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Düşük-giriş yüksek-çıkış empedanslı yeni bir akım-modlu KHN-süzgeci
Get PDFThe well-known Kerwin-Huelsman-Newcomb biquad, or KHN-biquad, is a filter circuit that consists of two integrator and a summer circuits. Based on the active elements used in the integrator and summer circuits, several KHN-biquads have been presented in the literature. In this paper, a current-mode (CM) KHN-biquad is proposed. The circuit employs three differential voltage current conveyors (DVCCs) as active elements together with two capacitors and three resistors as passive elements. Tracking error effect and sensitivity analyses of the circuit are performed. SPICE simulation results are given to verify the predictions. It is seen that the circuit enjoys the following advantages: a) providing the basic three filter functions (BP, HP and LP) simultaneously, b) realizing the notch and allpass functions by connecting appropriate output currents directly without using additional active or passive elements, c) low input impedance and high output impedances, which is important for cascade connections in current-mode operations, d) use of only grounded passive elements, which is attractive in integrated circuit implementation, e) control of the quality factor Q without disturbing the parameter ?o of the filter and f) low active and passive sensitivities. The grounded resistors of the circuit are realized using electronic resistors of which each constructed with two MOS transistors.Keywords: DVCC, KHN-filter, current-mode.Bu çalışmada, yeni bir ikinci dereceden akım-modlu Kerwin-Huelsman-Newcomb (KHN) süzgeci önerilmiştir. Önerilen devre, üç diferansiyel gerilim akım taşıyıcı (DVCC), iki kapasitör ve üç direnç kullanmaktadır. Devre, yüksek geçiren (YG), bant geçiren (BG) ve alçak geçiren (AG)’den oluşan üç temel süzgeç fonksiyonunu eş zamanda üretmektedir. Tümgeçiren (TG) ve bant söndüren (BS) süzgeç fonksiyonları uygun süzgeç çıkış işaretleri doğrudan bağlanarak elde edilebilir. Giriş işareti düşük empedanslı düğüme bağlandığından ve tüm çıkış işaretleri yüksek empedanslı düğümlerden alındığından dolayı önerilen devre akım-modlu çalışmalarda artarda bağlanma açısından yarar sağlamaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: DVCC, KHN-süzgeci, akım-mod. 
An investigation on the structural vibration behaviour of ships
Get PDFKiriş olarak modellenmiş, büyük güverte açıklığına sahip gemilerde antisimetrik hareketler için titreşim analizi yapılırken eğilme ve burulma titreşim biçimleri bileşik olarak ele alınır Bunun nedeni kayma merkezi ile ağırlık merkezi arasındaki düşey uzaklığın büyük olmasıdır. Ayrıca açık en kesitli kiriş modellemelerinde burulma titreşim analizinde çarpılma etkisi de araştırılmalıdır. Örnek gemi görderi düzeltilmiş ince cidarlı kiriş olarak modellenmiş, böylece dönme ataleti, kesme şekil bozuklukları ve çarpılma terimlerini içine alan model kurulmuş, diğer bazı kiriş modellemelerine (Euler-Bernoulli, Rayleigh, Timoshenko, Düzeltilmiş Timoshenko ve İnce cidarlı) ait hareket denklemleri ile karşılaştırmalar yapılmıştır. Seçilen gemi model kirişine ait doğal frekanslar elde edilmiş ve dalgalı denizdeki tepkisel davranışları incelenmiştir.Anahtar Kelimeler: Kkiriş modellemesi, anti-simetrik titreşim, çarpılma rijitliği, rezonans.The examination of the antiymmetic motions of a flexible hull involves the formulation of stuctural dynamic theory defining the motions and distortions, and hydrodynamic theoy that describes the fluid action applied to a ship in waves. The structural dynamic theory is referred to the dry hull analysis and the ship is modeled as a beam with free ends vibrating in a vacuo in the absence of any external force and internal hull damping In the analysis of anti-symmetric vibrations of ships with large deck openings, the bending and torsional vibration behaviours are taken into account simultaneously due to the large vertical distance between the gravity and shear centres. Furthermore, the warping stiffness effect must also be investigated in the analysis of the torsional vibration of any beams with opened sections. In this paper, the ship was modelled as a modified thin walled beam and the model incorporated rotary inertia, bending deformations and warping stiffness. A generalised governing equation was derived to describe the ship motion. This equation can simulate the behaviour of Euler-Bernoulli, Rayleigh, Timoshenko and thin walled beam models through clearly defined parameter adjustments. Natural frequencies, response and behaviour of each selected ship beam models were comprehensively investigated and conclusions were derivedbased models.. The cruising speed and heading angle for unit wave amplitude at resonating situation were determined then bending moment, shear force and torsional moment amplitudes were shown in graphicsKeywords: Ship beam model, anti-symmetric vibration, warping stiffness, resonance
Alternating cell directions implicit method
