited a legal-based identity, or an inclusion-based identity.
Four management implications arose from this research. First, the strength of social identity means diversity training is necessarily filtered through the salience of an individual’s chosen affiliations. Second, diversity training based on strict categorizations and latent stereotypes may encourage inter-group conflict due to trainee attempts to protect the prestige of their identities. Third, training that promote colorblind organizations may be met with resistance from individuals who do not want to be absorbed into a faceless collective. Finally, diversity training should be matched to an organization’s identity, as generic or incompatible strategies may not be sufficient to yield desired outcomes.
This research also proposed an identity complexity model (ICM), which offers managers a three-dimensional model for use in creating a social identity roadmap within their specific organizations. The findings of this systematic review demonstrated the pervasiveness of social identity factors within organizations, and recommended that managers abandon generic strategies in favor of approaches more congruent with their firm’s prevailing identities. This research proposed several strategies for changing the current diversity training paradigm, including enlisting trainees as stakeholders to aid in aligning organizational training objectives with prevailing social identity factors, conducting a diversity-focused needs assessment to identify knowledge gaps that may impact diversity training, and incorporating the ICM into practical exercises aimed at revealing latent connections between organization members. Further research would assist in refining the ICM, as well as revealing how social identity factors impact diversity training in non-Western cultures.Running head: INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL IDENTITY ON DIVERSITY TRAINING i
The Influence of Social Identity on Perceptions of Diversity Training Effectiveness:
A Systematic Review of the Evidence
Christopher K. Jones, MBA, MS
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Advisory Committee
John Sherlock, Ph.D.
W. Christopher Cason, DM
Kuan Collins, DM
INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL IDENTITY ON DIVERSITY TRAINING ii
Abstract
The purpose of this systematic review was to examine the influence of social identity factors on perceptions of diversity training effectiveness. Shifting workforce demographics means managers must seek new approaches to develop inclusive organizational environments. A key strategy for this undertaking is implementing an effective diversity training program. Yet, scholars have increasingly criticized diversity training as an outdated, generally ineffective method for creating inclusive environments. Using social identity theory as the theoretical framework, this research sought to identify social identity factors impacting perceptions of diversity training effectiveness.
Data were collected from a sample of 54 studies examining organizational diversity training effectiveness. This systematic review utilized a thematic analysis-synthesis methodology to extract core concepts and themes, identify recurring ideas, and translate them into eight relevant themes across three social identity levels. At the individual identity level, perceptions of diversity training effectiveness were impacted by preconceived opinions of diversity, bias towards diversity training, and diversity training internalization. At the group identity level, diversity training was impacted by conflict based on informal and formal groupings, as well as general group conflict. At the organizational identity level, diversity training was influenced by whether the organization exhibited a legal-based identity, or an inclusion-based identity.
Four management implications arose from this research. First, the strength of social identity means diversity training is necessarily filtered through the salience of an individual’s chosen affiliations. Second, diversity training based on strict categorizations and latent stereotypes may encourage inter-group conflict due to trainee attempts to protect the prestige of their identities. Third, training that promote colorblind organizations may be met with resistance from individuals who do not want to be absorbed into a faceless collective. Finally, diversity training should be matched to an INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL IDENTITY ON DIVERSITY TRAINING iii
organization’s identity, as generic or incompatible strategies may not be sufficient to yield desired outcomes.
This research also proposed an identity complexity model (ICM), which offers managers a three-dimensional model for use in creating a social identity roadmap within their specific organizations. The findings of this systematic review demonstrated the pervasiveness of social identity factors within organizations, and recommended that managers abandon generic strategies in favor of approaches more congruent with their firm’s prevailing identities. This research proposed several strategies for changing the current diversity training paradigm, including enlisting trainees as stakeholders to aid in aligning organizational training objectives with prevailing social identity factors, conducting a diversity-focused needs assessment to identify knowledge gaps that may impact diversity training, and incorporating the ICM into practical exercises aimed at revealing latent connections between organization members. Further research would assist in refining the ICM, as well as revealing how social identity factors impact diversity training in non-Western cultures.
Keywords: diversity training; group identity; identity salience; individual identity; organizational diversity; organizational identity; social identity; systematic review; training effectiveness
INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL IDENTITY ON DIVERSITY TRAINING iv
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. viii
Chapter 1 – Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1
Background ................................................................................................................................ 1
Study Purpose .............................................................................................................................. 5
Research Question ....................................................................................................................... 6
Significance of Study .................................................................................................................. 7
Importance to Management ......................................................................................................... 9
Scope of Study .......................................................................................................................... 12
Study Organization .................................................................................................................... 13
Chapter 2 – Literature Review ...................................................................................................... 15
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 15
The Evolution of Diversity Management .................................................................................. 16
The Impact of Globalization ..................................................................................................... 24
Diversity Training ..................................................................................................................... 27
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 33
Social Identity Theory (SIT) ..................................................................................................... 34
The Impact of Culture ............................................................................................................... 44
Summary .................................................................................................................................. 45
Chapter 3 - Methodology .............................................................................................................. 47
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 47
Evidence-based Research, Evidence-based Management, and the Systematic Review ........... 47
Systematic Review Overview ................................................................................................... 52
Systematic Review Process ....................................................................................................... 54
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 69
Evidence Synthesis .................................................................................................................... 74
Summary .................................................................................................................................. 85 INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL IDENTITY ON DIVERSITY TRAINING v
Chapter 4 - Findings...................................................................................................................... 87
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 87
Evidence Synthesis Results ....................................................................................................... 87
Conceptual Model of Identity Influences on Diversity Training Effectiveness ..................... 106
Summary ................................................................................................................................ 108
Chapter 5 – Implications and Conclusion ................................................................................... 110
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 110
Using Systematic Review Findings......................................................................................... 110
Implications for Management ................................................................................................. 112
Research Limitations ............................................................................................................... 120
Future Research Opportunities ................................................................................................ 121
SIT as a Diversity Training Primer ......................................................................................... 126
Moving Forward ...................................................................................................................... 130
Goodbye to Old Paradigms ..................................................................................................... 135
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 137
References .................................................................................................................................. 140
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................ 181
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................ 183
Appendix C ................................................................................................................................ 187
Appendix D ................................................................................................................................ 188
Appendix E ................................................................................................................................ 189
Appendix F................................................................................................................................. 190
Appendix G ................................................................................................................................ 193
Appendix H ................................................................................................................................ 196
Appendix I ................................................................................................................................. 197
Appendix J ................................................................................................................................. 198
Appendix K ................................................................................................................................ 202
INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL IDENTITY ON DIVERSITY TRAINING vi
Dedication
To my wife and children, Bernadette, Saivon, Isis, and Kaden: since the day I decided to pursue my associate’s degree nearly twenty years ago, you have been my relentless cheering section. Thank you for supporting me, being patient when I had to lock myself in the office to finish a paper, and cracking the whip when I slacked off. With this milestone completed, we can begin to catch up on lost time. I love each of you!
