itüdergisi (E-Journals - İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Istanbul Teknik Uniersity., İTÜ)
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Kriging yönteminin geoit modellemesinde kullanılabilirliğinin araştırılması
Get PDFThe geoid is a representation of the surface of earth that assumes the sea is covered the earth, also known as surface of equal gravitational attraction and mean sea level. The main function of the geoid in geodesy is to serve as a reference surface for leveling. The elevation measured by leveling is relative to the geoid. Three dimensional coordinates that are easily obtained by GPS easily; are widely used in such applications as large-scale map production and engineering applications. The latitude and longitude values obtained by GPS are used directly, but ellipsoidal height (h) values must be transformed into orthometric heights (H). In many surveying and engineering applications, orthometric heights are required. Ellipsoidal heights have geometric meanings in practical surveying, engineering, and geophysics and in other applications, and they bear no physical meanings. For the transformation from ellipsoidal heights to orthometric heights, which are used in applications, geoid heights (N) must be known with required accuracy. Several techniques can be used for determination of geoid heights. Most commonly used method for the determination of geoid is the combination of GPS data and leveling measurements. The by laws for large scale map production is required to be changed and allow to GPS applications, as parallel to the augmentation in application of the GPS technique. The new draft bylaw contains observation and calculation methods for obtaining orthometric heights by GPS, as well. One of them is determining the height of the geoid by GPS/Nivelman method. In this study, compared with classical methods by the deterministic and Kriging interpolation methods for determining the geoids by GPS/Nivelman method in Istanbul Metropolitan Surface deterministic and Kriging interpolations were calculated by known geoid undulation (NMEASURE) values performed by using ArcGIS 8.3 Geostatistical Analyst software. Geostatistical Analyst provides deterministic and geostatistical interpolation methods. Deterministic interpolation techniques (inverse distance weighted, radial basis functions, and local polynomial interpolation) should not be used for decision making, because they do not provide information on how good their predictions are. Geostatistical interpolation techniques (e.g., kriging) can be chosen based on the result of exploratory spatial data analysis and diagnostics (cross validation and validation). Deterministic methods use predefined mathematical functions for interpolation. Geostatistical methods rely on statistical features of the data. Geostatistical Analyst provides the necessary tools for data exploration and variography analysis. Kriging is based on the assumption that the parameter being interpolated can be treated as a regionalized variable. A regionalized variable is intermediate between a truly random variable and a completely deterministic variable in that it varies in a continuous manner from one location to the next and therefore points that are near each other have a certain degree of spatial correlation. Kriging is a set of linear regression routines which minimize estimation variance from a predefined covariance model. This method uses variogram to express the spatial variation, and it minimizes the error of predicted values which are estimated by spatial distribution of the predicted values. Besides, while the Geoid Model was forming; the effect of control point frequency to computed geoid height values was investigated. To study the effect of point frequency to the counting of geoid, geoid surfaces were formed with 50(~one point to 100 km2), 200(~one point to 25 km2), 393 (~one point to 13 km2) and 434(~one point to 12 km2) points in Istanbul. For testing with interpolations, 50 test points were chosen and NCALCULUS values were counted by various deterministic and geostatistical interpolations. NCALCULUS-MEASURE distinction values were found by subtracting NCALCULUS values from measurement values that were found by NGPS/NİVELMAN method. Mean square errors and maximum, minimum and mean error values were calculated for all methods. By comparing of these values, the method that gives the most suitable surface was chosen. It was found that the results of determining geoid by Kriging method were more precise than deterministic methods. The results of Ordinary Kriging method were more precisely than Simple Kriging method’s results but the maps produced by Simple Kriging method were more esthetic than the other equal geoid height maps. The results found by multiquadratic method between deterministic methods were close to the results found by Kriging method and multiquadratic method gave the best results. For increasing precession augmentation of survey quality is better than augmentation of model points. Keywords: Geostatistic, deterministic, interpolation, geoid. Geoit, ağırlık potansiyelinin sabit olduğu ortalama deniz yüzeyine yakın bir yüzeydir. GPS ile bulunan enlem ve boylam değerleri doğrudan kullanılmakta ancak elipsoidal yükseklik (h) değerlerinin ortometrik yüksekliğe (H) dönüştürülmesi gerekmektedir. Dönüşüm için yeterli doğrulukta geoit yüksekliklerinin bilinmesi gerekmektedir. Geoit yükseklikleri belirleme teknikleri içerisinde en yaygın kullanılanı GPS/Nivelman tekniğidir. BÖHHBÜY dönüşüm için yerel GPS/Nivelman geoidi kullanılmasını öngörmektedir. Bu çalışmada, İstanbul Metropoliten alanlarında GPS/Nivelman yöntemi ile geoit belirlemek için deterministik ve Kriging enterpolasyon yöntemleri karşılaştırılarak, Kriging yönteminin geoit yüzeyi modellemesinde kullanılabilirliğinin araştırılması yapılmıştır. Uygulamada, ArcGIS 8.3 Geostatstical Analyst yazılımı kullanılmıştır. Dayanak nokta yoğunluğunun geoit hesabına etkisini araştırmak için İstanbul’ da 50 (~ 100 km2’ye bir nokta), 200 (~ 25 km2’ye bir nokta), 393(~ 13 km2’ye bir nokta) ve 434 (~ 12 km2’ye bir nokta) noktalı geoit yüzeyleri oluşturulmuştur. Test için 50 nokta seçilmiş ve bu noktaların deterministik ve geoistatistik enterpolasyonla NHESAP değerleri hesaplanmıştır. NHESAP-ÖLÇÜ fark değerlerinden, farkların maksimum, minimum ve ortalama değerleri ile karesel ortalama hatalar karşılaştırılarak en uygun yüzeyi veren yöntem seçimi yapılmıştır. Çalışmalar sonunda, Kriging yöntemi ile geoit belirleme sonuçlarının deterministik yöntemlerden daha presizyonlu olduğu, Ordinary Kriging yönteminin Simple Kriging yönteminden bulunan sonuçlardan daha presizyonlu olduğu saptanmıştır. Multiquadratik yöntemle bulunan sonuçların Kriging yöntemlerinden bulunan sonuçlara çok yakın olduğu ve multiquadratik yöntemin en iyi sonucu veren deterministik yöntem olduğu, presizyonu arttırmak için nokta yoğunluğunu arttırmaktan çok veri kalitesini arttırmak gerektiği saptanmıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Geoistatistik, deterministik, enterpolasyon, geoit
A simplified solution to piled raft problem