Get PDFBu çalışmada, “Değişen Ardışık Hücre Yönlü Kapalı Formülasyon – DAHYKF” adlı kismi dşferansiyel denklem çözen yeni bir sayısal yöntem geliştirilmiştir. Yöntemde “Değişen Yönlü Kapalı Formülasyon – DYKF (Alternating Direction Implicit - ADI) yöntemindeki değişen yönler kavramınından ilham alınmıştır. Fakat yeni yöntemdeki değişen yön DYKF ’de olduğu gibi eğrisel koordinat değil, “Ardışık Hücre Yönleri”dir. Ardışık Hücre Yönleri dörtgen elemanların karşılıklı kenarlarını takip ederek oluşan ardışık yönlerdir. DAHYKF yöntemi ile daire etrafındaki sıkıştırılamaz potansiyel akım elde edilen sonuçlar analitik çözümlerle, klasik DYKF yöntemi sonuçlarıyla ve Runge-Kutta zaman integrasyonu kullanan bir Sonlu Hacimler yöntemi sonuçlarıyla karşılaştırılmıştır. Sonuçlar yöntemin yapısal ve yapısal olmayan çözüm ağlarında aynı yüksek performansı gösterdiği ve bunun yanında kullanımının kolay olduğunu göstermiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Sonlu farklar metodu, sonlu hacimler metodu, değişen yönlü kapalı formülasyon yöntemi, değişen ardışık hücre yönlü kapalı formülasyon yöntemi.In this study, a new numerical method named as “Alternating Cell Directions İmplicit – ACDI”for solving partial differential equations is developed. In this study, testing of this method is targetted, since the method is being newly developed. Therefore, the method is applied on two-dimensional problems, and the incompressible potential flow is considered as an example test problem. Application of the method for three-dimensional cases is possible. This method is inspired by alternating directions concept of “Alternating Directions Implicit - ADI) method. In the new method, alternating direction is not curvilinear coordinate like as in the ADI method, but this is “Sequential Cell Directions”. Cell direction is formed by following from one edge to its opposite edge on quadrilateral. Sequential directions means a chain of directions formed by sequantial cells. In this study, a cell centered finite volume variation of potential ACDI methods is presented. The solutions obtained by the ACDI method for the incompressible potential flow around a circular cylinder is compared with the analytical solutions, with the results of the classical ADI method and a finite volume method using Runge-Kutta time integration. The results show that this method has the same high performance on structured and unstructured grids, and its usage is easy. Keywords: Finite difference method, finite volume method, alternating directions method, alternating cell directions implicit method
A fuzzy model for academic performance evaluation
Get PDFAkademik performans, bir akademisyenin değişik ölçütler bir arada göz önüne alınarak belirlenen değeridir. Akademik performansın değerlendirilmesi için; kolay, akademisyenlerin verilerini aynı bazda değerlendirebilen, esnek, sözel olarak ifade edilen ölçütleri sayısallaştırabilen bir model yoktur. “Akademik yükseltilme ve atanma ölçütleri” adı altında sıralanan ölçütler ve bunların puanlarından oluşan sistemler kullanılmaktadır. Kullanılan ölçütlerin ağırlıklarının saptanması da ayrı bir tartışma konusudur. Akademik performans değerlendirme problemi içerdiği belirsizlik ve ancak öznel değerlendirilebilen ölçütleri ve ölçütlerin hiyerarşik yapısı nedeniyle, birçok ölçütlü bulanık karar verme problemi olarak modellenmeye uygun görülmüş ve bu çalışmada, bulanık analitik hiyerarşi prosesi esaslı bir model çalışması yapılmıştır. Chang’in bulanık analitik hiyerarşi prosesi modelinin temel alındığı çalışmada üç ayrı bulanık sıralama yöntemi kullanılmış ve sonuçlar tartışılmıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Akademik performans, bulanık AHP, üçgensel bulanık sayılar, bulanık sıralama.Academic performance is the value of an academician evaluated by considering various criteria at the same time. There exits no easy to use and flexible model for academic performance evaluation, which can evaluate the data for each academician on a common basis and can easily quantify the linguistic data. The existing systems use a set of criteria with their related set of points for the purpose of academic promotion. Determination of the weights of those criteria is also another subject of discussion. Considering the uncertainty involved and the criteria which can only be evaluated subjectively and the hierarchical structure of those criteria; the academic performance evaluation problem seemed appropriate to be modelled as a fuzzy multi attribute decision making problem. A fuzzy analytical hierarchy process (AHP) based model is used. Different fuzzy ranking methods one of which was proposed by Liou and Wang and the other one was proposed by Abdel?Kader and Dugdale are used in the model which is based upon Chang?s fuzzy AHP model. It is observed that Chang?s method gives more reasonable results when used with other fuzzy ranking methods. The model is tested with the data for three academicians by using three main criteria, namely: Research, education and service and their subcriteria. Sensitivity analysis is done by changing only one of the criterions.Keywords: Academic performance, fuzzy AHP, triangular fuzzy numbers, fuzzy ranking
Structure in industrial product design
Get PDFoai:ojs.itudergi.itu.edu.tr:article/52Strüktür endüstri ürünleri tasarımının önemli bileşenlerinden biridir. Mesleki eğitim ve uygulama süreci içinde endüstri ürünleri tasarımının kurgulanması ve üretilmesi için strüktür kavramının bilinmesi, malzemelerle ilişkilerinin doğru kurulması gerekmektedir. Bu tezde endüstri ürünü tasarımında strüktür ve malzemeyi kapsayan yapısal özelliklerin tasarıma etkilerinin irdelenmesi amaçlanmaktadır. Strüktür kavramı bu kavramın tasarımdaki yeri ve önemi, tasarıma etkileri üzerinde durulmaktadır. Farklı endüstri ürünleri tasarımlarından örnekler strüktür, biçim, malzeme, işlev ilişkileri yönünden incelenmektedir ve sınıflandırılmaktadır. Çalışmanın daha sonraki aşamasında ise “strüktür tasarımında ‘strain gauge’ olarak adlandırılan gerinim ölçer (birim uzama) tekniği ile şekil değiştirme ölçümü ve gerilme analizinin