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The quest for the grail: Scaling social impact
No full textThe quest for the grail seeks to understand why and how some social enterprises successfully scale social impact and yet others fail. In addressing societal problems, social enterprises first pilot solutions in a local context, but when attempting to spread social impact to better meet society’s needs, face myriad challenges arising from the conditions of environmental forces, organizational capabilities, and geographic contexts. A theory of change approach to scaling social impact offers a way to understand these challenges, and examine the dynamic interplay between conditions that affect attempts to scale. A systematic review of scaling literature, and a qualitative comparative analysis of forty–six scaling case studies assimilates existing knowledge of how social enterprises have achieved scale in the field of practice to determine the organizational conditions necessary and sufficient to achieve scale. This evidence–based approach to identifying what works reveals that leadership and access to capital are mostly necessary to scale but not sufficient; social enterprises must also leverage one of several causal combinations – pathways in which the dynamic interplay of organizational conditions can lead to scale. Informed by these results, social entrepreneurs and social enterprises may better plan and strategize for scale, improve communication to funders and stakeholders, and align and invest in organizational capabilities to maximize scale potential.Running Head: THE QUEST FOR THE GRAIL: SCALING SOCIAL IMPACT 1
The Quest for the Grail: Scaling Social Impact
Eric W. Miller
B.A. West Virginia University, 2000
M.S. College for Financial Planning, 2005
M.B.A. Colorado State University, 2011
M.S.S.I. National Intelligence University, 2012
A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Management
Dr. Richard Milter
Dr. James Gelatt
December 1, 2017
THE QUEST FOR THE GRAIL: SCALING SOCIAL IMPACT 2
Acknowledgements
This journey was made possible through the love, dedication, and support of an
entire community of friends, family, and colleagues. I thank my dissertation advisors,
Dr. Rick Milter and Dr. Jim Gelatt, and professor Dr. Laura Witz, for their guidance and
mentorship over the course of my doctoral journey. I also thank my external experts
who shaped and guided my perspective on social enterprise, including Pete Noll, Dr.
James Austin, and especially Katherine Lorenz, who first introduced me to social
entrepreneurship in 2005 and has provided continuing counsel over the years.
A big thank you to my doctoral role models – Dr. Leslie Dinauer, Dr. Amy Kardell,
Dr. Rozlyn Engel, and Dr. Anne Miles – for providing the vision and inspiration that
sustained me throughout this process. Thanks also to Dr. Cynthia Thomes, Anthony
D’Arrigo, and Dr. Geoff Edlins, whose contributions vastly improved the final version of
this dissertation. And this journey would not have been the same (or as fun) without my
cohort, especially without the friendship and commiseration of Laura D’Antonio, Allen
Azmoudeh, and Brian Mallet.
Most importantly, thank you to my wife, Lauren, and my children, Maren, Aubrey,
Levi, and Paxton, for the incredible love, support, and patience for all those early
mornings, late nights, and many weekends spent researching and writing.
THE QUEST FOR THE GRAIL: SCALING SOCIAL IMPACT 3
Abstract
The quest for the grail seeks to understand why and how some social enterprises
successfully scale social impact and yet others fail. In addressing societal problems,
social enterprises first pilot solutions in a local context, but when attempting to spread
social impact to better meet society’s needs, face myriad challenges arising from the
conditions of environmental forces, organizational capabilities, and geographic contexts.
A theory of change approach to scaling social impact offers a way to understand these
challenges, and examine the dynamic interplay between conditions that affect attempts
to scale. A systematic review of scaling literature, and a qualitative comparative
analysis of forty-six scaling case studies assimilates existing knowledge of how social
enterprises have achieved scale in the field of practice to determine the organizational
conditions necessary and sufficient to achieve scale. This evidence-based approach to
identifying what works reveals that leadership and access to capital are mostly
necessary to scale but not sufficient;; social enterprises must also leverage one of
several causal combinations – pathways in which the dynamic interplay of
organizational conditions can lead to scale. Informed by these results, social
entrepreneurs and social enterprises may better plan and strategize for scale, improve
communication to funders and stakeholders, and align and invest in organizational
capabilities to maximize scale potential.
keywords: scaling social impact, social enterprise, social entrepreneur, theory of
change, social value, qualitative comparative analysis, systematic review
THE QUEST FOR THE GRAIL: SCALING SOCIAL IMPACT 4
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................ 2
Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 3
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. 4
List of Figures .................................................................................................................. 7
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... 9
Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................. 11
A Tale of Two Scales ........................................................................................... 11
The Challenge and Promise of Scaling Social Impact ........................................ 16
The Challenge of the 21st Century ...................................................................... 18
The Problem of Scale .......................................................................................... 19
Purpose of Study ................................................................................................ 20
Importance to Managers ..................................................................................... 22
Research Question ............................................................................................. 23
Definitions ........................................................................................................... 24
Organization of Dissertation ................................................................................ 27
Chapter 2: Literature Review .......................................................................................... 28
Understanding Social Value and Scale .............................................................. 28
A Positive Theory of Social Entrepreneurship ..................................................... 34
Approaches to Scaling Social Impact ................................................................. 38
A Theory of Change Approach to Scaling Social Impact ..................................... 41
A Resource Mobilization Theory for Scaling Social Impact ................................. 66
Scaling Up Scale Research ................................................................................. 72
THE QUEST FOR THE GRAIL: SCALING SOCIAL IMPACT 5
Literature Review Summary ................................................................................ 73
Chapter 3: Methodology ................................................................................................. 75
An Evidence-Based Approach to Managing Scale ............................................. 75
The Systematic Review ....................................................................................... 76
The Qualitative Comparative Analysis Approach ................................................ 81
A Systematic Review of Scaling Social Impact ................................................... 92
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................. 105
Chapter 4: Results ........................................................................................................ 107
Truth Table Preparation ..................................................................................... 107
Necessity Analysis ............................................................................................. 110
Sufficiency Analysis ........................................................................................... 114
Failing at Scale .................................................................................................. 117
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................. 119
Chapter 5: Discussion .................................................................................................. 121
Key Result 1: The Necessity of Leadership and Access to Capital .................. 121
Key Result 2: Sufficient to Scale — Three Causal Pathways ............................ 138
Answering the Research Question .................................................................... 154
Key Result 3: A Valid Model for Scaling Social Impact ..................................... 156
Key Result 4: Conditions for Failing at Scale .................................................... 164
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................. 169
Chapter 6: Conclusion .................................................................................................. 171
A Tale of Two Scales Revisited ......................................................................... 172
Applications for Practice .................................................................................... 176
THE QUEST FOR THE GRAIL: SCALING SOCIAL IMPACT 6
Implications for Research .................................................................................. 181
Limitations of Research .................................................................................... 183
Moving Forward ................................................................................................. 185
References ................................................................................................................... 187
Appendices ................................................................................................................... 220
THE QUEST FOR THE GRAIL: SCALING SOCIAL IMPACT 7
List of Figures
Figure 2-1: A Theory of Change logic model, represented as a causal framework ....... 42
Figure 2-2: A conceptual model for understanding scaling social impact through
a theory of change approach ...................................................................... 43
Figure 2-3: An initial conceptual framework for understanding scaling social impact
through a theory of change approach ......................................................... 48
Figure 2-4: The diversification / dependence matrix ..................................................... 51
Figure 2-5: An improved conceptual framework for understanding scaling social
impact through a theory of change approach ............................................. 60
Figure 2-6: An advanced conceptual framework for understanding scaling social
impact through a theory of change approach ............................................. 61
Figure 3-1: The seven steps of a systematic review ..................................................... 80
Figure 3-2: Venn diagram representing a necessary condition ..................................... 87
Figure 3-3: XY Plot of a necessary condition ................................................................ 87
Figure 3-4: Venn diagram representing a sufficient condition ....................................... 89
Figure 3-5: XY Plot of a sufficient condition .................................................................. 89
Figure 3-6: A chart of the articles discovered in a search ........................................... 101
Figure 4-1: XY Plot of leadership (X) and scaling social impact (Y) ............................. 111
Figure 4-2: XY Plot of networks & partnerships (X) and scaling social impact (Y) ....... 112
Figure 4-3: XY Plot of access to capital (X) and scaling social impact (Y) ................... 112
Figure 4-4: XY Plot of organizational capacity (X) and scaling social impact (Y) ......... 113
Figure 4-5: XY Plot of performance measurement (X) and scaling social impact (Y) .. 114
Figure 5-1: Mostly necessary organizational conditions for scaling social impact ...... 122
THE QUEST FOR THE GRAIL: SCALING SOCIAL IMPACT 8
Figure 5-2: The necessity of leadership and characteristics that lead to scaling
social impact ............................................................................................. 131
Figure 5-3: The necessity of access to capital and funding structures that lead to
scaling social impact ................................................................................. 138
Figure 5-4: Venn diagram of causal pathways to scaling social impact and the
cases that used each or a combination of pathways ................................ 140
Figure 5-5: Sufficient organizational conditions to achieve social impact scale
through the organizational pathway .......................................................... 141
Figure 5-6: Sufficient organizational conditions to achieve social impact scale
through the network pathway ................................................................... 148
Figure 5-7: Sufficient organizational conditions to achieve social impact scale
through the capital pathway ...................................................................... 152
Figure 5-8: Necessary and sufficient conditions to scale social impact ....................... 155
Figure 5-9: An improved conceptual framework for scaling social impact .................. 157
Figure 5-10: Venn diagram of causal pathways to scaling social impact in developing
countries and the cases that used each or a combination of pathways ... 161
Figure 5-11: Venn diagram of causal pathways to scaling social impact through
replication and the cases that used each pathway ................................... 163
Figure 5-12: Venn diagram of causal pathways to social impact scaling failure and
the cases that used each pathway ........................................................... 165
THE QUEST FOR THE GRAIL: SCALING SOCIAL IMPACT 9
List of Tables
Table 3-1: Crisp set values and commonly used fuzzy set values in calibrating
data for qualitative comparative analysis ..................................................... 84
Table 3-2: Inclusion and exclusion criteria for available evidence ................................ 96
Table 3-3: Social enterprises examined in this study, and their abbreviated codes .... 103
Table 4-1: Configured & resolved truth table ............................................................... 108
Table 4-2: Frequency table of cases ............................................................................ 109
Table 4-3: Cases mapped to truth table configurations ................................................ 109
Table 4-4: Necessity scores of consistency and coverage for each of the five
conditions with the outcome of scaled social impact ................................. 110
Table 4-5: Complex solution measures for scaling social impact using QCA analysis 115
Table 4-6: Parsimonious solution for scaling social impact using QCA analysis ......... 116
Table 4-7: Intermediate solution for scaling social impact using QCA analysis ........... 117
Table 4-8: Cases mapped to the configuration solutions for scaling social impact ...... 117
Table 4-9: Intermediate solution for failing to scale social impact using QCA analysis 118
Table 5-1: Cases of leadership structures for each level of scaling social impact ....... 124
Table 5-2: Percentage of leaders and leadership teams with previous experience
in management, social enterprise, or sectors for each level of
scaling social impact .................................................................................. 126
Table 5-3: Percentage of leaders and leadership teams with various skills for
scaling in each level of scaling social impact .............................................. 127
Table 5-4: A comparison of consistency and coverage scores between the
main analysis of all social enterprises and social enterprises in
THE QUEST FOR THE GRAIL: SCALING SOCIAL IMPACT 10
developing nations ..................................................................................... 159
Table 5-5: Intermediate solution for scaling social impact in developing nations ......... 160
Table 5-6: A comparison of consistency and coverage scores between the
main analysis of all social enterprises and social enterprises
attempting replication ................................................................................. 162
Table 5-7: Intermediate solution for scaling social impact through replication ............. 162
THE QUEST FOR THE GRAIL: SCALING SOCIAL IMPACT 11
Chapter 1: Introduction
A Tale of Two Scales
In 1973, a year after the National Academy of Sciences publicized the critical
lack of prehospital care for trauma injuries (1972), the Robert Wood Johnson
Foundation identified the need and recognized an opportunity to strengthen America’s
emergency medical response (EMS). At that time, trauma injury was the “neglected
disease of modern society” (National Academy of Sciences, 1972, p. 4), and the leading
cause of U.S. deaths between infancy and age 40 (National Academy of Sciences,
1966). Although Congress had passed an EMS Systems Act in 1973 to address some
of this problem, President Nixon vetoed the measure, thus blocking the implementation
of any government or national-level solution.