Get PDFBirçok projede, taşıma gücü problemi sebebiyle değil oturma miktarları kabul edilebilir sınır değerleri aştığı için radye temelin altında oturmayı azaltıcı kazıklar kullanmak ekonomik bir gereklilik haline gelmiştir. Bu sistemlerin sık kullanılır olması, zamanla oturmayı azaltıcı kazıklar tanımlamasının “kazıklı radye temel” gibi daha geniş bir tanımlamaya dönüşmesine neden olmuştur. Klasik yöntemlerde, kazıklı temel hesabı, yapı yükünün tamamının kazıklar tarafından taşındığı kabulüne göre yapılmaktadır; fakat radyenin zemine temas ettiği durumda, yapı yükü radye ve kazık grubu arasında paylaşılarak zemine aktarılır. Kazıklı radye temel, radye (veya kazık başlığı) ve kazıklardan oluşan iki sistemin birleştirilmesi ile oluşmaktadır. Bu çalışmada önerilen hesap yönteminde, yapı yükünün, radye ve kazıklar tarafından paylaşılarak taşınacağı kabul edilmekte, farklı paylaşım oranlarına göre radyenin ve kazık grubunun oturmaları ayrı ayrı hesaplanmaktadır. Kazık grubunun oturma hesabında eşdeğer radye yönteminden yararlanılmaktadır. Kazık boyu, eşdeğer radye seviyesindeki gerilmenin jeolojik yükün % 20’sinden küçük veya eşit olması şartına bağlı elde edilmektedir. Çeşitli Qkazık/Qtoplam oranları için elde edilen oturma miktarları karşılaştırılarak, radye ve kazık grubunun oturmalarının eşit olduğu paylaşım oranı belirlenmektedir. Elde edilen sonuç, bir yandan oturma miktarını vermekte, öte yandan kazık boyunun belirlenmesini sağlamaktadır. Önerilen hesap yöntemi 2 farklı örnekte uygulanmış ve Plaxis 3D Foundation yazılımı ile de sonlu eleman çözümleri yapılmıştır. Basitleştirilmiş kazıklı radye hesabının, oturma analizi için uygun sonuçlar verdiği görülmüştür. Anahtar Kelimeler: Kazıklı radye temel, basit hesap yöntemi, eşdeğer radye yöntemi.In many cases it has become an economic necessity to install piles beneath a raft not because a lack of bearing capacity of the foundation but because the settlement of the raft is excessive. Such usage of piles was first termed by Broms (1976) as "settlement reducing piles". Wide use of pile foundations all over the world has made piling an important branch of geotechnical engineering. Gradually, the concept and usage which was coined as "settlement reducing piles" transformed into a much wider definition of "piled rafts" where "load sharing" between piles and raft has become as important as limiting settlements. Several methods of analysis of piled raft foundations have also been introduced by several authors, but it appears that predicting foundation behaviour is still an area worth to study. It should be pointed out that the behaviour of piled raft foundations differs significantly from that of a single pile and from that of group of piles. The ultimate shaft friction developed by piles within a piled raft can be significantly greater than that for a single pile or a pile in a group of piles. When piles are driven into sand, the soil adjacent to piles is compacted to a distance of a 3 to 6 pile diameters. The ultimate bearing capacity increases by the compaction of the soil between the piles in sand and gravel. The ultimate shaft load of a goup of piles driven in sand or stiff clay may be larger than the sum of individual piles carrying the same load per pile (Vesic, 1981). Such findings have led to the introduction of 'equivalent raft method' for pile groups. In this method the load of a group of friction piles is usually assumed to be acting on the soil at an effective depth (equivalent raft) of two-thirds of the pile embedment in the bearing stratum, while for a group of end bearing piles the equivalent raft is taken at the elevation of the pile points. Various methods of analysis of piled raft foundations exist where the piles are considered primarily as friction piles, rather than end bearing piles. As with any foundation system, a design of a piled raft foundation required the consideration of a number of issues, including: -ultimate load capacity for vertical, lateral and moments loadings, -value of the maximum settlement, -value of the maximum differential settlement, -raft moments and shears for the structural design of the raft, -pile loads and moments for the structural design of the piles (Poulos, 2001). The first step in the analysis is to determine the dimensions of the piled raft system to satisfy structural requirements. The deformation properties of the soil beneath the pile group in homogeneous sand deposit not underlain by more compressible soil at greater depth can be made directly from the results of soil tests. In the proposed method, settlements of the raft and the pile group are separately calculated, employing the classical formula. The first consideration in calculating the magnitude of settlements is the distribution of effective vertical pressure beneath the equivalent raft. In case of deep compressible soils the lowest level considered in the settlement analysis is the point where the vertical stress is not more than 20 per cent of the overburden. The length of piles is then determined by considering that the stress at the equivalent raft level is equal or smaller than 20 per cent of the effective overburden stress. In the proposed method, it is assumed that the structural loads will be carried by piles and the raft in a shared basis. Settlements of piles and raft are calculated for various load sharing ratios, separately. Firstly it is considered that load is carried by the raft only (Qpiles/Qtotal=0). Then it is considered that the load is carried by the pile group only (Qpiles/Qtotal=1). Calculation is continued for various load sharing ratios. And a diagram showing the load sharing between piles and raft is drawn and the ratio which represents the same amount of settlement both for the raft and pile group is determined. To illustrate the method by the approach outlined above, two examples are given. The examples are also calculated by a computer analysis and the results are compared with those obtained by the proposed method. Keywords: Piled raft foundation, simple design method, equivalent raft method
Gama absorpsiyon tekniği ile kıymetli metallerin analizi ve değerlendirilmesi
Get PDFSilver, platinum and gold are described as precious metals; they are most popular jewelry and preferable metals in modern society. In this study, a nuclear technique as namely "Gamma Absorption Technique" is used for the analysis of the three main precious metals. Samples have been supplied for four different silver alloys, four different platinum alloys and five different gold alloys. Am-241 has been used for Ag analysis and Ba-133 gamma radioisotopes has been used for Pt and Au analysis as gamma sources. Experiment device consist of a gamma source, collimator, NaI (Tl) detector, multi-channel analyzer with shielding materials. Experiments repeated at least five times and average net counting rate is calculated. Calibration curves could be drawn as a result of the experiments. These curves were examined by unknown samples and it was shown the reliability of the curves. The mass attenuation coefficients of alloys were measured. Theoretical mass attenuation coefficient values were obtained using the WinXCom program. The comparison of the experimental results with the theoretical values was in a good and acceptable agreement. Precious metals analysis can be observed and mass attenuation coefficients were determined at near energy of elements K absorption edge. So, it can be offered that the gamma absorption technique can be used for the determination of the mass attenuation coefficients.Keywords: Gamma absorption technique, silver, platinum, gold, mass attenuation coefficient.Bu çalışmada, nükleer bir teknik olan gama absorpsiyon tekniği, kıymetli metallerden gümüş, platin ve altının analizine ilişkin olarak kullanılmıştır. Numuneler; gümüş için dört, platin için dört ve altın için beş farklı ayarda temin edilmiştir. Gama radyoizotop kaynağı olarak gümüş için Am-241, platin ve altın için Ba-133 radyoizotopları kullanılmıştır. Deneylerden elde edilen sonuçlarla kalibrasyon eğrileri çizilebilmiştir. Bu çalışmanın özgünlüğü çerçevesinde çalışılan numunelerin kütle zayıflatma katsayıları deneysel olarak tayin edilmiştir. Deneysel sonuçlar WinXCom programından elde edilen sayısal sonuçlarla mukayese edilmiş ve birbirleri ile ileri derecede uyum sağladığı gösterilmiştir. Bu şekilde, gama absorpsiyon tekniğinin kütle zayıflatma katsayılarının deneysel olarak tayininde kullanılabileceği önerilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gama absorpsiyon tekniği, gümüş, altın, platin,kütle zayıflatma katsayısı. 