To my mother, Debra Jones: when I reminisce on my childhood, I’m in constant awe of the amazing job you did raising us. In circumstances where many families could—and often did—give up, you taught us to value education, challenged us reach for the stars, and demanded that we blaze our own paths. While you were frustrated with me at times, I was listening…and I’m eternally grateful.
To my sister, Deyana Jones: thank you for nudging me towards the straight-and-narrow when we were kids. It was touch-and-go there for a while; but with your help, I avoided many of the traps that befell our peers. Thank you!
To my extended family and friends: whether it was a shoulder to lean on, a sounding board for my crazy research ideas, or just offering a motivational pat on the back, you were instrumental in helping me during this journey. I will never forget you.
INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL IDENTITY ON DIVERSITY TRAINING vii
Acknowledgements
There are many who aided me during this journey of discovery and enlightenment. To my dissertation advisors, Dr. John Sherlock, Dr. Chris Cason, and Dr. Kuan Collins: thank you for your guidance, support, and the space to figure out and own my research. I jumped down a few rabbit holes here and there, but you were always there with a rope when I needed to be pulled out.
To my DMGT 800 professors, Dr. Claudine SchWeber, Dr. Marcia Bouchard, and Dr. Joanne Tritsch: you convinced me early on that the DM was within my reach. Thank you for helping me start with my best foot forward.
To the rest of the UMUC doctoral faculty and support staff: YOU ARE AWESOME! You made this journey bearable (and fun…sometimes).
I would also like to thank several individuals who offered guidance in the early and late stages of my research. Dr. Blair Hayes and Mr. John Petrov, members of the UMUC executive staff, were instrumental in providing a practitioner’s perspective on the value of my research. Additionally, many thanks Dr. Daan van Knippenberg for providing valuable feedback on my early ideas for this dissertation, and to S2 for providing feedback on the questionnaire.
Last—but certainly not least—to my cohort members (Brink, Dan, Ed, Jeff, and Joe): you are among the finest people I have ever had the pleasure to work with. Our cohort was special, and I’m certain it played an important part in my successful completion of this program. Thank you, and Godspeed to you all!
INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL IDENTITY ON DIVERSITY TRAINING viii
List of Figures
Figure 1. Initial conceptual framework of the influence of social identity factors on perceived diversity training effectiveness. .................................................................................................... 34
Figure 2. Key authors in the evolution of social identity theory (1970-2000). ............................ 36
Figure 3. Self-identification as a continual process...................................................................... 40
Figure 4. The levels of culture (Schein, 2010, p. 24). .................................................................. 44
Figure 5. The hierarchical levels of member self-identity. .......................................................... 45
Figure 6. The four elements of EBMgt (Briner et al., 2009, p. 22) .............................................. 48
Figure 7. EBP Star Model (Stevens, 2001, p. 530). ..................................................................... 52
Figure 8. The systematic review process (Gough et al., 2012, p. 8) ............................................ 53
Figure 9. Organizational social identity factors investigatory framework. .................................. 58
Figure 10. Word frequency analysis of the dataset depicted as a word cloud. ............................. 72
Figure 11. Thematic synthesis process. ........................................................................................ 76
Figure 12. Conceptual model of social identity influences on perceived diversity training effectiveness. ............................................................................................................................... 107
Figure 13. Generic identity model with notional strengths across the three SIT levels. ............ 117
Figure 14. Firm-specific identity model, with SIT strength levels of a particular organization. 118
Figure 15. Incompatibilities created when a generic identity model is applied to an organization with diverging SIT influences. .................................................................................................... 118
Figure 16. Multinational firms may have one or more subordinate divisions with identity strength levels that differ significantly from the parent company’s identity model. .................. 119
Figure 17. Generic identity complexity model. .......................................................................... 123
Figure 18. Example ICM based on race, sexual orientation, and political affiliation. The solid lines on this model serve as relatively fixed characteristics based on societal norms. The dotted lines signify categories that are determined by the individual, and can be changed at the individual’s sole discretion. ........................................................................................................ 124
Figure 19. Multiplicity of identities. As noted in the SIT literature, individuals often manage multiple identities, each salient in given context. ....................................................................... 125
Figure 20. The SIT influence cycle envisions the salience of chosen identities and affiliations as continually impacting participant reactions to diversity training. .............................................. 129
Figure 21. The PRISMA Flow Diagram tracks the disposition of sources during the systematic review process (Moher et al., 2009). 3,153 potential sources were identified through the UMUC library (3,149), Go