With a 23 million for launching 900 new community-
based interfaith volunteer groups through 1998. At this program’s conclusion, RWJF
commissioned two studies assessing the viability and value of the two pilots for the
THE QUEST FOR THE GRAIL: SCALING SOCIAL IMPACT 13
purposes of considering if and how they might scale the program across the United
States. Although the studies identified the programmatic challenge of bringing together
different faith groups, RWJF determined the potential benefit outweighed this and other
risks. The foundation attempted to scale the program nationwide in 1999, committing
$100 million to launch over 2,000 new groups.
Five years into the program, however, RWJF had commissioned less than a third
of
Corporate social responsibility: An investigation of CSR implementation and integration into business activities
No full textCorporate social responsibility (CSR) has been identified as an efficient means through which organizations can attain sustainability in the long run. In general, it dates back as far as the 1920s in the United States. Since the 1990s, there has been an increase in public concerns for the natural environment, human rights, and the ethical aspects of a business. These societal changes have placed pressure on organizations dealing with the issue of becoming more socially responsible (Misani, 2010, p. 734). Thus, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a concept where companies integrate societal and environmental concerns in their business operations, products, or services (Jones, Comfort, & Hillier, 2007; Holcomb, Upchurch, & Okumus, 2007). One critic of corporate social responsibility, Milton Friedman (1970), believed a corporation's main goal should be to maximize profits for its shareholders and that becoming socially responsible should be an individual decision and not that of corporations. Fred Robins’ (2008) stance on corporate social responsibility was contradicting to Friedman's belief in that he stated that businesses should realize they have an important role in society beyond just economic concerns. Robins felt as though corporations have an obligation to consider how their business actions affect society and the environment (p. 330). Based on this, the primary aim of this research is to identify the most common actions that U.S. corporations initiate to be socially and ethically responsible. In addition, the investigation will examine the relationship existing among variables such as CSR, financial benefits and creating goodwill among the stakeholders. As per the stated aim, the research question for the study is as follow: What are the factors influencing CSR decisions in business activities and how are CSR strategies integrated with business actions?Corporate Social Responsibility: An Investigation of CSR Implementation and Integration into
Business Activities
Marvin A. Johnson, Sr.
University of Maryland University College
Dedication
In dedication to my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ, whom I give all honor and praise. I truly
believe that “Every man’s work shall be tried by Fire” and I hope my work will be acceptable in
your sight. To my loving wife and queen, Shunda, who has been by my side for the last 20 years
and accepted all of my flaws. I would have never imagined that I could be blessed with a woman
such as you. You have been my greatest cheerleader and critic at the same time, making sure
that I never accepted just being average and that complacency was not in my vocabulary. This is
truly a blessing that we are both reaching this milestone together and proving that a husband and
wife can achieve great things. To my son Andrew and daughter Bradi (who taught me how to
have unconditional Faith) watching and supporting me from Heaven. To my brother Robert, III
who was my rock and my teacher of life. To my father Robert, Jr. who taught me how to be a
strong man in spite of all trials and tribulations. To my sister Adrianne, thanks for always being
there for me. To my godfather Rick Scarver (shouting from Heaven), what can I say about the
man that taught me so many lessons but most of all, how not to be afraid to express my love for
God. To my boys, Marvin, Jr. and Miles, there is no way I can ever tell you both how much I
love and care for you. I just hope that I can be the father you need and always remember to put
“Jesus” first and everything else will work out. To my mother, Sallie, what can I ever say to the
one that has been “my mother and my friend” through it all. You have been there to support,
encourage, love, and even correct me throughout all of my life and have never left my side. To
my friend and brother Antonio Baxter, thanks for stepping up in the absence of my brother and
truly being there for me (Alpha Phi Alpha for life). To my uncles Luke and Edward, thanks for
always supporting and congratulating me on every accomplishment.
To all of my Fraternity brothers of the Notorious Nu Zeta Chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity,
Inc. who have been there to keep me grounded and remind me that we are all young at heart. To
the members of the Prince Hall Free and Accepted Masons, I thank you for your brotherly love.
Finally to my unborn daughter, we are only a couple of weeks away from your arrival and I am
eagerly waiting for you to bless me with your presence and I can bless you with my love.
“Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life…”
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my committee chair Professor W. Christopher
Cason for the continuous support of my dissertation, for his patience, motivation, and immense
knowledge. I also would like to thank committee member Professor John Sherlock for his
insightful comments and hard questions which incented me to widen my research from various
perspectives.
I would also like to thank Dr. Bryan Booth, Marina Caminis, and Monica Graham at the
University of Maryland University College for your help and support throughout the years.
In addition, thanks to my wife, Shunda and sons, Marvin Jr. and Miles for having the patience
and understanding to bear with the late nights and time commitment during this entire process. I
could not have completed this goal without your support.
Running Head: CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY Page 1
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 5
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Background ............................................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Problem Statement .................................................................................................................. 10
1.4 Purpose of Study ..................................................................................................................... 13
1.5 Relevance to Management …………………………………………………………………..15
1.6 Summary ................................................................................................................................ 17
Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 19
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 19
2.2 Purpose ................................................................................................................................... 19
2.3 Corporate Social Responsibility ............................................................................................. 20
2.4 Corporate Usage...................................................................................................................... 23
2.5 Organizational Benefits .......................................................................................................... 26
2.5.1 goodwill. ....................................................................................................................... 32
2.5.2 brand reputation. ........................................................................................................... 34
2.5.3 stakeholder benefits. ..................................................................................................... 35
2.5.4 customer satisfaction .................................................................................................... 36
2.5.5 employees ..................................................................................................................... 36
2.6 Corporate Social Responsibility and Competitive Advantage................................................ 37
2.7 Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability ................................................................ 42
2.8 Major issues and debates ........................................................................................................ 44
2.9 CSR Techniques..................................................................................................................... 50
2.10 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 54
Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 58
3.1 Purpose ................................................................................................................................... 58
3.2 Research Design.......................................................................................................................58
3.3 Research Description ...............................................................................................................58
3.3.1 Procedure for systematic review. ...................................................................................59
3.3.2 Evidence-based management. .......................................................................................60
3.4 Methods of Research................................................................................................................62
3.4.1 evidence search. .............................................................................................................62
3.4.2 inclusion criteria. ...........................................................................................................62
3.4.3 exclusion criteria. ...........................................................................................................63
3.4.4 SR data analysis methods. .............................................................................................65
Chapter 4: Findings and Data Analysis ........................................................................................ 67
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 67
4.2 Data Analysis ...........................................................................................................................67
4.2.1 disresponsibility and corporate social responsibility managemnet .............................. 69
4.2.2 benefits of philanthropic and ethical corporate social responsibility to a firm. ............73
4.2.3 relationship between corporate social responsibility, research, and development. ...... 77
4.2.3.1 research and development ................................................................................ 77
4.2.4 corporate social responsibility and economic performance of enterprise. ...................79
4.2.4.1 CSR and economic performance…...…………………………………………79 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 2
4.2.4.2 CSR and brand positioning….………………………………………………...81
4.2.4.3 CSR as a social obligation that is rewarded by goodwill …………………….81
4.2.4.4 CSR and positive firm performance ………………………………………….88
4.2.5 impact of social responsibility on reputation. ...............................................................90
4.2.6 role of corporate social responsibility on employee perception....................................91
4.2.7 corporate social responsibility, international diversification and market competition density ...................................................................................................................................95 4.2.8 mana
ging corporate social responsibility..................................................................... 99
4.3 Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................................... 104
4.4 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 105
Chapter 5 .................................................................................................................................... 107
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 107
5.2 CSR and its growing implication in business activities ........................................................ 107
5.3 Factors that influence companies to implement CSR activities ............................................ 108
5.4 Integrating CSR initiatives with business activities.............................................................. 111
5.5 CSR as a means to obtain sustainable development ............................................................. 117
5.5.1 CSR and economic performance of companies .......................................................... 118
5.5.2 CSR and Goodwill. ..................................................................................................... 120
5.5.3 CSR and stakeholder management. ............................................................................ 122
5.6 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 127
5.7 Limitations of the discussions ............................................................................................... 131
References .................................................................................................................................. 132
Appendix 1: Weight of Evidence ................................................................................................ 137
CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 3
List of Figures
Figure 1: CSR Process…………………………………………………………………………...31
Figure 2: Comparison between First Generation CSR and the Modern CSR……………………43
Figure 3: Prisma Diagram………………………………………………………………………..64
Figure 4: The strategic intentions to engage in CSR .................................................................... 74
Figure 5: The impact of ethical practices and social responsibility on business success ............. 75
Figure 6: Descriptive statistics and correlation matrix ................................................................. 79
Figure 7: Relationship between economic performance, CSR disclosure and CSR performance 83
Figure 8: Average performance of sampled firms from 1984-1994 ............................................. 84
Figure 9: Stakeholder-centered model of CSR-CFP relationship ................................................. 87
Figure 10: CSR and key stakeholders ........................................................................................... 91
Figure 11: Conceptual framework ................................................................................................ 96
Figure 12: Framework for aligning CSR into business strategy .................................................. 102
Figure 13: Conceptual framework from the findings .................................................................. 104
Figure 14: Major points arrived from discussions...…………………………………….………116
CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 4
List of Tables
Table 1: The AC3ID Test of Corporate Brand Management …………………………………...40
Table 2: A summary of the number of resources used for research and their areas of contribution...................................................................................................................................................... 69
Table 3: Identified global issues ................................................................................................... 72
Table 4: Benefits from ethical practices and social responsibility ............................................... 76
Table 5: Semi-partial correlation analysis between past economic performance, CSR controlling firm size and industry environment impact .................................................................................. 85
Table 6: Correlation between CSR disclosure, CSR performance, environmental impact and firm size ............................................................................................................................................... 86
Table 7: Factors that influence a company’s value and their impact ............................................ 87
Table 8: US charitable giving as per donor type in 1989 ............................................................. 90
Table 9: Criteria for creating an employer brand.......................................................................... 93
Table 10: Hypotheses framed for the study .................................................................................. 95
Table 11: Stated hypothesis and its results based on regression analysis ..................................... 97
Table 12: Discussions on major elements identified…….………………………………..……..115
Appendix 1: Weight of Evidence ……………………………………………………….………136 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 5
Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
Corporate social responsibility, in general, dates back as far as the 1920s in the United States. At this point in American history, there was a decrease in the need for corporate expansion into the Western United States and companies began to focus more on social ethics to achieve industrial harmony (Hoffman, 2007, p. 55). The subject of corporate social responsibility (CSR) has been in the United States media since the 1990s and has since seen an increase within organizations (Holcomb, Upchurch, & Okumus, 2007, p. 461). The increase in public concerns for the natural environment, human rights, and the ethical aspects of business has placed pressure on organizations to deal with these issues thereby becoming more socially responsible (Misani, 2010, p. 734).