Recursive learning of image parameters and restoration of images using EM based learning algorithm
Get PDFBirçok klasik görüntü onarım tekniği bulanıklık işlevinin bilindiği varsayımı altında çalışır. Ancak, gerçek hayat problemlerinde sadece gözlem verisi elde edilebilmekte bozucu sistemler hakkında yeterli bilgi sağlanamamaktadır. Bu yüzden görüntü onarımının ilk adımı bozucunun öğrenilmesi (tanınması) işlemidir. Geçmişte, görüntü ve bulanıklık parametrelerinin öğrenilmesi Enbüyük Olabilirlik (EO) problemi olarak ele alınmış ve Beklenti Enbüyükleme (BE) yordamı ile çözülmüştür. Özellikle BE yordamının E adımında kapalı yapıda bir çözüm bulunması bu yordamı daha cazip bir hale getirmektedir. Görüntü ve bulanıklık parametrelerinin tüm görüntü verisi kullanılarak öğrenilmesi geçmişte çalışılmış olmakla birlikte, parametrelerin yinelemeli BE’ye dayalı öğrenilmesi daha önce çalışılmamıştır. Yinelemeli teknikler dinamik işlem yetenekleri sayesinde tüm veri üzerinde işlem yapan yöntemlere nispetle çok daha az bellek ihtiyacı duyarlar. Daha az bellek ihtiyacı ise özellikle görüntü işleme alanında çok önemlidir. Bu çalışmada yeni bir eşzamanlı yinelemeli parametre öğrenme ve görüntü onarım yöntemi sunulmuştur. Dinamik Bayesçi Ağ (DBA) yapısında yeni bir çözüm önerilmiştir. Sunulan yöntem EO parametre tanıma ve durum kestirimi için en iyi Kalman yumuşatma ifadelerini içerir. Kalman yumuşatma ifadelerinin yoğun hesaplama gerektirmesi sebebi ile Kalman süzgeç yaklaşıklığı kullanılmıştır. Aynı zamanda, onarılmış görüntü eş zamanlı olarak bu süzgeç çıkışından elde edilmektedir. Görüntü ve bulanıklık parametrelerinin BE öğrenme problemi kapalı yapıda çözümlenmesi başarılmıştır. Yöntemin başarımı gerçek görüntüler üzerinde yapılan benzetim ve denemeler ile verilmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Beklenti enbüyükleme, bulanıklık ve görüntü tanıma, yinelemeli işleme, kalman yumuşatma ve süzgeçleme.The image restoration problem can be defined as the general problem of estimating the ideal image from its blurred and noisy version. Many classical image restoration techniques have been reported under the assumption that the blur operation is exactly known. In real life applications, the corruption mechanism of any system is not known because only observed data is available, so it is necessary to handle uncertain events and observations. The image restoration problem is in general ill-posed; a small perturbation on the given data produces large deviations in the solution. The direct inversion of the blur transfer function usually has a large magnitude at high frequencies, therefore excessive amplification of noise results at those frequencies. Clearly, this is not an acceptable solution for noisy images. To overcome the noise sensitivity problem of the inverse filter, some filters have been developed based on the least-squares structure. The Wiener filter is based on batch processing which is usually implemented in the frequency domain. The Kalman filter is based on recursive processing which is usually implemented in the spatial domain. Both solutions only work when blur, image and noise parameters are known. The first step for image restoration is the identification of degradation. Consequently, modeling uncertain relationships among many kinds of variables and learning (identification) such variables are important topics. The blur and image parameter identification problem was formerly formulated as a constrained Maximum Likelihood (ML) estimation procedure which was based on optimizing the probability density function (pdf) of the observed image with respect to the unknown parameters. But, the direct optimization of the likelihood function is not feasible, because of its highly nonlinear character. The Expectation Maximization (EM) algorithm is a very popular and widely used algorithm for the computation of ML estimates. There are two steps in EM algorithm, as E (Expectation) and M (Maximization). The EM algorithm finds the conditional expectation of the log-likelihood of complete data given the observed incomplete data. In the E-step, the conditional expectation of the "hidden variables" is calculated. In the M-step, this expectation is maximized with respect to the parameters. The advantage of the EM method is such that it avoids operating directly on the nonlinear likelihood function. The EM algorithm becomes more attractive if its maximization step can be formulated analytically. Even though batch processing of the EM based blur identification and restoration problem needs large memory size, recursive techniques allow dynamic processing with modest storage requirements. Although the EM learning was applied to learning of unknown image and blur parameters based on batch image processing before, recursive EM learning of unknown image and blur parameters has not been studied as much as necessary. Many time series models, including the Hidden Markov Models (HMM) and Kalman Filter Models (KFM) used in filtering and control applications, can be viewed as examples of Dynamic Bayesian Network DBNs. Since, a Bayesian Network is a graphical way to represent a particular factorization of joint distribution; we propose that state space image model can be represented as a DBN. In this work, we introduce a new simultaneous recursive parameter learning and image restoration method based on the ML parameter identification and state estimation for images. We present a new formulation which is given in a Dynamic Bayesian Network (DBN) framework. We focus on the problem of learning the parameters of a Bayesian network. This technique incorporates optimal Kalman smoothing equations for ML parameter identification and state estimation. The use of Kalman filtering instead of Kalman smoothing is employed because of the computationally extensive processing of smoothing. In addition, a restored image is obtained simultaneously as the output of the Kalman filter. We manage to solve the EM learning problem for image and blur parameters in closed form. Although our proposed method processes huge data, because of the recursive structure it does not need large size storage. Performance evaluation of the method is given based on experiments carried out upon real images. Keywords: Expectation-Maximization, Blur and Image Identification, Recursive Processing, Kalman Smoothing and Filtering
Cogeneration of electricity and cooling by gas turbines
Get PDFBu çalışmanın amacı atık gazların soğutma elde etmek için kullanıldığı gaz türbinli bileşik ısı-güç (kojenerasyon) sistemlerinin termoekonomik çözümlemesidir. Termoekonomik çözümleme, termodinamik çözümlemenin yanında bu tür sistemlerin ekonomik olurluluğunu ve ürünlerin maliyetlerini irdeler. Bu çalışmanın, sıcak iklim kuşağında yer alan ülkelerde elektrik üretiminin bir yan ürünü olarak soğutma elde edilmesini özendirmesi umulmaktadır. Böylece birincil enerji tasarruf edilebilecektir. Bileşik ısı-güç üretimi elektrik ve ısının aynı santralden elde edilmesi anlamına gelmektedir. Bileşik ısı-güç üretimi temelde, elektrik üretiminde kullanılan gaz türbini, buhar türbini ve gaz motorları gibi ısı makinalarının atık ısısından yararlanmayı amaçlar. Böylece yakıt enerjisi daha etkin kullanılmış olur. Bunun iki önemli sonucu vardır. İlk olarak giderek tükenen fosil yakıtlardan tasarruf etmek, ikinci olarak küresel ısınma kaygısını, atmosfere daha az karbon dioksit atarak azaltmak. Bu çalışmada gaz türbini, atık ısı kazanı, buhar türbini ve absorbsiyonlu soğutucudan oluşan bir bileşik ısı-güç sisteminin sayısal modeli