kullanılması” konusu tasarımda faydalanılacak bir yöntem olarak önerilmektedir. Tasarımda farklı yöntemlerin geliştirilmesi yaratıcılığın artırılması, özgün tasarımların yapılması açısından faydalı olacaktır. Endüstri ürünleri tasarımı alanında strüktürel çalışmalar tasarımın geliştirilmesinde faydalı olacaktır. Tasarımda kullanılması önerilen gerinim ölçer ile ölçme tekniği ve gerilme analizinden yeni tasarlanacak endüstri ürünleri tasarımları ve mevcut tasarımlarda yapılacak geliştirme çalışmaları için faydalanılabileceğini öngörerek, bu ilişkinin ne şekilde kurulabileceğini göstermek üzere bu yöntem bir örnek üzerinde uygulanmıştır. Önerilen yöntem ışığında tasarımda hangi ölçütlerden nasıl yararlanılacağı üzerinde durulmaktadır. Çalışmada kullanılan yöntemler arasında mevcut endüstri ürünleri tasarımlarının analizi, gerinim ölçer ile ölçüm tekniği, bilgisayar ortamında gerilme analizleri yer almaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Endüstri ürünleri tasarımı, strüktür, biçim, gerinim ölçer.At present we have a wide variety of industrial products. Structure in design is very important, one of the most important concepts in nature and also in different disciplines such as architecture and arts. The value of such a concept is to be used as an advantage in the area of industrial product design and also increasing the structural studies in that area will be helpful. This article is based on the structural studies which will be useful the field of design. In this study we searched about the affects of the structural characteristics of industrial product design. The two structural characteristics such as structure and material are examined for their relationship with some other factors in production process, which are effective factors in product design. One of the objectives of this study is to deal with the structure concept, which has lack of interest in industrial product design, in details with all the means of utility, and though explain the theme "structure in design" from a different perspective. Another objective of the study is to make searches about how to increase the usage of the structural studies in the areas of design and product development, thus being a guide for those kinds of works. It is studied to improve a method which will prove that the structural studies help design from a technical point of view and to the ability of creativity. It is aimed to make the studies to be directed to create variation in design. Also improving a method to develop the designs technically is among the objectives. It is also aimed at to make a research on the topics such as creating variety on design, and increasing the quality of the designed products. In the study it is intended to analyze a variety of designs with different characteristics and different qualities, which are involved in the existent design literature and also in our daily life. Though classifying the designs which have similar structural characteristics in the same group and constituting a classification system for the industrial designs are also aimed at in this study. Knowledge of the structure and knowledge of the structural characteristics will be useful in design area and in taking structural decisions. Various methods are used in this study. These are: 1) analysis of the different product designs, 2) measurement with the strain gauge technology, 3) tension analysis on the computer and design. Different structural characteristics of the industrial products and types of their structures are investigated. The relationship of shape-material-structure are observed and analyzed on different samples of industrial products. Affects and function of structure in designing specific industrial products are examined. One of the objectives of this study is to improve the design of industrial product, that does not include only form design, but includes the design of technical elements, which are integrated with the material characteristics, thus proving the possibility of creating more functional and specific products. The usage of the material and energy used in any area are important for the people. So that usage and quantity of the material and the number of parts used in the industrial products are very important. Those should have enough quantity to be used but not more than required. Designers and engineers should improve the optimum solution. Creating good solutions will be possible due to using different technologies and methods in product design and production process. In this study, we investigated usage of different methods in designing the product structure. How the strain gauge method can be utilized in designing, are studied. We defined how we can utilize this technique within the product design process. As a method strain measurements and stress analysis can be use for the decisions about design and product. We can see something on product due to these measurements, their results and analysis. We can see some mistakes about material selection. So that we can suggest appropriate material for product. This measurement method may be useful for to recognize advantages of some shapes and materials of products. In the study it is searched how to utilize structural studies in design. The necessary factors are impressed in those dedicated studies. It is mentioned how to deal with those factors. All those mentioned and recommended methods are applied on a chair design, and used in the process of design development. Keywords: Industrial product design, structure, form, strain gauge.