Being socially responsible has meant that companies must undertake CSR initiatives as a way to prove that they share the people's sentiments and appeal to them to join in the efforts to handle the issues mostly by consuming an organization's products and services, which makes it possible for companies to contribute to various CSR efforts. Business participation in CSR, however, presents a problem when balancing the objective of maximizing profits while performing CSR due to the costs involved in such activities. This research dissertation intends to examine the factors influencing CSR decisions in business activities and how CSR strategies are integrated with business actions to obtain sustainability given the costs associated with it.
The dissertation contains five chapters covering different subjects that offer a critical examination of the topic. Each chapter begins with an introduction that outlines its aim. Chapter one starts with an introduction that provides the goal of the study and its organization. It is followed by background information on the topic to give a better understanding of the CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 6
importance of CSR and its development. A section on the particular problem that the dissertation will address follows the background information. It provides a clear view of the problem that the research question will be able to address. Further, this chapter also contains the purpose of the study, which explains the research question and how it relates to the matter under investigation. Finally, the chapter concludes with a section on the relevance of this issue to managers that explains how business executives would benefit from the entire analysis contained in the thesis.
1.2 Background
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a concept whereby companies integrate societal and environmental concerns in their business operations, products, or services (Jones, Comfort, & Hillier, 2007; Holcomb, Upchurch, & Okumus, 2007). The development of these programs has been seen to have various positive effects on organizational operations and longevity. The perception of the relevance and value contribution to organizations has increased in the past two decades, but the link between corporate social responsibility and business performance has yet to be established (Aras, Aybars, & Kutlu, 2010, p. 229). The use of such programs can be seen as the positive actions that help organizations in enhancing their social responsibility to external stakeholders and consumers (Smith & Langford, 2009, p. 97). This perceived value assists in the determination of whether to implement such programs. An organization should determine the positive and negative impacts the implementation of socially responsible programs will have on its business operations, stakeholders, and consumer reputation.
Corporate social responsibility consists of four types of tasks normally referred to as the pyramid of corporate social responsibility (Carrol, 1991, p. 1). These are the economic, the legal, the ethical and finally the philanthropic. The economic responsibility is the ability of a company to continuously remain profitable. This is for the sake of its stakeholders and other people who CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 7
benefit from the profitability of the firm. On the other hand, the legal responsibility of a firm is the constitutional and legislative obedience that a firm should comply with operationally. It usually deals with environmental issues such as waste disposal and air pollution. A company's ethical responsibility is to maintain a particular moral code in its day-to-day running and management. This includes unbiased employee recruitment exercises and refraining from the practice of social evils such as corruption.
Finally, there is the philanthropic side of corporate social responsibility by an organization
Trends in Chinese human resource management: Implications for the future
No full textSince the opening of its doors to foreign direct investment (FDI) by Deng Xiaoping in 1978, China’s economy has enjoyed unprecedented growth. Accompanying this economic growth have been concomitant changes in the Chinese law and legal environment, increased influence from Western and Japanese business as well as structural changes in the economy. These changes are driving change in the human resource management (HRM) practices in China. Moderating the pace and character of change has been the influence of China’s culture. Some aspects of Chinese culture were repressed since the inception of the Peoples Republic of China, especially during the Cultural Revolution. However, with thousands of years of tradition, Chinese culture has had a slow resurgence within Chinese society, and has been a moderating force on the evolution of the law, and on the form of HRM practice.
The conceptual framework for this research shows the dynamics of the interaction between foreign direct investment, the economy, legal reform, and Chinese culture. Foreign direct investment has a stimulating effect on the Chinese economy, which in turn affects the pace and types of legal reform that is taking place in China. Likewise, foreign direct investment has an influence on the pace and types of legal reform as well. Chinese culture has had a moderating effect on both HRM as well as legal reform.
This dissertation explores the evolution in HRM. The trends in the changes in foreign direct investment, the economy, and legal reform, as well as the moderating influence of Chinese culture are examined as a means for providing a guide to the further evolution of HRM in China.Running Head: TRENDS IN CHINESE HUMAN RESOURCES PRACTICE 1
Trends in Chinese Human Resource Management:
Implications for the Future
Yun Xing
Dissertation – 8 November 2017
A Thesis
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctorate of Management
Dissertation Committee:
G. David Anderson, Ed. D.
Eric B. Dent, Ph.D. (Primary)
Deborah Wharff, DM
Author Note
Yun Xing, Doctor of Management Program, University of Maryland, University College
E-mail: [email protected]
TRENDS IN CHINESE HUMAN RESOURCES PRACTICE 2
Abstract Since the opening of its doors to foreign direct investment (FDI) by Deng Xiaoping in 1978, China’s economy has enjoyed unprecedented growth. Accompanying this economic growth have been concomitant changes in the Chinese law and legal environment, increased influence from Western and Japanese business as well as structural changes in the economy. These changes are driving change in the human resource management (HRM) practices in China. Moderating the pace and character of change has been the influence of China’s culture. Some aspects of Chinese culture were repressed since the inception of the Peoples Republic of China, especially during the Cultural Revolution. However, with thousands of years of tradition, Chinese culture has had a slow resurgence within Chinese society, and has been a moderating force on the evolution of the law, and on the form of HRM practice. The conceptual framework for this research shows the dynamics of the interaction between foreign direct investment, the economy, legal reform, and Chinese culture. Foreign direct investment has a stimulating effect on the Chinese economy, which in turn affects the pace and types of legal reform that is taking place in China. Likewise, foreign direct investment has an influence on the pace and types of legal reform as well. Chinese culture has had a moderating effect on both HRM as well as legal reform. This dissertation explores the evolution in HRM. The trends in the changes in foreign direct investment, the economy, and legal reform, as well as the moderating influence of Chinese culture are examined as a means for providing a guide to the further evolution of HRM in China. Keywords: China, culture, economy, FDI, HRM, human resource management
TRENDS IN CHINESE HUMAN RESOURCES PRACTICE 3
Acknowledgements
My doctoral journey would not have been completed without the help of others. Along the journey, I received advice, encouragement and support from the UMUC faculty and administration; from members of my cohort; from my subject matter experts; and from my friends and family, especially my husband. I am grateful to all of you for helping me on this journey of learning.
Dr. Andersen, Dr. Bijlani, Dr. Bouchard, Dr. Cason, Dr. Dent, Dr. SchWeber, Dr. Sherlock, Dr. Wagner, and Dr. Wharff, thank you so much for making the program interesting, challenging and worthwhile. I learned so much from all of you both in and out of the classroom, and I very much appreciated the ongoing and continuing encouragement and support throughout the journey. This dissertation benefited greatly from Dr. Sherlock and Dr. Cason, who helped me to break the task of writing a dissertation into manageable tasks. Dr. Dent, I really appreciated the way that you stepped in to mentor and guide me through to completion. Your timely direction, review and encouragement has been essential in making the goal of completing the dissertation attainable. Thank you so much. Marina Caminis, your support and encouragement, from the initial program registration through the final residency, and your responsiveness to my questions about the program along the way made the journey more enjoyable and manageable. I always felt that I was communicating with a friend whenever I had a question.
To my cohort members, thank you. I really appreciated the camaraderie and diversity of views that was expressed in the residencies, and in our discussions. To members of my initial cohort, thank you for your continued encouragement after you had completed your journey. The e-mails of encouragement meant a lot and helped me visualize the finish line. TRENDS IN CHINESE HUMAN RESOURCES PRACTICE 4
To my subject matter experts, thank you for your critique of my efforts. I felt honored to have the benefit of your expertise in evaluating my research direction. Your feedback helped make me feel that I was doing something worthwhile, and it helped improve the quality of my final product.
Outside of the academic community, there was always the support of close friends and family. Thank you so much. I especially want to thank my sister, Yan Xing. My sister has been my lifelong friend and has been an essential part of my life. Thanks so much for your support.
Finally, I want to acknowledge and thank my husband, whose love and support is always there. Thank you for your belief in me that has been a source of confidence. Thank you for your support, which took many forms from words and acts of encouragement when the challenges seemed great, to silent understanding and patience when I needed the personal space and time to attend to my studies and research. And thank you for always being there not only for this doctoral journey but also for our life together. You greatly enrich my life.
TRENDS IN CHINESE HUMAN RESOURCES PRACTICE 5
Dedication
This is dedicated to my late parents, Shulan Wang and Lianfu Xing, who in my childhood taught me Chinese values of pursuit of knowledge and excellence that planted the seeds for this doctoral journey; and, who in my adulthood, supported my sister and me in our decision to immigrate to the United States, which ultimately made this doctoral journey possible.