oluşturulmuştur. Modelin hesaplamalarını yapmak için Fortran dilinde iki program yazılmıştır. Birinci program sistemin birinci yasa çözümlemesini yapmakta, yakıt ve hava debilerini hesaplamakta, sistemin her noktasında sıcaklık, basınç ve ekserji debilerini bulmaktadır. İkinci program sistemin her noktası için maliyet akılarını ve birim ekserji maliyetlerini hesaplamaktadır. Önerilen sistem konvansiyonel sistemlerle karşılaştırıldığında, soğutma ve elektrik üretimi için hesaplanan maliyetlerin daha düşük olduğu görülmüştür. Ayrıca konvansiyonel yöntemlerle elektrik ve soğutma eldesinde enerjiden yararlanma oranı % 50 dolaylarında kalırken, incelenen sistemde enerjiden yararlanma oranı % 70’leri bulmaktadır. İncelenen sistem için geri ödeme süresi 7 ile 9 yıl arasında değişmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Trijenerasyon, kojenerasyon, absorpsiyonlu soğutma.The objective of this study is the thermoeconomic analysis of the gas turbine cogeneration systems where the exhaust gases are used for refrigeration purposes. The thermoeconomic analysis involves thermodynamic considerations as well as the calculation of economic feasibility of such systems and cost rates of the products. Cogeneration is defined as simultaneous production of power and heat. In essence it aims to utilize the exhaust heat of prime movers such as gas turbines, steam turbines and gas motors for producing electricity. Thus a more effective utilization of fuel is achieved. This has two important consequences. First of all use of lesser amounts of fuel in the context of decreasing fossil fuel supplies and secondly reduced carbon dioxide emissions in view of the global warming concerns. The fact that the exhaust heat may be used in absorption chillers introduces a new direction for cogeneration. Thus besides electricity and process heat, cooling effect may be produced by cogeneration. This application is sometimes called trigeneration in the literature. Cogeneration was used in Europe and especially in former eastern block countries mainly in conjunction with district heating. But it has also gained wide usage in industry around the world in the last 20 years. There are many applications of cogeneration in industrial plants where electricity and process heat are produced simultaneously. There are two types of absorption refrigeration cycles that are widely used in practice. These are the aqua?ammonia cycle and the lithium bromide?water cycle. The former can be used for refrigeration at temperatures below 0°C. The latter is generally used in air conditioning systems and the minimum temperature is limited to approximately 4°C. The thermodynamic calculations related to these cycles are explained with the help of two numerical examples. The coefficient of performance (COP) of the aqua-ammonia system considered in the first example was calculated as 0.5. The COP of the Lithium-bromide-water system was 0.78. The COP depends on the evaporator, condenser pressures and the generator temperature. The average COP of the absorption refrigeration systems in this study was taken as 0.6. A numerical model of a cogeneration system consisting of a gas turbine system, heat recovery steam generator, a steam turbine, a pump and an absorption refrigeration unit was formed in this study. The steam turbine and the absorption refrigeration unit are coupled to the gas turbine system through the heat recovery steam generator. The gas and steam cycles were considered as steady flow systems, air and the combustion products were assumed to be ideal gas mixtures. Natural gas (methane) was used as fuel. Two programs were written to realize the computations of the model. The first program is for the first law analysis of the system, it calculates the mass flow rates of fuel and air, temperatures, pressures and exergy rates at all state points of the system. The second program calculates the cost rates and cost per unit exergy at all state points of the system. The numerical model was simulated with different values of the decision variables. These are the pressure ratio of the compressor, cost of the natural gas, the investment cost of the gas turbine and the investment cost of the steam turbine. Exergy flow rates, cost rates and unit exergy costs were calculated for each state point of the system. Furthermore the exergy destruction, relative cost difference and exergoeconomic factor were calculated for each component of the system. Finally the payback period of the system for different parameters were calculated. When the system is compared with the conventional systems it is seen that the costs for electricity and refrigeration are lower. The fuel utilization effectiveness has been found as 70 %, as compared to 50% for the separate production of products. The payback period was between 7 and 9 years. Keywords: Trigeneration, cogeneration, absorption refrigeration
Autogenous shrinkage properties of high performance cement based products
Get PDFYüksek performanslı ve yüksek dayanımlı betonların üretimiyle, otojen rötre kavramı büyük bir önem kazanmıştır. Çimento miktarı yüksek, su/çimento oranı çok düşük seviyelerde olan bu betonlarda yeterince su bulunmamasından dolayı otojen rötrenin salt kimyasal faktör dışında kendiliğinden kurumanın yol açtığı bir fiziksel etkiyle de arttığı gözlenmiştir. Otojen rötrenin yüksek performanslı betonlarda, kuruma rötresi mertebesine erişmesiyle konu ilgi çekmeye başlamış ve konu üzerindeki araştırmalar yoğunlaşmıştır. Çimentoların çeşitli bileşenlerinin, kimyasal ve mineral katkıların bu rötre üzerindeki etkilerinin araştırıldığı çok sayıda araştırma mevcuttur. Portland çimentolarının minör bileşenleri olan alkalilerin, çok düşük miktarlarına karşın betonların işlenebilme, dayanım, dürabilite ve rötre özeliklerini önemli ölçüde etkilediği bilinmektedir. Bu deneysel çalışmada yüksek performanslı betonların otojen rötreleri üzerinde çimento bileşenlerinin (özellikle çözünen alkali içeriğinin) ve süperakışkanlaştırıcı katkının etkileri araştırılmış, bu iki faktörün hidratasyon süreci üzerindeki etkileri üzerine yoğunlaşılmıştır. Çalışmada değişik kimyasal bileşenlere sahip çimentolar kullanılarak hamur numuneler üretilmiş, bu numunelerin otojen rötreleri belirlenmiştir. Bu çimentoların hidratasyon aşamaları da çeşitli yöntemlerle takip edilmiştir. Sonuç olarak çimento bileşenlerinin (özellikle çözünen alkali içeriğinin) ve süperakışkanlaştırıcı kullanımının otojen rötre üzerindeki etkileri belirlenmiştir. Elde edilen ana sonuç şöyle özetlenebilir; çimentolardaki çözünen alkali miktarları FKOR büyüklüğünü arttırma yönünde etkinlik taşımktadır. Bunun yanında C3A, C4AF, (SO3/çözünen alkali oranı) ve incelik parametreleri de FKOR’yi etkileyen etkenler arasında dikkate alınmalıdır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Yüksek performasnlı beton, otojen rötre, hidratasyon, çözünen alkali. Autogenous shrinkage concept has started to gain more importance since the high performance-high strength concretes were began to be utilized for structural purposes. These concretes are generally designed with high cementitious materials contents and low water to cementitious material ratios. It is observed that, due to lack of water in capillary pores in these concretes, autogenous shrinkage increases under the effects of not only the chemical factors but also the physical effects. Autogenous shrinkage has started to draw attention with having the same magnitude of drying shrinkage, and the research dealing with this concept has been intensified. There are numbers of investigations