Reinforced concrete members strengthening method by steel plates
Get PDFBu çalışmada, betonarme taşıyıcı sistem elemanlarının güçlendirilmesi ve birleştirilmesi işlemlerinde yoğun olarak kullanılan bir yöntem deneysel olarak incelenmiştir. Hizmet halindeki betonarme elemanların dış yüzeylerinden, mukavemet değerleri yüksek olan çelik lama veya kompozit şeritler gibi malzemelerle yapıştırılarak kuşatılması şeklindeki güçlendirme uygulaması, uzun bir geçmişi olan ve halen yoğun talep gören bir yöntemdir. Ancak bu yöntemde güvenli bir sonuç elde etmek, özellikle yapıştırma birleşim sorunlarından dolayı her zaman mümkün olmamaktadır. Bu çalışma kapsamında yapılan deneylerin sonuçlarına göre belirli işlem kriterlerine bağlı kalındığında söz konusu yapıştırma yönteminin, göçme davranışları, taşıma gücü, aderansın verimli değerlendirilmesi, dolayısı ile kompozit davranışın sağlanabilmesi açısından olumlu sonuçlar sağladığı belirlenmiştir.In this work a method, which is frequently used in the strengthening and bonding process of reinforced concrete system members, is studied experimentally. The purpose of this experimental study is to evaluate the strengthening realized by the joining method not only the application criteria and related materials are given but also advantages and inconvenient of the method are pointed out. The strengthening application of the outside surfaces of the existing concrete members covering with materials like steel plate or composite sheets having high stiffening values is a long lasting and still widely demanded method. However getting a reliable result by this method is not always possible especially due to the problems of composite adhesion. In the study, application limitations of the selected bonding type and materials evaluated in detail which are very necessary to consider for such applications. On the other hand, these types of studies should be carried out the experienced staff and workers. According to the results of the experiments subject to this work, in case of obeying the necessary processing criteria, it was observed that the adhesion method provides positive results in terms of failing movements, increasing of loading capacity, efficient use of the adhesive power and so satisfying the composite behavior
Afet sonrası yeniden yapılanma sürecinde yer değiştirme ve yere bağlılığın değerlendirilmesi: Düzce örneği
Get PDFDisasters are sudden events that create psychological and physical damages, deaths and injuries by causing serious effects to the community daily life. The role of pre and post-disaster planning and designing are very crucial in reducing the effects of the disasters. Such studies use the experiences and lessons learnt from the disastrous regions by exploring and analyzing their actual situations. The results of these cases can be used to decrease the probable disaster risks and losses. The process of transition to a safe place in post disaster situations can be totally or partially relocation of the population to the other safe site that it creates serious adaptation problems for the victims in the new environment. The adaptation level of the victims in the new environment needs to be determined in order to examine the effects of the disaster and also to increase the adaptation levels of the victims. Thus, the new environment must be evaluated and then correlated with the old environment from the point view of the individual. This study is intended to evaluate post disaster reconstruction and it explores how the space formed from a psycho-social perspective. Therefore, the new formation of space during the community reconstruction is explored by measuring the user expectations and it is defined by the psycho-social background of the victims. Furthermore, the socio-spatial dynamics of the post disaster reconstruction is evaluated in Turkey- Düzce as case study. Quantitative data was collected from a questionnaire, and the questionnaire was conducted in order to determine the level of psychological and social attachment of in order to determine the level of psychological and social attachment of the victims to their existing and old environments. The case is designed based on a descriptive, correlative and relational study. The Therefore, the effect of post disaster relocation on the community and place attachment levels of the victims are determined in order to understand the complex relations between the physical and psycho-social parameters. The questionnaire also covers questions related to the determination of the most important places of the new and old city represented in victims mind. The questionnaire is conducted by 100 disaster victims that 50 of which are non-relocated victims selected from the city center and other 50 of which are relocated victims. The sample groups are selected randomly as well. The evaluation of correlations shows the victims? high level of attachment to their old environments. The non-relocated victims still protect their high level of attachment whereas the relocated victims can not reconstruct a high level of attachment as they had in the old environment though they live seven year in the new environment. This situation creates adaptation problems to the new environment so that the tendency for relocation from the new permanent housing sites is determined very high. In this case study such reciprocal interaction perspectives can be used to boost social reconstruction activities and to solve problems in intersection points between the physical and psycho-social factors. The results clearly show the meaningful relations between the psycho-social attachment level of the victims with house ownership and lifetime. On the other hand the relation between relocation and place attachment shows the unformed attachment due seven years lifetime in