TRENDS IN CHINESE HUMAN RESOURCES PRACTICE 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. 6
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................... 10
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 1: TRENDS IN CHINESE HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ............. 12
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 12
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................................... 16
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................................................... 16
Importance to Management ........................................................................................................................... 16
Research Question ............................................................................................................................................ 17
Assumptions ........................................................................................................................................................ 18
Significance of the Study ................................................................................................................................. 18
Definition of Terms ........................................................................................................................................... 19
Human Resource Management ................................................................................................................................. 19
Chinese Culture ............................................................................................................................................................... 20
Chinese Legal Reform ................................................................................................................................................... 21
Wholly Owned Enterprise ........................................................................................................................................... 22
Organization of the Dissertation ................................................................................................................... 23
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 24
Human Resource Management ...................................................................................................................... 25
Japanese HRM ................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Chinese HRM ..................................................................................................................................................................... 28
_________________________________________________________________________ ........................................................ 30 TRENDS IN CHINESE HUMAN RESOURCES PRACTICE 7
Chinese Culture .................................................................................................................................................. 30
Confucianism .............................................................................................................................................................. 32
Taoism ........................................................................................................................................................................... 32
The Art of War ............................................................................................................................................................ 33
Communism-Socialism ........................................................................................................................................... 33
Legal and Economic Reform ........................................................................................................................... 34
Theoretical Framework for This Research ............................................................................................... 36
Applicability of Dialectical Theory ............................................................................................................... 37
Organizational Change Theory ...................................................................................................................... 38
Applicability of Organizational Change Theory ...................................................................................... 41
Theoretical Gap .................................................................................................................................................. 41
Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................................................... 42
CHAPTER 3: SYSTEMATIC REVIEW................................................................................. 45
Stages of a Systematic Review ........................................................................................................................ 45
Systematic Review Process ............................................................................................................................. 47
Methodology ........................................................................................................................................................ 49
Synthesis ............................................................................................................................................................... 58
Subject Matter Experts .................................................................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................ 64
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 64
Systematic Review: Individual Studies ....................................................................................................... 65
Major Laws and Regulations Pertaining to HRM 2011 – 2017 ........................................................... 94
Synthesis of Findings around the Functions of HRM ............................................................................. 95
Recruitment and Selection ..................................................................................................................................... 95
Training and Development .................................................................................................................................... 98 TRENDS IN CHINESE HUMAN RESOURCES PRACTICE 8
Appraisal and Promotion ..................................................................................................................................... 101
Compensation and Benefits ................................................................................................................................ 103
Legal Compliance .................................................................................................................................................... 104
Termination or Retirement................................................................................................................................. 104
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS .................................................... 105
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 105
Conceptual model ............................................................................................................................................ 106
Trends within the Conceptual Model Framework ................................................................................ 110
Foreign Direct Investment .................................................................................................................................. 110
Economic Growth and Structural Change ...................................................................................................... 110
Government Interventions .................................................................................................................................. 110
Chinese Culture and Demographics ................................................................................................................. 111
Human Resource Management .......................................................................................................................... 112
Current problems within HRM .................................................................................................................... 113
Future of Chinese HRM .................................................................................................................................. 116
Implications for Management ...................................................................................................................... 118
Limitations ......................................................................................................................................................... 120
Future Research ............................................................................................................................................... 121
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 122
Appendix A: Theories in Chinese HRM Research ................................................................................. 142
Appendix B: Weight of Evidence ................................................................................................................. 143
Appendix C: Journal Article Selection Process ....................................................................................... 146
Appendix D: Expert Stakeholder Feedback from Dr. Liang ............................................... 147
Appendix E: Expert Stakeholder Feedback from Ms. Lu .................................................... 153 TRENDS IN CHINESE HUMAN RESOURCES PRACTICE 9
Appendix F: Expert Stakeholder Feedback from Dr. Zhao ............................................................ 157
TRENDS IN CHINESE HUMAN RESOURCES PRACTICE 10
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Major Changes in China's Human Resource Policies ..................................................... 14
Table 2 Summary of Major Employment Law Changes in China 1986 - 2010 ............................ 22
Table 3 Chinese Values and Their Cultural Ties .......................................................................... 30
Table 4 Support for the Conceptual Frmework ............................................................................ 43
Table 5 Initial Search Strings and Results ................................................................................... 51
Table 6 Journal Articles Included In Prior Research .................................................................. 52
Table 7 SME Survey Questions and Responses ............................................................................ 61
Table 8 Number of Articles included in Study by Year ................................................................. 64
Table 9 Key Findings Frear, Cao and Zhou (2012) ..................................................................... 75
Table 10 Key Findings Ma and Trigo (2012) ............................................................................... 77
Table 11 Key Findings of Mayes et al., (2017) ............................................................................. 79
Table 12 Zhang et al., (2011) Survey Scenarios ........................................................................... 94
Table 13 Major Employment Laws of China 2011 - 2017 ............................................................ 95
TRENDS IN CHINESE HUMAN RESOURCES PRACTICE 11
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Chinese GDP, FDI-In, FDI-Out .................................................................................... 13
Figure 2. Contextual model of factors determining HRM policies and practices. ....................... 27
Figure 3. Cultural influences within China .................................................................................. 31
Figure 4. Major influencing forces on Chinese HRM evolution .................................................. 43
Figure 5. Systematic review process. ........................................................................................... 46
Figure 6. Revised concept map for Chinese HRM evolution. .................................................... 109
TRENDS IN CHINESE HUMAN RESOURCES PRACTICE 12
CHAPTER 1: TRENDS IN CHINESE HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Human Resource Management (HRM) has undergone significant changes in China in the last 35 years. These changes have been fueled by the evolution of the HRM discipline as it is practiced in the West, and by changes that have occurred in China. China has moved towards a free market economy. It has opened itself to foreign investment and influence for its business practices and it has increasingly developed the foundations and reform of its legal framework. Understanding the nature of these changes and their current trends can be useful in understanding how HRM will continue to evolve in China.
Since the opening of its doors to foreign direct investment (FDI) by Deng Xiaoping in 1978, China’s economy has enjoyed considerable growth (see Figure 1) (Björkman & Lu, 1999; Bra
Leader emotional intelligence as a response to creative destruction: Exploring factors impacting organizational effectiveness
No full textThe presentation addresses the way in which creative destruction (CD) is used impact
organizational effectiveness (OE) and how leader EI influences the way CD is used and its effects on OE.Leader Emotional Intelligence as a Response to Creative Destruction: Exploring Factors Impacting Organizational
Effectiveness
Implications for Practitioners
1) The results indicate that leader’s EQ significantly impacts the
organizations
2) It is suggested that leaders improve their communication
skills through EI-specific facets (perception, empathy, social)
3) EI development programs will likely increase the leader’s
ability to deliver the benefits of CD while protecting
organizations from its harmful effects on OE
4) Leaders need to ensure that their values align with the
organizational objectives
To lead means to serve
Results
Bozena (Bonnie) Berdej
Research model and propositions
Literature Rationale:
Literature review results for EI:
1) Communication is idea-sharing (Morand, 2001)
2) EI impacts decision making, communication, problem solving (Mayer &
Salovey, 1993)
3) Leader EI affects working relationships (Goleman, 1995)
Literature review results for CD:
1) CD can be devastating (Canton & Uhlig, 1999)
2) Elimination of human capital is a product of creative destruction
(Levinsohn & Petropoulos, 2001; Komlos, 2016)
3) The cult of innovation has no consideration for markets, industries, and
companies (Igami, 2015; Holgersen, 2015)
Literature review results for OE:
1) Effective decision making and communication encompass emotions
(Beehr & Newman, 1978; Mayer & Salovey, 1993)
2) Motivation impacts organizational performance (Parke & Seo, 2017;
Shoraj & Llaci, 2015)
3) Committed to belong – the critical element of OE (Angle & Perry, 1981;
Shoraj & Llaci, 2015)
The Research Questions
RQ1: Does the way in which creative destruction (CD) is used impact
organizational effectiveness (OE)?
RQ2: Does leader EI influence the way CD is used and its effects on OE?
Proposition 1: The use of CD affects OE
Proposition 2: Leader EI impacts the use of CD and OE
Proposition 3: High leader EI reduces the negative effects of CD
and improves OE
Process: Configurative data collection, Inductive reasoning, Realist
approach, WoE, TAPUPAS, thematic synthesis.
Theoretical Framework
Total Screened for
Quality
WoE - High WoE - Medium WoE - Low
Total
Evidence
Included
45 13 19 13 32
Total
3 1.93 1.86
13 6 13
Score# High/Medium
TAPUPAS
32
Findings
1) The use of CD affects OE
2) Leader EI affects the use of CD and OE
3) High leader EI reduces the negative effects of CD and
improves OE
What works and when?
The Problem Facing Practitioners:
Ineffective leaders negatively impact the use of CD and influence its
unfavorable effects on OE (Foster & Kaplan, 2001; Bostaph, 2013; Holgersen,
2015; Komlos, 2016; Liss, 2013). Ineffective leadership costs the U.S.
companies $23.8 billion per year (Tepper et al., (2006).
Leadership remains the top human capital concern—and the largest
“readiness gap” (Canwell et al., 2014, March 07)
Definitions:
Leader EI: The ability of a leader to effectively recognize emotions and to
encourage employees to contribute their ideas in order to advance the
organization and decision making (Mayer & Salovey, 1993)
OE: A state of organizational well-being which is dependent on individuals
who make voluntary effort to make organization better (Shorai & Llaci, 2015).
This includes leadership, decision making, people/cultures, and self-improving
support system
Theoretical lenses:
EI theory: applied to explain the relationships between CD and OE
Communication theory: applied as a secondary lens to explain possible
communication factors affecting leader effectiveness and the use of C
Wading through the storm surge: The impact of social media on emergency communication during a disaster
No full textAn increased number of widespread disasters ranging from storm surge flooding to sprawling wildfires, has increased the pressure on emergency communication. Social Media, through mobile technology combined with volunteer geographic information (VGI), has the potential to enable disaster impacted populations to send and receive crucial information thereby reducing the impact and loss associated with widespread disasters. This study examines how social media impacts emergency and disaster communication by analyzing the results of thirty-three case studies where social media had an impact on communication. Thematic synthesis conducted through the identification of themes derived from study findings indicates that while there are many challenges to implementing a social media enhanced emergency communication strategy, when authorities adopt such a strategy, stakeholders affected by the emergency have more actionable information and situational awareness. Additionally, awareness of the emergency by non-affected stakeholders, such as disaster relief agencies and fundraisers increases exponentially when social media is included in the communication strategy. Findings also suggest that challenges such as information overload, and the dissemination of false information can be overcome when authorities cooperate with affected stakeholders to moderate social media posts.Running Head: SOCIAL MEDIA AND EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation: Wading Through the Storm Surge: The impact of social media
on emergency communication during a disaster.
Todd R. Walton
Doctor of Management, 2018
University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Dissertation Directed By: Dr. Kuan Collins, Graduate School, UMUC
Dr. John Sherlock, Graduate School, UMUC
A growing number of widespread disasters ranging from storm surge flooding to
sprawling wildfires, has increased the pressure on emergency communication. Social Media,
through mobile technology combined with volunteer geographic information (VGI), has the
potential to enable disaster impacted populations to send and receive crucial information thereby
reducing the impact and loss associated with widespread disasters. This study examines how
social media impacts emergency and disaster communication by analyzing the results of 33 case
studies where social media had an impact on communication. Thematic synthesis conducted
through the identification of themes derived from study findings indicates that while there are
many challenges to implementing a social media enhanced emergency communication strategy,
when authorities adopt such a strategy, stakeholders affected by the emergency have more
actionable information and situational awareness. Additionally, awareness of the emergency by
non-affected stakeholders, such as disaster relief agencies and fundraisers, increases
exponentially when social media is included in the communication strategy. Findings also
suggest that challenges, such as information overload and the dissemination of false information,
SOCIAL MEDIA AND EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
can be overcome when authorities cooperate with affected stakeholders to moderate social media
posts.
Keywords: Disaster, Emergency, Emergency Communication, Crisis Communication,
Emergency Management, Social Media, Social Networks, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram
SOCIAL MEDIA AND EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
Wading Through the Storm Surge: The impact of social media on emergency
communication during a disaster.
By
Todd R. Walton
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctorate of Management
Advisory Committee:
Kuan Collins, D.M.
John Sherlock, Ph.D.
SOCIAL MEDIA AND EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my brother Don Walton, Jr., who taught me how to be.
From my earliest memories of him emphasizing the rules of the game and playing hard, to the
sheer joy he has expressed at witnessing me proceed through this entire program. He is an
honest critic, a forceful motivator, an opinionated arbitor of all that is right, and a seriously
loving and caring brother. Life circumstances inhibited his scholastic journey, but that didn’t
stop him from becoming one of the wisest people I know. Homer, your Little Ghost is a doctor!
SOCIAL MEDIA AND EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
Acknowledgments
This dissertation and all work associated with it, including the day-to-day efforts of
living, could not have been possible without the loving steadfast support of my wife, Zisa. The
extra effort that she put into keeping our lives in order and the bills paid throughout this process,
is nothing short of miraculous. She is my aharuf, that which makes me smile.