focusing on the effects of various components of cements, chemical and mineral admixtures on this shrinkage. It is well known that, alkalis, which are the minor components of Portland cements, affect the workability, strength, durability, and shrinkage properties of concretes drastically despite their low percentage in cement. These components also affect the hydration process of Portland cement crucially. Therefore, it is inevitable that the soluble alkalis existing in cement will have an effect on the autogenous shrinkage which became more important due to its use in the production of high performance concretes (HPC). Superplasticizers are indispensable ingredients of HPCs. Besides reducing the water to cement ratio, these admixtures also affect the hydration rate and morphology of the hydration products. In this experimental study; effects of cement components (especially soluble alkali content) and superplasticizers on the autogenous shrinkage were investigated. The effects of these two factors on the hydration process were also focused on. Moreover, discussions were done on the definition of autogenous shrinkage. "Physicochemical Autogenous Shrinkage" term was attributed as to define this shrinkage which is mainly caused by physicochemical effects. Cement paste specimens were produced using cements having different chemical compositions. Autogenous shrinkages of these specimens were obtained by means of volumetric measurement technique. Measurements of volumetric changes was taken in water by means of Archimet balance. Hydration degree of these paste specimens were obtained by non-evaporable water technique. Heat of hydration values were also measured by means of semi-adiabadic calorimeter. The rate of hydration reaction was determined. Capillary pore size distributions were also obtained with Mercury Intrusion Porosimeter (MIP) technique. As a result, the effects of cement components (especially soluble alkali content) and superplasticizers on the autogenous shrinkage of HPC's were determined. Moreover, critical time periods for physcochemical autogenous shrinkage were obtained and the characteristic behavior of this shrinkage were exlained by hydration kinetics. Relations between capillary pore ratio and physcochemical autogenous shrinkage were determined. The main results obtained from this experimental study can be drawn as following: 1) Physicochemical autogenous shrinkage has three main phases for the pastes with low water to cement ratios containing superplasticizer. Generally, these stages were not observed for the specimens which do not contain superplasticizer. However, as an exceptional case, some specimens which do not include superplasticizer could show similar steps as the specimens having superplasticizer. 2) Although, lower hydration heats and hydration degrees were obtained for the lower water to cement ratio specimens, higher values of physicochemical autogenous shrinkage were measured. It was determined that the most effective factor in gaining the physicochemical shrinkage was the released heat values which show the rate of hydration. Higher physicochemical autogenous shrinkage values are measured for the cement pastes which have the higher values of released heat. Microporosity test results have shown that the increasing ratio of capillary pores to total pores causes to increase in physicochemical autogenous shrinkage. Soluble alkali contents were also found to be effective on the. Cements having higher soluble alkali contents exhibited higher physicochemical autogenous shrinkage. It was also concluded that besides the soluble alkali contents in cement, C3A, C4AF contents and SO /soluble alkali ratio are effective parameters and they should be taken into consideration. Keywords: High performance concrete, autogenous shrinkage, hydration, soluble alkali
Transformation of a historical city: Erzurum city
Get PDFKentler yaşayan varlıklar olup doğar, zaman içerisinde gelişip büyür ve değişirler. Kentler bu süreç içerisinde sahip oldukları varlık, kültür ve karakterlerin bir kısmını korur, bir kısmını değiştirir ve bir kısmını da kaybederler. Erzurum kenti, kuruluşu çok eski tarihlere dayanan bir kent olup, doğal süreçlerin bir gereği olarak büyük bir değişim yaşamıştır. Üzerinde kurulan pek çok uygarlıktan etkilenen, izler ve miraslar barındıran kent, sonunda modernleşen ve kompleksleşen kent anlayışına yenilmiştir. Bu değişimin en büyük ve en çarpıcı örnekleri ise tarihsel nitelikli anıtlar, geleneksel konutlar ve mahallelerde görülmektedir. Tarihi kent çekirdeğinin geleneksel mahalle anlayışı, sokak yapısı, taş evleri ve kentsel donatılarından oluşan yapısının tahrip eden değişimler kültürel ve sosyal yapıyı da tahrip etmektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, Erzurum kenti’nde zaman içerisinde yok olmuş, değişime uğramış ve yok olma tehlikesiyle karşı karşıya olan kültürel mirasın değişimini gözler önüne sermek, bir yıl gibi kısa bir süreç içerisinde yıkımın ne kadar büyük boyutlara ulaştığını vurgulamaktır.Çalışmada Erzurum kenti I. ve III. derecede arkeolojik ve kentsel sit sınırları içerisinde ki geleneksel doku değişimleri ortaya konulmak amacı ile 1986 yılı imar planı altlık olarak alınmış ve 2006 ile 2007 yıllarında alan gezilerek ortaya çıkan 1 yıllık değişimler haritalanmıştır. Sonuç olarak tescilli evlerde herhangi bir yıkımın görülmediği ancak, tescilli olmayan geleneksel evlerin %12’sinin yok olduğu görülmüştür. Mahalle ölçeğinde değerlendirme yapıldığında ise tarihi kent dokusunun yok olarak geleneksel mahalle anlayışının yeni imarlaşmalar ile düzeltilemez hale geldiği belirlenmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Tarihi kent, değişim, kent dokusu.The city of Erzurum is an old settlement, which originates from very old dates and has experienced huge transformations resulting from natural processes. The city, which was affected largely by several civilisations founded on itself and shelters their traces and heritages even now, was finally beaten by an urbanisation understanding in which modernisation and complexity are dominant features. The best and the clearest examples of this transformation can be seen on the historical-featured monuments, traditional houses and in ancient neighbourhoods and substreets. These changes not only destroyed the structures of historical core of the city, which was composed of traditional neighbourhood understanding, street structure, stone houses, and urban equipment elements but also cultural and social structure. The aim of the study is to reveal the conditions of cultural heritages in Erzurum city, which were destroyed, transformed and faced to extinct in time by focusing how big the extents of devastation are even in a single year. In the study, development plan in 1986 was considered as base map in order to determine the changes in traditional urban tissue inside the boundaries of first and the third degree archaeological sit areas and urban sit areas and one-year changes between 2006 and 2007 were determined by field-surveying. It was found that the area whose present conditions were determined in 2006 was largely destroyed compared to development plan in 1986. In the evaluation conducted in 2006, there existed thirteen houses, which were in use and inventoried as strong enough; three houses, which were not in use but inventoried as strong enough; one house, which was partly destroyed and had inventory while all of twenty-one inventoried houses were fully destroyed. Among the traditional houses, which were not inventoried, twenty-two