the new environment. So there is a negative relation between the relocation and place attachment. This situation clearly proves the hypothesis that defends the level of place attachment of nonrelocated group is higher than the relocated group. The tendency for relocation from the new designed environment is also founded in a high level. The whole relocation approach of a disaster affected area or region creates either social or economic problems. The options of non-relocation or partial relocation to a closer side of the old environment could be taken into consideration as better solutions for the problem. This study also offers a planning, design and evaluation approaches for planners, constructors and designers for psycho-social and physical parameters in the post disaster reconstruction phase. Keywords: Disaster, reconstruction, relocation, place attachment.Afetler ani olarak ortaya çıkmakta ölümlere, yaralanmalara ve maddi-manevi hasarlara yol açarak toplumsal hayatta ciddi kesintilere yol açmaktadırlar. Afetlerin yol açtığı çok yönlü zararların azaltılabilmesinde afet öncesi ve sonrası planlama-tasarım çalışmaları çok önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. Afet sonrası başvurulan yöntemlerden biri olan eski yerleşim merkezinin kısmen veya tamamen terk edilip yeni ve güvenli bir yerleşmeye geçilmesi süreci de insanların yeni çevreye uyumu açısından ciddi sorunlar barındırmaktadır. Afet öncesi fiziksel çevre parametreleri psiko-sosyal çevre parametreleri ile ilintilidir ve karşılıklı bir etkileşim içindedirler. Bu nedenle fiziksel çevre parametrelerine ilişkin analizlerin yanı sıra psiko-sosyal çevreye ilişkin duyuşsal parametreler olan yere bağlılık düzeyi ve yer değiştirmenin etkisi irdelenmelidir. Bu çalışmada afet sonrası yeniden yapılanma fiziksel evreleri içinde ele alınarak mekansal şekillenme psiko-sosyal bir perspektifle değerlendirilmiştir. Böylece toplumsal yeniden yapılanma sırasındaki yeni mekansal şekillenmenin kullanıcı beklentileriyle ve afete uğramış bölgenin psiko-sosyal arka planıyla uyumu değerlendirilmiştir. Bu amaçla afet sonrası yeniden yapılanmanın sosyo-mekansal dinamikleri Türkiye-Düzce alan çalışmasında incelenmiştir. Alan çalışması tanımlayıcı, ilişki arayıcı ve karşılaştırmalı bir şekilde tasarlanmıştır. Çalışma sonucu afete uğrayan toplumların psiko-sosyal ve fiziksel koşullarına uygun afet sonrası yeniden yapılanma için yere bağlılık ve yer değiştirmeye bağlamlarında bir yaklaşım getirilmiştir. Bu yaklaşım aynı zamanda afet sonrası tasarlanacak ve inşa edilecek çevreler için fiziksel ve sosyo-mekânsal bağlamda planlayıcılar, uygulayıcılar ve tasarımcılar için bir planlama, tasarım ve değerlendirme yaklaşımı da sunmaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Afet, yeniden yapılanma, yere bağlılık, yer değiştirme
Türkiye'de yerleşim birimlerinin büyüklük dağılımı ve merkezî yerlerin nüfuslarındaki değişim
Get PDFThe central place system of Turkey and its components –the central places at the various levels– were revealed by State Planning Organization with a thorough and extensive empirical study undertaken in 1974 and published in 1982. Since then, numerous administrative changes have made it impossible to track all central places from 1974 within the current administrative division of the 2000 census, thus, hindering any long-term study of changes in populations of central places. Within this study, all central places from level 2 to highest level 7 have been tracked within the 1985 and 2000 censuses, as a result, a complete list of central places in accordance with the 2000 administrative division has been prepared indicating their 1985, 1970 and 1955 populations –reflecting the current administrative division. Furthermore, the metropolitan areas of all cities above 50000 population have been determined according to the principles set forth by the Berkeley International Urban Research Institute in 1959 using employment data from the recent 2000 census. Parr and Suzuki in 1973 and Parr in 1976 argued that the size distribution of settlements within a system conforms to the log-normal distribution better as compared to the rank-size distribution. The Turkish settlement system confirms their insight in that settlement populations within each central place level are distributed log-normally. Following Gibrat (1931) may researchers tried to explain the presence of rank-size linearity as well as log-normality with the ‘law of proportionate effect’ stating that within an urban system growth rates of settlements will be independent of their size. Growth rates of Turkish settlements, however, do differentiate among different levels of the central places hierarchy, thus, differentiating among size classes as well. Within this study the size distribution all settlements units regardless of administrative status and threshold figures are examined in terms of total and average (geometric mean) population figures (using MA population) of settlements within each central place level. Also the change in these figures over the period 1955-2000 is analyzed in 15-year intervals. While in 1955 more than two thirds of the population of Turkey lived in rural settlements (1st and 2nd level centers) by the year 2000 this proportion dropped to one third of the population. The internal distribution of urban population among urban central places (3rd to 7th levels of the central place hierarchy) also changed during the given period. While in 1955 3rd level central places (mostly comprising of district centers) contained the largest portion of urban population, the 4th level centers (mostly comprising of province centers) ranked second, while the 7th level (which is equal to the city of Istanbul) as the national economic metropolis stood at the third place. 