I would also like to thank and acknowledge the members of our dissertation cohort,
Jacques Alexis, Sherise Bishop and Steven Yinger. Their constant support and friendship not
only kept me moving forward, but kept me entertained and laughing throughout. Steven’s
dedication to his family shows us that it is possible to balance the demands of the program and
work, while never forgetting what is truly important. Jacques has been the consummate
professional and model student always pushing us to think more deeply. Sherise has been the
driving force behind all that is good in the program reminding us that life is wonderful and even
better with good friends.
I would also like to thank my dissertation committee, Dr. Kuan Collins and Dr. John
Sherlock for their support, guidance, and coaching. Dr. Collins kept my train on the tracks and
never stopped encouraging me even when my “you problems” seemed insurmountable.
Additionally, I would like to acknowledge the other members of the “Dirty Dozen plus
one,” the 9041. Ingrid Burford, Lomax Campbell, Loretta Deaner, Geneva Flanagan-Benedict,
Roza Masoumi, Karen Matthews, Barbara Walker, Gemma Wenner, and Desta Berhane. This
group of dedicated individuals stood by one another through every single class. I am so proud to
be associated with these wonderful people and hope to stay in contact with them for years to
come.
SOCIAL MEDIA AND EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
Finally, I would like to thank Dr. Bryan Booth, Dr. Leslie Dinaur, and Marina Caminis
for all of the residency organizing, registration assistance, and the open access they gave us
throughout the entire program.
SOCIAL MEDIA AND EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
Table of contents
Dedication
......................................................................................................................................................................................
iv
Acknowledgments
........................................................................................................................................................................
v
Table
of
contents
..........................................................................................................................................................................
1
List
of
Figures
................................................................................................................................................................................
4
List
of
Tables
..................................................................................................................................................................................
4
Chapter
1.
Introduction
............................................................................................................................................................
5
Background
Statement
..............................................................................................................................................................
5
Problem
Statement
......................................................................................................................................................................
7
Study
Purpose
and
Scope
..........................................................................................................................................................
7
Significance
for
Management
.................................................................................................................................................
8
Research
Questions
..................................................................................................................................................................
10
Discussion/Definition
of
Themes
........................................................................................................................................
10
Chapter
Summary
.....................................................................................................................................................................
12
Organization
of
Dissertation
...............................................................................................................................................
12
Chapter
2.
Literature
Review
...............................................................................................................................................
14
Communication
Theory
..........................................................................................................................................................
15
Crisis
Communication
Theory
.............................................................................................................................................
16
SOCIAL MEDIA AND EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
Crisis
and
Emergency
Risk
Communication
...................................................................................................................
18
Situational
Crisis
Communication
Theory
......................................................................................................................
20
Social
Media
................................................................................................................................................................................
23
Initial
Conceptual
Model
........................................................................................................................................................
25
Initial
Conceptual
Model
Narrative
..................................................................................................................................
25
Thesis
Statement
.......................................................................................................................................................................
26
Chapter
Summary
.....................................................................................................................................................................
26
Chapter
3:
Methodology
.........................................................................................................................................................
27
Research
Questions
..................................................................................................................................................................
27
Evidence-‐based
Research
......................................................................................................................................................
28
Methodological
Approach
.....................................................................................................................................................
30
Review
Initiation
............................................................................................................................................................
30
Review
Questions
..........................................................................................................................................................
30
Conceptual
Framework/Methodology
..................................................................................................................
31
Search
Strategy
Inclusion
Exclusion
Criteria
......................................................................................................
31
Databases
..........................................................................................................................................................................
35
Limitations
of
Search
Strategy
.................................................................................................................................
35
Quality
Appraisal
...........................................................................................................................................................
36
Chapter
4:
Findings
...................................................................................................................................................................
40
Findings
Summary
....................................................................................................................................................................
40
Social
Media
and
Mobile
Technology
Benefits
...................................................................................................
41
Social
Media
and
Mobile
Technology
Challenges
.............................................................................................
42
General
Themes
..............................................................................................................................................................
43
Discussion
.....................................................................................................................................................................................
44
SOCIAL MEDIA AND EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
Many
to
Many
Communication
provides
Real-‐Time
data
and
Situational
Awareness
....................
44
The
New
Role
of
Authorities
in
Emergency
Communication
......................................................................
46
Distrust
and
failure
of
Authority
..............................................................................................................................
47
False
Information
and
Overload
...............................................................................................................................
47
Conceptual
Model
and
Narrative
.......................................................................................................................................
48
Summary
of
Findings
...............................................................................................................................................................
50
Chapter
5:
Conclusions
and
Emerging
Trends
..............................................................................................................
52
Conclusions
..................................................................................................................................................................................
53
The
Challenges
................................................................................................................................................................
53
Leveraging
Social
Media
and
Mobile
Technologies
.........................................................................................
54
Implications
and
Recommendations
for
Management
..................................................................................
56
Limitations
........................................................................................................................................................................
58
Future
Research
and
Emerging
Trends
................................................................................................................
58
Chapter
Summary
.....................................................................................................................................................................
59
References
....................................................................................................................................................................................
60
Appendix
A.
Quality
Appraisal
TAPUPAS
.........................................................................................................................
69
Appendix
B.
Article
List
and
Evaluation
Notes
..............................................................................................................
71
Appendix
C.
Topic
Screening
................................................................................................................................................
82
SOCIAL MEDIA AND EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
List of Figures
Figure 1. A Conceptual Framework for research concerning social media for emergency
communication……..………………………………………………….…………25
Figure 2. EBMgt Decision-making model as described by Briner et al., 2009…...……..29
Figure 3. Results of systematic searches (PRISMA, 2016)……………………...………34
Figure 4. Social Media Benefits Present in Sources……………………………………..42
Figure 5. Social Media Challenges Present in Sources…………………………………..43
Figure 6. A Conceptual Model for Decentralized Emergency Management and
Communication…………………………………………………………………..49
List of Tables
Table 1. Best Practices, Tensions and Questions in Risk and Crisis Management……...19
Table 2. Crisis Types by level of responsibility…………………………………………22
Table 3. The seven generic standards and examples (Pawson et al., 2003)……………..37
Table 4. Initial Codes…………………………………………………………………….38
Table 5. Second round and in vivo coding………………………………………………39
SOCIAL MEDIA AND EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
Chapter 1. Introduction
Background Statement
“We came to realize that what started out as a natural disaster became a manmade
disaster - a failure of government to look out for its own citizens” -President Barack Obama
speaking about the government’s response to Hurricane Katrina (Alpert, 2015).
In 2017, weather disasters alone cost the United States more than $300 billion (Brittain,
2018). Add the loss of life, property, and hardship experienced by those affected by disasters,
and the expense is incalculable. Disasters, natural as well as man-made, impact people
physically, emotionally, and economically. Disaster preparedness and mitigation have become
primary concerns for governmental agencies at all levels. Emergency and disaster
communication is a prime component of an organization’s comprehensive crisis management
program (CCMP) (Coombs, 2015, p. 1). Disasters are experienced at all levels of government,
and require careful planning and consideration to minimize loss.
When disasters occur, the resulting chaos along with infrastructural damage further
impairs communication. Emergency communication during disasters can be the difference
between life and death. An individual’s ability to find safe passage, resources, or stranded loved
ones is the primary function of emergency communication. Multiply the individual user’s
experience by the number of people impacted by any single disaster, compounded by
infrastructural damage, and it is not difficult to understand the complexities involved in
emergency communication.
SOCIAL MEDIA AND EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
Traditionally, emergency communication has been modeled after military command
structures, where decision making takes place at the hierarchical top in a central command center
(Sellnow & Seeger, 2013, p. 116). This bureaucratic perspective grew from the fact that many
emergency managers started their careers in the military and brought this perspective with them
to their emergency management and communication teams.
Social media channels such as Twitter and Facebook have grown in popularity over the
last decade, mostly due to their ability to rapidly connect people. The wide reach and lightning
speed of communication through social media has vastly increased the efficiency of
communication during crises (Haataja, Laajalahti, & Hyvärinen, 2016). Emergency management
organizations can disseminate information regarding safety, resources, evacuation routes,
shelters, and crisis resolution to the public. Additionally, new channels of communication that
have become available through social media have improved situational awareness enabling
emergency personnel to rapidly respond to crisis situations.
Conversely, social media has enabled the public to become equal producers of
information. The increase in the amount of information generated during crisis situations
complicates the mission of emergency management organizations such that these situations are
no longer manageable by the authorities (Haataja et al., 2016, p. 136). The resulting confusion
has increased the amount of distrust experienced by the public during times when the ability to
trust information could mean the difference between life and death. Additionally, nefarious
actors seeking to disrupt communication and cause chaos have discovered the ability to do so
through the very same channels being used for emergency communication.
SOCIAL MEDIA AND EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
Problem Statement
An increased number of widespread disasters ranging from storm surge flooding to
sprawling wildfires, has increased the pressure on emergency communication. Social Media,
through mobile technology combined with volunteer geographic information (VGI), has the
potential to enable disaster impacted populations to send and receive crucial information thereby
reducing the impact and loss associated with widespread disasters.
Missteps with regards to emergency communication and response during very high
profile disasters such as Hurricane Katrina, and more recently Hurricane Maria, have placed an
emphasis on how emergency man
Servant leadership and job satisfaction in K-12 schools: A systematic review
No full textTeachers are the most important assets for a school because their work leads to improvement in a school’s bottom line: its students’ performance. With the passing of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2002 and with its recent replacement by the Every Student Succeeds Act in 2015, schools across the United States have been under pressure to show sustained improvements in their students’ performance. At the same time the increase in teachers’ job dissatisfaction and the resulting spike in turnover rates have a negative impact on student performance, which can lead to long-term societal and economic impacts. School leadership plays a pivotal role in the employee job satisfaction in K-12 schools. Among the various types of leadership, servant leadership has been shown to have a positive correlation with employee job satisfaction in schools. However, due to a lack of consensus among management scholars on the dimensionality of servant leadership, it is difficult for practitioners to understand, implement, and train others on servant leadership. Using systematic review as the research methodology, the present research identified key servant-leadership behaviors that have the strongest correlation with employee job satisfaction in K-12 schools. The present researcher found the behavior of “values people” to have the strongest correlation with job satisfaction, whereas the behavior of “builds community” has the second strongest correlation. This research clarifies the ambiguity associated with the servant leadership construct, especially as it applies in K-12 schools. It offers K-12 school leaders a concrete plan of action to work on improving employee job satisfaction and student performance. More empirical studies and training programs are needed to further clarify the servant-leadership construct in schools.Running head: SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 1
Servant Leadership and Job Satisfaction in K-12 Schools:
A Systematic Review
By
Haroon Rasheed Baqai
Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctorate of Management
Advisory Committee
Dr. Kriesta L. Watson
Dr. Richard G. Milter
December 2017
SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 2
Abstract
Teachers are the most important assets for a school because their work leads to improvement in a school’s bottom line: its students’ performance. With the passing of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2002 and with its recent replacement by Every Student Succeeds Act in 2015, schools across the United States have been under pressure to show sustained improvements in their students’ performance. At the same time the increase in teachers’ job dissatisfaction and the resulting spike in turnover rates have a negative impact on student performance, which can lead to long-term societal and economic impacts. School leadership plays a pivotal role in the employee job satisfaction in K-12 schools. Among the various types of leadership, servant leadership has been shown to have a positive correlation with employee job satisfaction in schools. However, due to a lack of consensus among management scholars on the dimensionality of servant leadership, it is difficult for practitioners to understand, implement, and train others on servant leadership. Using systematic review as the research methodology, the present research identified key servant-leadership behaviors that have the strongest correlation with employee job satisfaction in K-12 schools. The present researcher found the behavior of “values people” to have the strongest correlation with job satisfaction, whereas the behavior of “builds community” has the second strongest correlation. This research clarifies the ambiguity associated with the servant leadership construct, especially as it applies in K-12 schools. It offers K-12 school leaders a concrete plan of action to work on improving employee job satisfaction and student performance. More empirical studies and training programs are needed to further clarify the servant-leadership construct in schools.