were determined to be in use and strong enough, seven were not in use but strong enough; sixteen were partly destroyed while thirty-three were fully destroyed. It was also determined that mosques, hamams (Turkish baths), cemeteries, tombs (kumbet), medreseh, fortress and fountains survive, and the number of garden walls reduced only to four.In 2007, field survey was repeated and the counts were updated. Found data were processed on the development plan again. According to the findings, there exist thirteen houses in use and inventoried as strong; three houses not in use but inventoried as strong; and one partly destroyed and inventoried. Among the traditional houses which are not inventoried, twenty-one were found to be in use and strong; six not in use but strong enough; eleven partly destroyed while thirty one were determined to be fully demolished. It was determined again that mosques, hamams (Turkish baths), cemeteries, tombs (kumbet), medreseh, fortress and fountains survive, and the number of garden walls reduced only to four. Consequently, it was found that there was no devastation on the inventoried traditional houses while twelve percent of those not inventoried were fully destroyed. The reason for not changing the number and use conditions of the inventoried houses in this period is that these houses are under absolute conservation status and therefore, they cannot be demolished, changed, and attached with new structures. However, the same conditions are not valid for the houses, which are not inventoried. They can be deliberately demolished, some new structures can be attached with them, and they are not carefully maintained. Huge concrete buildings are constructed in the place of the demolished traditional houses, which were deliberately demolished and destroyed. When considered the historical core of the city of Erzurum on neighbourhood scale, it was found that historical urban tissue and the understanding of traditional neighbourhood disappeared because of new constructions. These losses in the city are unfortunates of many newly developing cities. In avoidance of this fate, the biggest responsibility is taken by local administrations. Planning maps should be prepared in details. At this stage, economic and social development policies of the city should also be considered. Reconstructions should be avoided in historical urban tissue as possible. Another crucial care is the record of historical urban tissue in inventories However, these recorded data should be preserved not only on the scales of buildings but also include historical urban core, streets and substreets with some features such as topography. In the determination of the conservation states, buildings should not be evaluated individually but in combination with urban tissue important to perform interdisciplinary works in the preservation of historical urban core. Keywords: Historical city, transformation, urban tissue
Investigation and evaluation of primary school classrooms with respect to visual comfort
Get PDFİlköğretim binalarında gerçekleştirilmesi gereken konfor koşulları ulusal ve uluslar arası literatürde üzerinde sıklıkla durulmakta olan bir konudur. Kullanıcılarının büyük bölümü 6-14 yaş arası öğrenciler olan ilköğretim binalarında görsel konfor koşullarının gerçekleştirilmesi gerekmektedir. Ülkemizde ilköğretim yapılarının gerek ekonomik nedenler, gerekse proje ve uygulamadaki aksaklıklar nedeniyle kullanıcı konforunu sağlama konusunda eksiklikleri olduğu gözlemlenebilmektedir. Bu çalışmada, söz konusu eksikliklerin belirlenmesi amacıyla İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Mimarlık Fakültesi’nde yürütülen bir araştırma çalışmasının başlıca sonuçlarına yer verilmektedir. Araştırma çalışması kapsamında İstanbul’da 2006-2007 ve 2007-2008 akademik yıllarında eğitim süresi içinde kalan saatlerde 18 derslikte görsel konfor koşulları açısından tespitler yapılmıştır. Bu tespitlere dayanarak ele alınan dersliklerde yeterli aydınlık düzeyinin sağlanması, doğal ve yapma aydınlatma sistemlerinin bütünleştirilebilmesi, direkt güneş ışığının kontrolu ve yapma aydınlatma sisteminin genel olarak bakım durumuna ilişkin değerlendirilmeler gerçekleştirilmiştir. Yapılan değerlendirmelerin sonucunda; ilköğretim binalarının gerek tasarımı aşamasında, gerekse kullanım süresi boyunca aydınlatma sistemine daha titizce yaklaşılmasının önemi ortaya konulmuştur. Böylece, görsel konfor koşullarının sağlanmasının yanı sıra, yapma aydınlatma enerjisi tüketiminde tasarruf sağlanarak ülke ekonomisine katkı sağlanması ve sürdürülebilir çevre bilincine uygun uygulamaların gerçekleştirilmesi olanaklı olacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Görsel konfor, ilköğretim okulları, doğal aydınlatma, yapma aydınlatma.Lighting systems in educational buildings should provide both for teachers and pupils an environment in which their visual needs are met so that they are able to comfortably, speedily and correctly carry out visual perception-related tasks. An adequately designed lighting system makes a school more attractive to its pupils, it increases the feeling of spaciousness and airiness, and has a positive impact on the learning atmosphere. Any educational activities that are based on visuals require quantitatively and qualitatively adequate lighting. The required level of illumination necessary for the activity is its quantitative aspect. Lighting does not only affect visual performance, it also has an effect on memory, reasoning, concentration and other mental actions. In this connection, qualitative aspects of the lighting such as illumination and luminance distribution gain in importance. The visually most challenging actions in the classroom are reading and writing as they require either short-distance perception from a written medium on the pupils' desk or long-distance perception from the blackboard. Classrooms have to be investigated in two categories considering the content of the educational facilities; classrooms with fixed seating arrangements and free seating arrangements. The fundamental reasons to use classrooms are to present, transfer, and assimilate knowledge properly. The knowledge is presented auditory, visually or usually by using both of them. As a matter of fact, lighting in classrooms affects the visual performance; on the other hand, it has a direct relation with the performance of the intellectual activities, logical thinking and improvement in the interest. The illumination levels required in classroom lighting vary with the kind of educational action performed in the classroom. The International Commission on Illumination - CIE defined the illumination in classrooms as 300 lx. This illumination level refers to a horizontal reference plane parallel to the floor above the bench rows and a perpendicular reference plane parallel to the writing board, walls, notice boards and maps. The standards set the horizontal reference plane 0.67 m above the floor. In order to support the interest of the pupils in their course work and to focus their attention on the teacher and the writing board, the illumination of the board must at least be equal to the horizontal illumination on the benches. Light sources should be selected with a high colour rendering index (CRI>75). In general purpose classrooms, natural and artificial lighting should be used in combination. When considering the psychological effect of lighting, the importance of daylight is beyond doubt. Daylighting in classrooms enables energy conservation and supports visual comfort, however, daylight apertures cause glare and solar heat gain during the overheated period; to secure optimal conditions both negative effects need to be controlled. The primary school buildings in Turkey are lacking of comfort conditions due both to economic reasons and to deficiencies during project design and implementation. This study presents the main findings of the research project entitled "Investigation and evaluation of primary schools in terms of visual comfort conditions", which was carried out by the Istanbul Technical University Faculty of Architecture. 