6th level central places including the capital Ankara came forth while 5th level central places ranked last among the hierarchy in terms of total population which is not surprising as 5th level (regional) centers lack the corresponding local administrative structure compared to 4th and 3rd level centers which are generally province and district centers, respectively. By the year 2000 the most populated urban level is still the 3rd level though İstanbul has almost reached the total population of 3rd level centers, especially exhibiting a strong increase between 1985-2000. Also in 2000 5th level regional centers remain in the position of the weakest urban functional class. Looking at average population figures within each central place level and their growth over time a dual development can be observed. Central places at hierarchy levels 2 and above exhibit positive growth rates in terms of average settlement size –though the growth rates do vary significantly among hierarchy levels and between different periods in a direction where settlements at higher levels of the central place hierarchy also display higher growth rates compared to lower levels. 1st level centers (villages), on the other hand, exhibit negative growth rates for the period 1985-2000. While most villages shrink in size (contrary to all higher order centers), a small portion of villages gain or retain their population, in a period where total village population remains fairly stable. It is estimated that within the coming years some portion of the approximately 80000 rural settlements (including hamlets) in Turkey will cease to exist, while some other rural settlements will extent their area of influence onto the areas of the shrinking settlements. Keywords: Central place theory, log-normal distribution, settlement unit, metropolitan area, rural population.Türkiye’nin merkezî yerler sistemi ve bu sistemi oluşturan çeşitli kademelerdeki merkezî yerleşimler DPT tarafından 1974’te yapılan ampirik bir araştırma ile 1970 yılındaki idarî bölünüşe göre belirlenmiş idi. Bu çalışma kapsamında ise Türkiye’nin bütün merkezî yerleri 2000 yılı idarî bölünüşüne kadar izlenmiş ve bu yerleşimlerin 2000, 1985, 1970 ve 1955 nüfusları, bugünkü idarî sınırlara göre tespit edilmiştir. Aynı zamanda 50000 ve üzeri nüfuslu bütün yerleşim birimlerinin metropoliten alanları Berkeley Uluslararası Kentsel Araştırma Enstitüsü ilkelerine ve 2000 Nüfus Sayımından elde edilen istihdam verilerine göre elektronik ortamda harita üzerinde belirlenmiş ve bu kentlerin metropoliten nüfusları tespit edilmiştir. Her bir kademedeki yerleşimlerin toplam nüfusları incelendiğinde genellikle ilçe merkezlerinden oluşan 3.kademenin en kalabalık kentsel kademe olduğu ve bu özelliğini –İstanbul’dan oluşan 7.kademe oransal olarak daha hızlı artmasına rağmen– 1955-2000 dönemi boyunca koruduğu görülmektedir. Bölgesel merkez düzeyindeki 5.kademe en zayıf kentsel kademe olarak göze çarparken, 1985 öncesi dönemde başkentin de içinde bulunduğu 6.kademe, 1985’ten sonra ise sadece İstanbul’dan oluşan 7.kademe toplam kentsel nüfus içindeki payını en çok arttıran kademelerdir. Farklı kademelerdeki yerleşimlerin ortalama nüfusları ise incelenen dönem boyunca değişen oranlarda artmakta ancak 1.kademe yerleşimlerde (köylerde) 1985-2000 döneminde ikili bir gelişme yaşanmaktadır. Köylerin büyük çoğunluğu nüfusça küçülürken, bazı köyler nüfuslarını artırmakta, bu arada ortalama köy nüfusu azalırken toplam kır nüfusu sabit kalmaktadır. Önümüzdeki yıllarda ülkemizde bulunan 80000’e yakın kırsal yerleşimin bir bölümünün varlığını sona erdireceği, belirli köylerin ise etki alanlarını yok olan yerleşimlerin arazilerine doğru genişleteceği düşünülmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Merkezî yerler kuramı, log-normal dağılım, yerleşim birimi, metropoliten alan, kırsal nüfus
The planned rural settlements established during the Ottoman Empire
Get PDF1683–1699 Osmanlı-Avusturya Savaşları sonucunda kaybedilen topraklardaki Müslüman kitlelerin göçmen durumuna düşmesiyle, Osmanlı Devleti ilk olarak iç kesimlere göçmen yerleştirme sorunuyla karşılaşmıştır. 19. yüzyılın ikinci yarısına kadar sistemsiz bir biçimde olaylara göre şekillenen iskân yaklaşımı, 1856 Kırım Savaşı sırasında kısa sürede çok sayıda göçmenin gelmesi nedeniyle değişmeye başlamıştır. Bu dönemde Silistre Vilayeti için geçerli bölgesel bir tüzük çıkartılıp, göçmen komisyonu kurularak devlet tarafından planlı köyler oluşturulmuş, göçmenlere evin yanı sıra arazi, çift hayvanı ve tohumluk da verilerek, kısa zamanda üretken çiftçi olmaları sağlanmıştır. 1877–1878 Osmanlı-Rus Savaşı sürecinde iki milyondan fazla göçmenin gelmesi nedeniyle, ülke çapında geçerli bir tüzük çıkartılarak, yeni ve gelişkin bir göçmen komisyonu kurulmuş, büyük bir iskân faaliyetinin yanı sıra köylerde okul ve cami gibi iki temel kamusal yapının da inşa edilmesine çalışılmıştır. Ancak yine de bu dönemde devlet tarafından inşa ettirilen planlı köylerin sayısı göçmenlerin kurduğu köylerin sayısına göre çok daha azdır. 