Keywords: Servant leadership, job satisfaction, schools, motivator-hygiene theory, self-determination theory, Robert Greenleaf.
SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 3
Acknowledgements I start off by thanking God (Allah) – the One Who deserves to be worshipped alone – for helping me throughout this journey. This journey was challenging at times. Without His help, I could not have finished it. I am also indebted to Him for blessing me with an amazingly supportive wife, Sajeela Yaqub, whose constant help and encouragement got me through this journey. Thank you for sacrificing so much for me always, and for being the rock of my life. To my precious daughter Maryam, who gave up her valuable childhood times so I can complete this degree. To my three sisters, Shumaila, Sumayya, and Khansa, who, although were far from me in distance, always wished me well and motivated me throughout my degree program. To my amazing parents – Rasheed Baqai and Imrana Tabassum – for their unconditional love and prayers for me to reach the finish line; thank you for your blessings and motivation. To my ever-loving and supportive in-laws – Dr. Muhammad Yaqub and Nasreen Yaqub – for their consistent encouragement and support; thank you for being there for me. To my teacher, mentor, coach, and servant leader, Safi Khan, for showing me servant leadership in action and exemplifying the behavior of the Prophet Muhammad, may peace and blessings of God be upon him. I extend my sincere gratitude to my dissertation chair, respected Dr. Kriesta Watson, whose constant encouragement helped me get through many tough times during this process. Thank you for supporting me during my difficulties and for celebrating my achievements. Many thanks to my secondary advisor, Dr. Richard Milter, for his insightful comments and feedback. I cannot thank enough two of my most respected Professors and mentors: Dr. Leslie Dinauer, my program chair, and Dr. Marcia Bouchard, SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 4
who were instrumental in providing me the encouragement and support to start the program, and to follow it through. To the members of my cohort, thank you for your constructive feedback and encouragement, always! Last but not least, to Dr. Rhonda Jones, one of my esteemed Professors in my Master’s program, whose continuous and frequent encouragement during our Statistics course sparked my interest to pursue this Doctorate degree.
SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 5
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction ......................................................................................................10
Problem Statement and Significance .................................................................................10
The Role of School Leadership in Job Satisfaction .......................................................13
Study Purpose and Rationale .........................................................................................14
Importance to Management ............................................................................................14
Definitions of Key Terms ..................................................................................................15
Servant Leadership .........................................................................................................15
Job Satisfaction ..............................................................................................................17
Relevance of Variables for Dissertation.........................................................................18
Study Scope and Assumptions .......................................................................................19
Organization of Dissertation ..........................................................................................20
Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................21
General Positive Outcomes ............................................................................................22
Organizational Citizenship Behavior .............................................................................23
Organizational Commitment ..........................................................................................25
Employee Satisfaction ....................................................................................................26
Servant Leadership – Job Satisfaction Correlation in Educational Institutions .............27
Underlying Theoretical Mechanisms .................................................................................32 SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 6
Servant Leadership (Robert Greenleaf)..........................................................................33
Self-Determination Theory (Edward L. Deci and Richard Ryan) .................................36
Unexplained Aspects of Servant Leadership – Job Satisfaction Relationship ...............38
Summary ............................................................................................................................40
Chapter 3: Research Methodology.....................................................................................42
Importance of Evidence-Based Management ....................................................................42
Importance of Systematic Reviews ....................................................................................45
Justification for the Selection of Systematic Review for the Present Research ................47
Steps for Conducting the Systematic Review ....................................................................48
Engage Stakeholders ......................................................................................................49
Summary ............................................................................................................................69
Chapter 4: Findings ............................................................................................................70
Descriptive Analysis ......................................................................................................70
Results of Thematic Synthesis .......................................................................................76
Additional Themes .........................................................................................................80
Summary ............................................................................................................................80
Chapter 5: Discussion, Implications, and Conclusion .......................................................81
Cultural and Religious Contexts of Schools ......................................................................81
Servant Leader Behaviors with Strongest Correlation with Job Satisfaction ....................82
Values People .................................................................................................................82 SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 7
Builds Community .........................................................................................................83
Provides Leadership .......................................................................................................86
Shares Leadership: A Striking Result ............................................................................86
Implications for Management ............................................................................................88
Summary ............................................................................................................................89
Recommendations for Future Research .........................................................................91
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................93
References ..........................................................................................................................94
APPENDIX ......................................................................................................................121
SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 8
List of Tables
Table 1: Mapping of Servant Leader Characteristics and Behaviors to Laub’s (1999) Model ............................................................................................................................... 66
Table 2: Cultural Contexts of Included Studies ................................................................ 71
Table 3: Religious Affiliations of Schools in Included Studies ........................................ 72
Table 4: Servant Leadership Models Used in Included Studies ....................................... 73
Table 5: Descriptive Analysis of Included Primary Studies ............................................. 75
Table 6: Servant Leader Behaviors and their Correlation with Job Satisfaction, With References to Primary Studies (Sorted by Strongest Correlation).................................... 77
Table 7: Most Strongly Correlated Servant Leader Behaviors with Job Satisfaction (Second Round After Mapping to Laub’s Model) ............................................................ 79
SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 9
List of Figures
Figure 1. The Servant Leadership Virtuous Cycle of Service ...........................................39
Figure 2. The Four Elements of EGMgt. ...........................................................................43
Figure 3. A conceptual framework based on CIMO framework. ......................................53
Figure 4. First stage of coding in NVivo. ..........................................................................60
Figure 5. Examples of the generation of nodes in stage 1 of the coding process. .............62
Figure 6. Examples of the generation of analytical themes in stage 3 of the coding process...............................................................................................................................67
SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 10
Chapter 1: Introduction
One of the biggest assets that a school has is its faculty and staff. Their satisfaction and commitment can improve the bottom line of any school, namely student performance. With the passing of the No Child Left Behind Act ("No Child Left Behind," n.d.), schools across the United States must show sustained improvements in their students’ academic performance. At the same time, the increased job dissatisfaction among school employees and the resulting spike in turnover rates have a negative effect on student performance, which can lead to long-term societal and economic impacts. Among several factors, school leadership plays a vital role in employee job satisfaction. The present researcher proposed to investigate the effect of servant leadership on employee job satisfaction in K-12 schools. In particular, this research explores specific servant leader behaviors that have the strongest positive correlation with job satisfaction.
This chapter is organized as follows. First, an introduction to the management problem and its significance to educational leaders are discussed. Next, the purpose of the study and its rationale are presented. Next, definitions of key terms in this research are reviewed. Finally, the research question guiding this study is presented and discussed. A brief discussion on the organization of this dissertation and summary conclude this chapter.
Problem Statement and Significance
Due to the demanding and challenging nature of the teaching profession, many teachers become dissatisfied with their jobs and pursue other careers. Teacher satisfaction in the United States dropped to the lowest level in 25 years in 2013, with only 39% of the teachers satisfied with their jobs (Strauss, 2013). Teacher dissatisfaction SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 11
leads to high absenteeism and turnover (Hulpia, Devos, & Rosseel, 2009). According to Donaldson and Johnson (2011), about 1,000 teachers leave their profession every day. Hudson (2009) reported that between 40 and 50 percent of the teachers leave the teaching profession after their first year. Mertler (2002) found that if given the opportunity to select a career again, 36% of the teachers said they would not choose to become a teacher again. Ingersoll (1999) noted that many teachers leave their jobs because of dissatisfaction with their jobs. Teachers play a critical role in educating and shaping the minds of the young generation. Hence, such high rates of dissatisfaction and resulting turnover pose a significant problem for educational leaders.
The high rates of dissatisfaction and the resulting high employee turnover carry substantial costs for school districts. When teachers leave, they take with them their knowledge and experience of instructional strategies, students’ learning styles, and training (Chuong, 2008). In short, “institutional memory is lost” (Ronfeldt, Loeb & Wyckoff, 2013, p. 1). The costs of turnover among teachers include time spent on exit interviews, finding temporary or long-term substitutes, recruitment of new teachers, and training and professional development (Levy, Joy, Ellis, Jablonski, & Karelitz, 2012). Employee turnover costs the U.S. upwards of 7 billion annually (NCTAF, 2011). This large amount of money takes away from what can be spent on supplemental instructional resources, building better educational facilities, hiring special education teachers, etc., all of which can improve the quality of education for students.
Teachers’ dissatisfaction with their jobs and high turnover has a negative effect on school effectiveness and students’ academic performance. According to a longitudinal SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 12
study conducted in New York, high teacher turnover rates have a negative effect on student performance (Ronfeldt et al., 2013). Guin (2004) found that schools with higher teacher turnover had lower student achievement. Moreover, Sawchuk (2012) concluded that teacher turnover is harmful to students’ performance. When teachers are dissatisfied with their jobs and leave their profession, they are often replaced with newer, less experienced teachers, and thus, the quality of instruction and student performance decreases.
On the other hand, when teachers are satisfied with their jobs, it improves the quality of instruction and student achievement. Reed (1987) found that teachers’ job satisfaction is positively related to school effectiveness and success, and leads to high academic performance and achievement among students. Teacher job satisfaction was found to be positively correlated with students’ reading growth (Banerjee, Stearns, Moller, & Mickelson, 2017). Teachers’ attitude towards their job and their morale tremendously affect the academic achievement of students (Chambliss, 2013). When teachers have high morale and are satisfied with their jobs, they pass this excitement and satisfaction on to students who, in turn, perform better in their academics.
Improved student performance can have far-reaching economic and societal effects. According to a study conducted by McKinsey and Company (2009), if existing student achievement gaps were closed, the yearly gross domestic product of the US could be improved by billions of dollars. If all students in the United States achieved at least a basic level of proficiency in the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) – often known as the “Nation’s Report Card” – the national GDP of the U.S. would SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 13
increase by 32 trillion (Hanushek, Ruhose, & Woessmann, 2016). On the other hand, the existing gaps in student achievement “impose on the United States the economic equivalent of a permanent national recession” (McKinsey & Company, 2009, p. 5). In addition, low student achievement is correlated with an increase in delinquent behavior (Hoffmann, Erickson & Spence, 2013; Savolainen, Hughes, Mason, Hurtig, Ebeling, Moilanen, & Taanila, 2012). Improving teacher job satisfaction and decreasing turnover can improve student performance, which in turn can have long-term economic and societal effects.