18 classrooms in 8 primary schools in Istanbul were investigated in terms of the visual comfort conditions during the academic years 2006-2007 and 2007-2008. The study was carried out in the following steps; determination of the exterior conditions of the building, determination of the building form and orientation, determination of the specifications related to the classrooms, daylight apertures and the artificial lighting systems. Basing on the collected data, evaluations on the level of sufficient illumination, control of direct sunlight, combination of natural and artificial lighting and the general maintenance of the artificial lighting system. As a result of the present work the need for a more precise approach towards the lighting in primary school buildings both in the design phase and during their actual usage is emphasized. Such an approach would ensure that visual comfort conditions are achieved and energy consumption is reduced with a positive effect on the country's economy. Its implementation would at the same time raise the level of awareness for a sustainable environment. Keywords: Visual comfort, primary schools, day lighting, artificial lighting
Viyolonselin Türk makam müziğine girişi ve Tanburi Cemil Bey
Get PDFThere have been changes in string instruments like in all instruments in the history of Turkish makam music. These changes either have occurred on the instrument itself or have caused the instrument to leave its place to other instruments having the same function. All these changes fell short of answering the search of new timber which resulted in either replacement or addition of foreign instruments. However, despite the fact that the improvements in instruments brought changes in performance to some extent, neither the basic style nor the character of instruments did show much change. What is more, these styles have dominated the new instruments that substituted them. When the entrance of European violin family to Turkish music began by viola d’amour, rebab, known as Turkish violin in the 17th century, was very popular. Charles Fonton maintains in his book Turkish Music in the 18th century that the name violin is used both to define the western violin and rebab. After the viols called “sinekeman” by Turks, the violoncello which as an instrument with more bass character received acceptance in fasıl groups in the 19th century. Since no recordings of first violoncello performances exist, it is not possible to determine exactly how and in what style they were played. In fact, the number of violoncello recordings done with the technology at the start of the 20th century is highly limited. Nevertheless, the violoncello recordings of Tanburi Cemil Bey though few in number, should be considered as a great opportunity. Violoncello is first played in orchestras and bands aiming to make western disciplined polyphonic music. In II.Mahmut’s reign with the westernization movement after the closure of Yeniçeri Ocakları (1826) (guild of janissaries), the first band and the music school Muzikayı Hümayun was established instead of Mehter. Talented musicians brought up in Mehter bands were hired for the band. New instruments were imported from Europe to be taught in the band. As well as Muzikayı Hümayun, women in Harem gathered to play in bands. In these orchestras we know that besides violin, violoncello and contrabass were played. The entrance of the violoncello to Turkish music is definitely not a coincidence. In fact, the reason for this entrance is not only its entrance to art together with new movements, but also the previous existence of cello-like instruments in Turkish music. In other words, by time, the existing instruments had to leave their place to the violoncello that has the same function. Iklığ is an instrument that is indicated in ancient Anatolian sources. That it is played vertically and one of its iron feet leans on the ground are its similarities to the violoncello. Another instrument similar to the violoncello is ayaklı keman (footed violin), though it was never as widely used as the ıklığ or rebab. It is observed that even though instruments like ıklığ, rebab, and footed violin live under the name rebab, this instrument has been replaced by the violoncello in terms of sound intensity in the contemporary ensembles. After the recording technology came into use, we had an opportunity to listen to a large number of works from the master musicians. The oldest recording of violoncello performance is the master Tanburi Cemil Bey’s. We can trace the same quality and virtuosity in every instrument that he plays. He used violoncello, as a solo instrument, compared to his kemençe interpretations, he is as energetic and fast as kemençe and sometimes even more experimental in his violoncello playing. The capacity and the wide range of colors of the instrument gave way to new experiments and dimensions in his violoncello interpretations. The very common ornamentations, glissandos, grace notes and trills are a very special concept with fingerings that enable these motions. On the other hand, bowing technique is closer to the technique of” yaylı tanbur” and “kemençe” bows are divided between main pitches and grace notes by cut and detached bows; thus, creating a plectrum effect. By means of the violoncello performances of Tanburi Cemil Bey, the techniques which belong to traditional and folkloric values of Turkish makam music like vibrato, grace notes, glissandos, special bows and fast articulations was detected and analyzed. Therefore, the aim is to find a place for these techniques in the contemporary performances and newly written compositions. The approach to analyze taksims had primarily been to transcribe the existing taksims. Keywords: Violoncello, Turkish makam music taksim, ıklığ, ayaklı keman, Tanburi Cemil Bey.Türk makam müziği tarihinde bütün çalgılarda olduğu gibi yaylı çalgılarda da değişiklikler olmuştur. Değişen çalgılar, yeni tını arayışlarına cevap veremedikleri noktada yerlerini aynı fonksiyonu görebilecek başka çalgılara terk etmek zorunda kalmışlardır. Diğer kültürlerden ithal edilen çalgılar, bazı mevcut çalgıların yerine kullanılmış veya onların yanında yer almakta gecikmemiştir. Osmanlıda 19. yüzyılın ilk yarısında başlayan batılılaşma hareketleriyle birlikte, birçok batı çalgısının Osmanlı-Türk makam müziğinde kullanılmaya başlandığını görmekteyiz. Fasl-ı Cedid topluluklarında kullanılan çalgılardan Türk müziğinin makamsal yapısına uygun olanlar ince saza yani fasıl gruplarına girmişlerdir. Viyolonsel gibi özellikle renk itibariyle bas karakterli ve mikrotonal sesleri yakalayabilecek yetenekteki çalgılar Türk makam müziği icra eden gruplarda yer almıştır. Türk makam müziğinde kalın ve tok sesli bir çalgıya duyulan ihtiyaç eski dönemlerde de karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Hem tutuş teknikleri hem de ses sahaları açısından viyolonsel ile benzerlik gösteren ıklığ, rebab ve ayaklı keman gibi çalgılar günümüz topluluklarında yerini viyolonsele bırakmışlardır. 