2. Meşrutiyet’in ilanıyla birlikte ülkede köklü yönetim değişikliğine bağlı olarak genel politika ve fikirsel ortam da geçmişten farklılaşmış, yalnız göçmen iskânı değil mevcut köylerdeki yaşam düzeyinin yetersizliği de devlet tarafından ele alınmış ve “köy sorunu” olarak tanımlanmıştır. Bu dönemde bütün köylerin çağdaş, düzenli ve sağlıklı bir yapılı çevreye kavuşması için çeşitli yönetmelikler ve kurumlar oluşturulmuştur. Dönemin sürekli savaş ortamında çok fazla uygulama yapma olanağı bulunamamışsa da, İttihat ve Terakki Dönemi öncülü olduğu Cumhuriyet Dönemi’ne önemli bir fikirsel miras bırakmıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Kırsal mimari, planlı köy, Osmanlı dönemi. The aim of this study is to evaluate the architectural characteristics of the planned rural settlements that the Ottoman Empire established for the relocation of the immigrants that had to leave their lands lost following the wars after 1850's. The evolution- in some 70 years time preceding the proclamation of the Turkish Republic- of these settlements, founded on administrative and legal dispositions, is also examined. The villages constructed at once on a vacant land in the rural area appeared in the 17th Century, in Europe. The motives and characteristics of these applications differ from one country to another. In England, for instance, planned villages are intended for workers or aim to improve the environment, whereas in Eastern Europe, German colonial villages are designed as a result of the expansionist politics of the Prussian State. In the Ottoman Empire, the first attempts were for the immigrants that came to Silistre (actual Bulgaria), after the Crimean War of 1856. In this first stage, a regulation defining the relocation principles was sent on 3 May 1856 to the Governorship of Silistre by the Ottoman State. According to this regulation the immigrants would be kindly treated, emergent help would be provided, they would be given appropriate lands for agriculture and would be exempt from military service and taxes. In this period, the approach of the Ottoman Empire for planned villages was to relocate a great number of immigrants in a quick, practical and egalitarian way and to help them become productive farmers in a short delay. To reach this aim, not only social and economic assistance was provided but also orthogonal planned settlements and simple two unit dwellings were constructed. After the Crimean War, as immigrants from Crimea and the Caucasus crowded, legal and administrative arrangements for only the provinces accepting the immigrants became insufficient. The first Commission of Immigrants has been settled on 5 January 1860, thus helping the relocation of immigrants in a certain order and at proper places. In this frame, especially in various provinces of Inner Anatolia and in Adana, many new villages were founded. In Rumelia, and especially in Tuna Province (actual Bulgaria) governed by Midhat Pasha a great number of villages were settled. During the Ottoman-Russian War of 1877-1878, more than two million immigrants from the Caucasus and the Balkans fled into Anatolia. In this period, as the state's power was not sufficient, besides the Anatolian planned villages, the crowds were provided with lands and encouraged to construct their own villages. In this chaotic environment however, in order to set up a certain order, the first General Settling Regulation is prepared. The new settlements are given an official name after imperial approval and gain the status of village. At the same period, as the state's efforts for occidentalisation, or modernization, gained impetus at every field, it is observed that in spite of all difficulties, legal arrangements are not neglected and principal public buildings such as school and mosque are more and more constructed. The official ceremonies preceding and succeeding the construction of new villages is a proof of the importance given to the matter. However, the most important development in the improvement of rural settlements occurred during the Union and Progress Party's Period (1913-18). The occidentalisation approach which is under way since the political reforms of 1839, not only makes way to the centralization of the state's administrative formation and the organization and renewal of urban spaces, but also leads to think about the underdevelopment of rural areas and one of the state's basic aims becomes the improvement of this problem. In this context, many planned villages are modelled. The village house is consisting of many spaces where functional differentiation follows the urban dwellings. In the settlement, there are various public buildings and open areas besides dwellings. One of the most important factors that effects the planning and architecture are hygienic conditions, after the awareness that the epidemic diseases are the result of improper built environments. This conscience resulted in growing importance given to hygienic conditions in village projects and furthermore, new rules and regulations for the renewal of existing villages were decreed. In this period, besides the efforts of the state, some civil initiatives also started to think about "rural problem" and experimental models were tried. Some private companies, supported by loans, have developed proposals for constructing exemplary villages. The Union and Progress Party's Period being an era of continuous wars, the projects of both the state and private enterprises could not be brought into application but yet an important intellectual heritage was lent to the Turkish Republic. Keywords: Rural architecture, planned rural settlement, Ottoman period
Türkiye'de farklı iklim bölgelerindeki konut birimleri için enerji ve maliyet etkin pencere seçim modeli - HiPerWin