The Role of School Leadership in Job Satisfaction
School leadership plays a vital role in job satisfaction. In a study involving elementary school teachers, Eldred (2010) found that the perceived leadership style of principals had a significant positive correlation with teachers’ job satisfaction. Hulpia et al. (2009) found that leader support had a strong correlation with teachers' job satisfaction. According to Ladd (2011), school leadership is the most salient dimension that results in teachers’ decision to leave schools. Moreover, Hudson (2009) conducted a meta-analysis to explore the reasons behind lack of job satisfaction and high attrition rates among teachers from 1983 to 2005. He concluded that lack of administrative support was one of the primary reasons for lack of job satisfaction among teachers. Though there are several factors that may affect job satisfaction, school leadership plays a vital role in making teachers feel satisfied or dissatisfied with their jobs. SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS 14
Study Purpose and Rationale
Teachers are one of the most important assets of a school. Given that they have a strong influence on student performance, it is important to ensure that good teachers remain satisfied with their jobs and continue working in their profession to shape the young minds of our society. School leadership plays a pivotal role in teachers’ satisfaction with their jobs. Of the various styles of leadership, servant leadership has been shown to have a strong and positive correlation with teachers’ job
An examination of organizational leadership crisis communication best practices for colleges and universities
No full textThe purpose of this study was to determine best practices of leadership communication during and after organizational crises at colleges and universities that threaten the safety of stakeholders. Crises that impact colleges and universities are increasing, and if the leaders in these organizations communicate improperly throughout crisis incidents, the organizations’ reputation may suffer serious damage. Leaders must use communication strategies that prevent or minimize damage to their organizations. The systematic review methodology was utilized to conduct a qualitative analysis and synthesis of more than 30 relevant empirical studies. The study also used Coombs’ Situational Crisis Communications Theory and key initial crisis communication best practices as a framework to answer the research question, “what are communication strategies that colleges and universities should use for institutional crisis situations that threaten the safety of their stakeholders?” Findings included 11 crisis communication strategies effective for responding to crises.An Examination of Organizational Leadership Crisis Communication
Best Practices for Colleges and Universities
Rochelle R. Daniel
University of Maryland University College
2
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine best practices of leadership communication during and after organizational crises at colleges and universities that threaten the safety of stakeholders. Crises that impact colleges and universities are increasing, and if the leaders in these organizations communicate improperly throughout crisis incidents, the organizations’ reputation may suffer serious damage. Leaders must use communication strategies that prevent or minimize damage to their organizations. The systematic review methodology was utilized to conduct a qualitative analysis and synthesis of more than 30 relevant empirical studies. The study also used Coombs’ Situational Crisis Communications Theory and key initial crisis communication best practices as a framework to answer the research question, “what are communication strategies that colleges and universities should use for institutional crisis situations that threaten the safety of their stakeholders?” Findings included 11 crisis communication strategies effective for responding to crises.
Keywords: crisis, colleges, communication strategies, SCCT, universities
3
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I thank God for helping me to get through this doctoral journey. Without him I could do nothing. I also thank my husband (Tony), daughter (Krystal), parents (David and Alice), and sister (Karen), all of who have supported and encouraged me for three and a half years to get to this point. I greatly appreciate the members of my cohort who inspired, motivated and challenged me. And I thank my instructors, each and every one of them challenged and encouraged me in different ways. I thank my dissertation advisor, Dr. Eric Dent, especially for his calm and patient spirit and focused guidance. Finally, I am forever grateful to my expert reviewers, Drs. Timothy Coombs, Edward Powley, and Otis Thomas, for taking time out of their busy schedules to read my work and provide feedback. 4
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................................ 3
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................................... 4
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................... 6
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................................. 7
Chapter 1: Background and Overview .......................................................................................................... 8
Problem Statement ................................................................................................................................. 11
Study Purpose ........................................................................................................................................ 12
Importance to Management .................................................................................................................... 12
Research Question ................................................................................................................................. 13
Discussion of Terms and Theoretical Framework .................................................................................. 14
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 20
Chapter 2: Literature Review ...................................................................................................................... 22
Study Themes......................................................................................................................................... 22
Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................................................... 39
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 41
Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 43
Evidence-based Management ................................................................................................................. 43
Systematic Review Methodology ........................................................................................................... 43
Inclusion/exclusion criteria ..................................................................................................................... 46
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 51
Chapter 4: Findings—Analysis and Discussion .......................................................................................... 52
Systematic Review of Evidence for Research Question ......................................................................... 52
Findings, Analysis and Quality Assessment ........................................................................................... 52
Alternative Perspectives .......................................................................................................................... 69
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 71
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ................................................................................................... 72 5
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 72
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 73
Implications for Management and Researchers ...................................................................................... 74
Future Trends ......................................................................................................................................... 76
Limitations ............................................................................................................................................. 80
Future Research ..................................................................................................................................... 81
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 81
References .................................................................................................................................................. 83
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................................ 92
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................................ 93
Appendix C .............................................................................................................................................. 103
Appendix D .............................................................................................................................................. 104
Appendix E .............................................................................................................................................. 109
Appendix F............................................................................................................................................... 113
Appendix G .............................................................................................................................................. 115
Appendix H .............................................................................................................................................. 124
6
List of Tables
Table 1 Subject Matter Experts ..................................................................................................... 50
Table 2 Studies Categorized by Framework Themes and Quality Ranking ................................. 55
Table 3 Studies Categorized by New Themes and Quality Ranking of Studies ........................... 56
Table 4 Campus Crisis Communication Checklist ....................................................................... 75
7
List of Figures
Figure 1 Initial conceptual framework .......................................................................................... 41
Figure 2 PRISMA ......................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 3 Revised conceptual framework. ..................................................................................... 69
8
Chapter 1: Background and Overview This study examines organizational leadership communication during and after crisis events to determine the implications for colleges and universities in the United States. Crises are increasing throughout our global society in public and private organizations. As a result, organizational leaders face the challenging problem of preparing their organizations for a broad range of crises. Crises impacting organizations have included financial scandals, environmental hazards, natural disasters, violence, lawsuits, reputation damage, cyber-crime, those created by social media, and so on. The research reveals a range of characteristics that leaders exhibit during and after crises. Also, an important aspect of how leadership responds to crises focuses on their communication and stakeholders. Their crisis communication strategies are defined in this study as what they say, when they say it, how they say it, and what they do not say (Bligh and Kohles, 2014, p. 145). In order to study this management issue, this study was designed as a systematic review which consists of a research methodology for establishing scientific evidence using reliable and transparent methods to solve management problems (Gough, Oliver, & Thomas, 2012a, p. 5). When managers use such evidence, the practice is referred to as evidence-based management. In this study, evidence was drawn from over 30 empirical research studies. A review of each study is included in Chapter 2, a discussion of the systematic review methodology and evidence-based research in Chapter 3. The findings and analysis are discussed in Chapter 4, and conclusions and implications are explained in Chapter 5. In this chapter, key terms are operationalized to provide context and background for the present study, and the management problem/s, the importance of the topic, the purpose and research question are discussed. 9
An organizational crisis can be defined as a significant threat to operations or reputation that negatively affects stakeholders if they are handled improperly (Coombs, 2014, para 3). Research on crisis decision-making can be traced from at least 60 years ago, documenting defining moments in the history of crises. They include, to name a few, the 1962 Cuban missile crisis; in the United States the tampering of Johnson and Johnson’s Tylenol in 1982, the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the Pentagon and the World Trade Center, Hurricane Katrina in 2005, and the Virginia Tech University killings in 2007 (Butler & Lafreniere, 2010; Freedman, 2002; Mehta & Xavier, 2012); and the 2015 terrorist attacks in Paris involving suicide bombings, hostages, and mass shootings (Magdy, Darwish, & Abokhodair, 2015) --one of the worst since the 2001 attacks in the United States. Crises continue to make indelible marks on history and significant impact on organizations. Per the Institute for Crisis Management, nearly 90,000 crises that impacted organizations were reported in the news between 2000 and 2009 (as cited in James, Wooten, & Dushek, 2011, p. 456). The institute reported more than 220,000 news stories on organizational crises in 2014; however, the institute warns the numbers cannot be compared to previous figures because it has upgraded its database by tracking more news outlets and added cyber-crime as a new category of crises. Leaders play a major role in calming stakeholders and restoring order. For example, Johnson and Johnson set an example for effective crisis management and communication when the company responded promptly to reports that Tylenol capsules had killed three people, followed by another three who had swallowed the capsules laced with cyanide in Chicago (Mitroff, Diamond, & Alpasian, 2006, para. 4; Seitel, 2014). As soon as the crisis happened, the company spoke openly to the media, eventually recalled nearly 31 million bottles of Tylenol 10
capsules, and sent telegram warnings to doctors, hospitals, and distributors, which demonstrated concern for the public’s safety (Seitel, p. 43). The company’s chairperson James E. Burke made himself available to the media via television and newspaper interviews, and even allowed the investigative television news show 60 Minutes to film one of its executive sessions discussing a launch of Tylenol’s new packaging (p. 43). As a result of the company’s actions, Tylenol regained 95% of the market share it had lost (p. 43). Two organizations whose leadership was criticized for improperly handling a crisis were BP and Penn State. While operating the Deepwater Horizon oil well on April 20, 2010, BP became responsible for the largest oil spill in United States history (Veil, Wicklind, & Sellnow, 2013). The oil well exploded and sank 5,000 feet off the coast of Louisiana, killing 11 workers (pp. 368-369). BP’s communication was viewed as disingenuous for a few reasons including their reputation as a “ruthless company” and a CEO who appeared dishonest during a congressional hearing and misrepresented the crisis and BP’s capabilities for cleaning up the spill (p. 373). In 2012. Penn State’s former assistant coach Jerry Sandusky was found guilty of sexually assaulting 10 boys (Brown, Brown, & Billings, 2013). An independent investigation determined the university, a leader in college football, knew about the conduct and had tried to cover it up. Consequently, the school’s reputation suffered, it lost scholarships, received severe sanctions by the NCAA, and the president was fired, among other repercussions (p. 289). As the Penn State case demonstrates, leaders at colleges and universities also face the difficult challenge of leading their institutions during the 21st Century. Institutions have become more complex, which poses increasing risks (Mitroff, Diamond, & Alpaslan, 2006, p. 61). “The top 10 likely campus crises are (a) serious outbreaks of illness; (b) major food tampering; (c) employee sabotage; (d) fires, explosions and chemical spills; (e) environmental disasters; (f) 11
significant drops in revenues; (g) natural disasters; (h) loss of confidential/sensitive information or records; (i) major lawsuits; and (j) terrorist attacks” (Mitroff et al., p. 62). Recent crises may or may not fall into these categories but the following crises captured major media attention by claiming lives, inflicting injuries and/or damaging the reputations of individuals and the institutions: (a) the University of Colorado football scandal; (b) a bonfire killing 12 and injuring 27 students at Texas A & M University; (c) sexual misconduct targeting female cadets at the Air Force Academy; (d) and the Virginia Tech mass shooting that killed 32 people and injured others (Wang & Hutchins, 2010). Crises will inevitably continue and increase on college campuses, placing increasing demands on college and university leadership.