Get PDFWindows are the most complex and interesting elements in residential design and owners are often confused about how to decide the most efficient window for their residence since there are many complex issues that are difficult to balance. Understanding the energy and associated cost implications of different window systems will help the users, owners or contractors to make the best decision for their particular case, whether it is a new building or a window replacement. However up-to-date, reliable and accurate, time and cost data can be provided from various sources such as manufacturers, contractors, and research institutions, time and cost data regarding the residential window systems are not well-organised in Turkey. A research project was completed to develop a dynamic model to select energy and cost efficient windows for residential buildings, namely "Energy and cost efficient window selection model for residential buildings in different climatic regions of Turkey - HiPerWin". The challenge was to attain a basic source which supports the user to provide the energy and cost data required for the decision making in the selection of the residential window systems. The ultimate objective of the research project was to develop a Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) which incorporated the whole data and processed data into information regarding the window systems and helped the comparison of the alternatives. Hence query parameters were presented for helping the users to define the built environment and housing unit characteristics of their own case to find out the appropriate window alternatives by comparing the total annual heating/cooling energy consumption and associated capital and ownership costs. In the context of the research project, the alternatives of the Insulated Glazing Units (IGU) with different optical and physical properties were generated. The performance values which demonstrate the insulation and solar control capabilities of the IGU's were calculated by using Window5 software. In accordance with having many parameters such as climate, building type, orientation, window area, shading devices and window components, a comprehensive parametric study was conducted for providing the energy use and associated cost data of each case by using a powerful whole building simulation tool EnergyPlus. The analysis was performed for the biggest cities; Ankara, Istanbul and Izmir having the highest degree of mass housing potential and representing temperate-arid, temperate-humid and hot-humid climates, respectively. Standard representations of buildings (i.e. building model) required for simulations, involving geometrical and semantic properties were stored in the HiPerWin data base and with the help of the query parameters which were associated with the entire data of the building model a particular case can be defined. The present value of future cost of window systems was calculated by using the factors and indices, both operational energy costs calculated from the energy simulations and the capital and operating unit costs of window systems. The capital unit cost includes purchase, installation and finance costs, while operating unit cost includes ownership, maintenance and energy consumption costs and salvage value if applicable. Lastly, window selection model which uses the building model, the energy data provided by the simulation results and the cost information calculated using the energy and related data was developed. The RDBMS and query parameters allow users to define their particular cases and compare the energy and cost performances of appropriate window systems in consideration. The HiPerWin model provides the user to select the most energy and cost efficient window system for their own case by considering the issues which have influence on the residential window performance. The results of the research project is critically important for the purposes of satisfying the requirement of comparative information pertaining to heating/cooling and total energy consumption and particularly present value cost data of window systems in Turkey. Making the energy and cost efficient window system selection prevalent will contribute to the national economy by enabling the usage of the limited resources which supports the sustainable design on country base. Keywords: Residential buildings, window systems, heating/cooling energy use, cost efficiency, parametric study, relational database.Bu çalışmada, Türkiye’de ılımlı-nemli, ılımlı-kuru ve sıcak-nemli iklim bölgelerindeki konut binaları için enerji etkin ve uygun maliyetli pencere sistemlerinin seçimine yardımcı olacak dinamik bir modelin alt yapısı anlatılmakta ve modelin işleyişine ilişkin değerlendirmeler sunulmaktadır. Modelin ana amacı, konut binalarının kullanıcıları, tasarımcıları ve yüklenicilerinin pencere ürünlerinin enerji ve maliyet performans değerlendirmeleri ışığında uygun pencere seçimi yapmalarını sağlamaktır. Bu amaca yönelik olarak konut binaları ile ilgili kullanıcı gereksinmeleri, sınırlamalar ve yönetmeliklere göre farklı konut binaları tasarlanarak Türkiye’deki konut binalarını temsil eden bir konut tipolojisi oluşturulmuştur. Konut binalarında pencerenin enerji ve maliyet performansını etkileyen parametreler, iklimsel özellikler, pencere alanı, yön, güneş kontrol araçları, farklı özelliklere sahip çift cam üniteleri ve bina tipleri olarak belirlenmiştir. Öngörülen parametrelerin kombinasyonu ile oluşturulan seçeneklerin yıllık ısıtma ve soğutma enerjileri ile yaşam dönemi maliyetleri hesaplanmıştır. Çalışmada değerlendirilen binalar, parametreler, pencere özelliklerine ilişkin veriler ile parametrik çalışma sonucunda belirlenen yıllık ısıtma ve soğutma enerji tüketimleri ile maliyet sonuçları bir veritabanına kaydedilmiş ve sorgular yardımıyla birbirleriyle ilişkilendirilmiştir. Geliştirilen bir ara yüz yardımıyla kullanıcılar veritabanından kendi binalarına ilişkin dış çevre ve yapma çevre verilerini tanımlayabilmektedir. Sonuç olarak, pencere seçim modeli (HiPerWin) yardımıyla belirli bir duruma ilişkin iklimsel özellikler, konut birimi, saydamlık oranı, güneş kontrol aracı gibi özellikler tanımlanabilmekte; söz konusu durum için geçerli pencere seçeneklerinin enerji etkinliği ve yaşam dönemi maliyetleri karşılaştırılarak, maliyeti en düşük ve enerji etkinliği en yüksek olan pencereler belirlenmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Konut binaları, pencere sistemleri, ısıtma/soğutma enerjisi kullanımı, maliyet etkinlik, parametrik çalışma, ilişkisel veritabanı
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