Problem Statement With an increasing number of crises incidents that are impacting colleges and universities, there is an increasing risk to the reputation and sustainability of these organizations, particularly if stakeholders perceive the crises are not handled properly (James, Wooten, & Dushek, 2011). The ability of an organization’s leadership to lead during crises affects how stakeholders view the organization that determines the organization’s post-crisis reputation (Coombs, 2007; James & Wooten, 2005). It makes sense for leaders to plan as best as possible to be effective leaders during crises although it is understood that often crises are unexpected. Vaill (1996) suggested effective leaders should recognize that organizational crises, or what he calls “white water events”, are inevitable and leaders must prepare themselves and their organizations to participate in a continuous state of learning to manage their crises (p. 14-21). Organizations can prepare for crises by developing crisis management plans, which are strategic in nature. Crisis management consists of a “process designed to prevent or lessen the damage” it does to the organization and its stakeholders (Coombs, 2014, para. 5). However, most colleges and 12
universities are not prepared for a broad range of crises likely to happen (Mitroff et al., 2006, p. 62). The results of an online survey distributed to colleges and universities revealed that almost 100% of respondents indicated their institutional crisis management plans rarely addressed the type of crises that have occurred in recent years with increasing frequency such as suicides, terrorist attacks, mass shootings, and others (Wang & Hutchins, 2010, p. 553). Similarly, Mitroff (2006) distributed a survey to 350 provosts and found that only a few of the institutions had crisis management plans or teams similar to their corporate counterparts (p. 65).
Study Purpose The purpose of this study is twofold: to examine best practice leadership communications to stakeholders during and after organizational crises that threaten the safety and lives of people, and to determine communication strategies that college and university leaders can apply during and after life threatening crises. Considering crises that impact colleges and universities have increased, the leadership in these organizations need to understand how best to communicate to their stakeholders. The systematic review methodology was utilized to review relevant literature on crises and identify effective as well as ineffective communications strategies through a qualitative analysis. The results of the study provide for evidence-based management, because it offers scientific and practical evidence to assist managers in preparing for crises and formulating crisis responses.
Importance to Management The topic of organizational crises is important to management because they can potentially cause irreparable damage to their organizations. In recent years, the campuses of colleges and universities have demonstrated how vulnerable they are to the type of crises that they have not traditionally prepared for. The unexpected nature of crises does not abdicate a 13
leader’s responsibility to lead their institutions in planning for a broad range of crises. A crisis management plan is one resource to help inform leaders on how to lead their organizations during crises. Another resource is this study, which utilizes evidence-based management or scientific evidence, to help practitioners solve problems, and make better decisions (Rousseau, 2012). Specifically, this study provides college and university crisis managers evidence on best practices for leadership communication in response to crisis events. The evidence should be useful to these organizations if they take seriously the responsibility to their organizations’ stakeholders-- employees, students, parents, donors, the community and others. Most importantly, the research may help organizational leaders to minimize the damage to their organizations during crises.
Research Question The following research question guides this study: What communication strategies should colleges and universities use for institutional crisis situations that threaten the safety of their stakeholders? To answer the research question, the systematic review methodology process req
Open Innovation Applied to Defense Acquisition Management Innovation Challenges
No full textHow might OI concepts and practices adopted by organizations in the
private sector be used to improve innovation challenges attributed to
the DoD’s defense acquisition management system (DAMS)?
The Principle Focus is on OI’s core concepts of collaboration with
customers and the acquisition, integration, and application of external
knowledge with internal knowledge to enhance innovation performance.Open Innovation Applied to Defense Acquisition Management Innovation Challenges
Management Challenge: DoD Innovation Performance
• Policy Advances and Practitioner Use Related Implications
• Policy that codifies collaboration, what it means, and how it affects
industry/DoD interaction
• Policy that codifies knowledge acquisition, integration, and application
in terms of type, timing, and access between the DoD and Industry
• Train the DoD stakeholders in collaboration and knowledge sharing
• Alignment of supporting enablers at all levels in the across the DoD
• Establishment of a measurement system to align organizational effort
Results
• The DoD expends more than $126B per year on new products and
services and sustaining existing products and services
• The DoD fears that it is losing its technological advantage over
adversaries, attributed to innovation management challenges
• The DoD desires to get innovative products and services to its end-users
faster, at lower cost, with greater levels of performance
• In the last 5-10 years the DoD has taken many measures to improve its
process for acquiring innovative products and services
• Nearly all of the DoD stakeholders have communicated that the DoD
acquisition management process is too slow and unwieldly
• How can OI help the DoD improve its ability to provide innovative
products and services to its end-users
Open Innovation (OI)Applied to the Defense Acquisition Management System to Facilitate
DoDs Ability to Provide Innovative Products and Services From Industry to Its End-Users in a
Timelier Fashion, at Lower Cost, with Better Performance.
Implications for DoD Acquisition Professionals
Dave Lockhart
The Graduate School
University of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD
The Evidence
• The researcher used the 7 part systematic review process
• The researcher used a combined aggregative and configurative
approach to categorize and understand the management challenge
• The aggregative approach was used to describe the environment and
test existing hypothesis – applied to context of the situation
• The configurative approach was used to seek out or explain new theory
– in this case the application of OI from a customer perspective using
collaboration and knowledge acquisition, application and integration as
interventions to shape the DoD eco-system
• The researcher used a combination of realist synthesis and the CIMO
model to understand the complex social relationships between
interventions and mechanisms and their affect on programs and policy
• The researcher used a combination of realist synthesis and the CIMO
model to make recommendations on policy and program changes that
the DoD should consider
RQ: What do We Need to Know/Discover?
• How might OI concepts and practices adopted by organizations in the
private sector be used to improve innovation challenges attributed to
the DoD’s defense acquisition management system (DAMS)?
• The Principle Focus is on OI’s core concepts of collaboration with
customers and the acquisition, integration, and application of external
knowledge with internal knowledge to enhance innovation performance.
Method: The Process of Understanding and Application
• The researcher examined four propositions, each found to be valid
• Collaboration between the DoD, as the primary customer, and industry
was found to be critical to successful implementation of OI
• Early provision of the right type of information from the DoD informs
industry investment and research and development activities, leading to
lower costs, faster delivery, and more innovative products
• Supporting enablers either facilitated the successful implementation of
OI or created major barriers to its success
• As the primary customer in the ecosystem, OI provided a useful
framework for the DoD to shape its environment to improve the
capacity of the defense industrial-base
Future Research Opportunities for Scholars
• Primary studies that consider more empirical rather than anecdotal
measures of success upon implementation of OI
• Primary studies that address the utility of OI of firms in all sized and
industries’
• Primary studies that consider the implementation of OI with and
without the benefit of collaboration and knowledge flows
• Primary studies that address how OI affects value capture beyond
value creation
• The researcher identified four major findings
• Industry access to the right type of customer information earlier in the
process increases the ability of organizations to address the DoD’s
product and service needs
• Continuous collaboration between industry and the DoD throughout the
innovation process enhances industry understanding of the DoD needs
and their ability to address the need
• Deliberate application of supporting enablers increases the probability of
successfully applying OI to the DAMS
• The benefits of OI are moderated differently in open and closed
environments, particularly with respect to short and long term
expectations or outcomes
PRISMA Flow Diagram – Open Innovation Applied to DAMS
From: Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, The PRISMA Group (2009). Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses:
The PRISMA Statement. PLoS Med 6(6): e1000097. doi:10.1371/journal. pmed1000097
Studies included in realist
synthesis
(n = 41)
Full-text articles excluded,
with reasons (n=84)
Full-text articles assessed
for eligibility (n=125)
Records excluded
(n = 1407)
Records screened
(n = 1532)
Records after duplicates removed
(n = 1532)
Additional records identified
through other sources (n= 32)
Included Eligibility Screening Identification
Records identified through
database searching (n= 2500)
(n = )
Studies included in
qualitative synthesis.
(n =41
Unpacking the Black Box: The Underlying Mechanics of Culturally Intelligent Behavior
No full textThe current litmus to behaving culturally intelligent is whether the effort was
successful or not. What is not discussed is the mechanics behind behaving
culturally intelligent. Without a defined process for behaving culturally
intelligent, organizations have no way to improve specific issues and end up
spending more money and time going through complete retraining, or
simply losing business.Unpacking the Black Box: The Underlying Mechanics of Culturally Intelligent Behavior
The Problem With Behaving Culturally Intelligent
The process of behaving culturally intelligent is cyclic and iterative. Each
cultural offering is evaluated for appropriateness, with an aggregated
total of both positive and negative behavior. While the overall evaluation
of appropriateness is important, practitioners can evaluate individual
behaviors as a means of evaluating training and process improvement.
Results
The current litmus to behaving culturally intelligent is whether the effort was
successful or not. What is not discussed is the mechanics behind behaving
culturally intelligent. Without a defined process for behaving culturally
intelligent, organizations have no way to improve specific issues and end up
spending more money and time going through complete retraining, or
simply losing business.
Implications for Practitioners
Joseph S. Madison
The Graduate School
University of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD
The Evidence
A combined systematic review of realist synthesis and thematic synthesis,
lensed through Social Exchange Theory. A quality analysis was completed
with the use of the Weight of Evidence scale.
• Every primary source on cultural intelligence discusses individual actions
that are judged by the host actor, and take place as a part of the
behavioral factor of CQ.
• Every established testing tool evaluates distinct actions.
• 97 Datasets
• 4 Case studies
RQ: What do We Need to Know/Discover?
• What are the underlying mechanics of culturally intelligent behavior?
• What, if any, conclusions can be drawn from the extant literature
indicating an underlying process or processes exist beneath the
contextual heading, “Behaving Culturally Intelligent”.
Method: The Process of Discovery
Implications for Scholars
This research provides an initial framework from which to examine culturally
intelligent behavior. Empirical research should be conducted to create an
improved understanding of the cultural intelligence behavior process. Research
should be conducted to gain empirical data on the nature and properties of CQ
offerings, judgements, and outcomes. Further, empirical research should be
conducted to investigate the possibility of CQ moderating/mediating/ mitigating
CQ, the influence “Intent” has on CQ, and the effects reciprocity has on the CQ
outcome.
Concept Model
Results Cont.
Primary Findings:
Cultural Offering- Any behavior, verbal or non-verbal, that is believed to be
culturally correct enacted by the Organizational Actor in an attempt to have
CQ.
Judgement- Made by the host actor, it is the determination if a cultural
offering is appropriate or not.
Outcome-The aggregated weight of the “appropriate cultural offerings” and
the “inappropriate cultural offerings. If the appropriate outweigh the
inappropriate, cultural equilibrium is attained and CQ is achieved. If the
inappropriate outweigh the appropriate, cultural equilibrium is rejected and CQ
is not achieved.
Cyclic and Iterative- Multiple Organizational Actor offerings and Host
Actor judgements, over multiple encounters.
Secondary Findings:
(Provisional findings that require further research)
Intent-There is some indication that the intent of the organizational actor is a
weighted component in judgement.
CQ moderates/mediates/mitigates CQ- The overall CQ of a host actor
has a moderating, mediating, or mitigating effect on the overall CQ of the
organizational actor.
Reciprocity- In global environments where neither actor is truly the host nor
the foreigner, CQ on each side of the business arrangement is relevant.
PRISMA Diagram
Full-text articles excluded,
with reasons
(n = 51)
Cognitive focus=22
Redundant data=14
Unrelated=15
Full-text articles assessed
for eligibility
(n = 148)
Records excluded
(n = 58)
Records screened
(n = 206)
Records after duplicates removed
(n = 206)
Additional records identified
through other sources
(n = 44)
Included Eligibility Screening Identification
Records identified through
database searching
(n = 367)
Studies included in
qualitative synthesis
(n = 97