20. yüzyıl başlarında kayıt teknolojisinin Türk müzik piyasasına girmesiyle, birçok usta müzisyeni dinleme olanağı doğmuştur. Türk makam müziğine ait elimizdeki en eski viyolonsel kayıdı Tanburi Cemil Bey’e ait olanlardır. Tanburi Cemil Bey’in Odeon firması için 1910 -11 tarihleri arasında yapmış olduğu kayıtlar içerisinde 8 tane viyolonsel taksimi bulunmaktadır. Kazandırdığı yeni yorumlar bu çalgının Türk makam müziğinde yer almasını sağlamış, icraları sonraki nesiller için ilham kaynağı olmuştur. Bu icralar çalgı müziği açısından ileriye dönük önemli ipuçları içermektedirler. Bu çalışmada Türk makam müziğine ve özellikle Tanburi Cemil Bey’e ait olan ancak batı müziği terminolojisine göre isimlendirilen vibrato, süslemeler, glisandolar ve özel yaylar gibi teknikler, bu icraların analiz edilmesi yoluyla incelenmiştir. Amaç, yeni yazılacak eserler ve yorumlar içerisinde bu tekniklerin yer bulmasını sağlamaktır. Bu taksimlerin analiz edilmesi için kullanılan başlıca yöntem, mevcut kayıtların batı porte notasına aktarılmasıdır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Viyolonsel, Türk makam müziği, taksim, ıklığ, ayaklı keman, Tanburi Cemil Bey
Yazının krallığı: Başlangıç yıllarında Türk sinemasında film jenerikleri
Get PDFFilm title design is one of the crucial, nevertheless the most underestimated parts of film making and through that al lot of things can be read. This study explores the film title design in Turkish cinema and through that a written history and an understanding of the link between Turkish cinema and Turkish graphic design are aimed to be reached. As the meeting point of verbal and visual imagery and audio, the film title design mostly consists of several elements such as film footage, typography, graphics and sound. These elements are brought together by the use of different techniques, styles and technology. Within the context of Turkish cinema, these techniques and styles are sometimes appropriated or copied from other cinemas and sometimes, are uniquely invented like the character of Turkish cinema itself. The film titles range from low-tech and hands-on production to digitized technology. There are certain styles that keeps being repeated with variations; certain categories are formed according to the technology or visual characteristics and production conditions such as the machinations of the studio system and its relation to the government, available technology and the influence of visual culture and aesthetic tastes not specific to cinema. In this paper, the evolution of film titles, the processes of film title design and different film title categories are discussed in the light of the interviews with the producers, directors, title designers and Turkish cinema historians. After a detailed research no written research material specifically on Turkish film titles could be found. So the research is carried out through these interviews and the history of Turkish cinema and graphic design as well as Turkish social, economic and cultural history and the archiving of the film titles. Another intersection of cinema and design, namely the film posters would also be taken into consideration in order understand the film, its production process and the design-cinema relation better. Among almost seven thousand films, a sample of film titles is made to demonstrate the recurrent techniques and styles, which are closely associated with certain periods, the titles of the films with the most impact on Turkish cinema and the titles with the most generic or the most unique character. An extensive use of textual analysis has been made first between the titles and the posters of the same film, then the titles of the same period, and later between the titles of different periods. The analysis of the titles is carried through with the methods of Erwin Panofsky?s iconography with the input of Theo van Leeuwen, Gunther Kress and Nicos Hadjinicolaou. This paper focuses on the early period of Turkish cinema during a unique time of political, economical and social change. In these years the new Turkish Republic is born with very significant reforms such as the new alphabet. This also has been the time of the firsts in Turkish cinema and graphic design such as the first fictional film, first sound film and the first advertising agency and commercial poster in Turkish. Since there?s very little amount of film title sequences in hand from the very early period of Turkish cinema because of various reasons, it?s very hard to make a comparison and a healthy judgment about these very first film titles. The first film title sequence that could be reached and had been analyzed dates back to 1932. From this year on, until the 1950s, which is named here as the early years of Turkish cinema, we see the kingdom of lettering where the typographic elements dominate the title sequences. During the 1950s, there have been timid steps in title designs whereas during the 1960s and the 1970s, bold steps with technical innovations and experiments nevertheless the domination of handcraft are observed. The 1980s marks the video technology and the writhing of cinema and hence the titles. Since the 1990s until the recent years, digital technology takes over and the title design as well as Turkish cinema and graphic design find themselves in the infinite universe. During the kingdom of lettering, the title sequences of early years? Turkish films reflect the conditions of the time in terms of film production and the changing society. The paths of Turkish cinema and graphic design seem not to be fully crossed yet; nevertheless we witness the birth of a new visual form and a new nation in these titles. Keywords: Title sequences, Turkish Cinema, graphic design, technology. Türk sinemasında film jeneriği önemsenmemiş gibi görünse de; Türk sinema sektörü, grafik tasarım, teknoloji ve toplum hakkında bilgiler barındıran, zengin bir mecradır. Bu makale, Türkiye’de sinemanın başlangıç yıllarından itibaren 1950’ye kadarki dönemde, sinema ve grafik tasarımın ara kesitinde bulunan film jeneriklerini ele almaktadır. Türkiye’de hareketli grafik tasarımının sinemasal anlatı çerçevesinde, jenerik özelinde toplumsal olaylar, görsel kültür, ekonomik ve teknolojik gelişmeler, sinema sektörü ile ilişkisi, geçirdiği evreler, grafik tasarım ve sinemanın örtüştüğü ve ayrıştığı noktalar incelenmiştir. Bu kapsamda jenerikler kendi içlerinde bir bütün ve filmle bağlantılı bir mecra olarak ele alınırlar. Ayrıca, jeneriğin sinema ve grafik tasarımı buluşturan bir mecra oluşunun altı çizilerek, sinema afişi gibi diğer bağlayıcı mecralar ile ilişkisi irdelenir. Söz konusu jeneriklerin üretim koşulları ve teknikleri, içerikleri, kompozisyon özellikleri, tasarımcıları ve bunlara bağlı olarak ortak ve farklı noktaları sinemanın ülkemizdeki jeneriklerine ulaşılabilen ilk örnekleri üzerinden incelemeye tabii tutulmuştur. Ele alınan dönem, Türkiye’de savaşlar, cumhuriyetin ilanı ve devrimler ile siyasi, ekonomik ve toplumsal olarak büyük değişimlerin yaşandığı, sinema ve grafik tasarım alanında ilklere imza atılan özel bir dönemdir. Jeneriğin, bir mecra olarak sinemada ne anlama geldiği, gelişim süreci ve genel özellikleri ile Türk sinemasında film jeneriklerine de değinilmiştir. Bu jeneriklerin tipografi, renk, doku, şekil, çerçeve gibi kompozisyonu ve grafik tasarım dilini oluşturan elemanları ile; hareket, kurgu gibi film dilini oluşturan elemanları, Panofsky’nin ikonografi çözümleme metodunun van Leeuwen, Kress ve Hadjinicolaou’nun görüşleriyle zenginleştirilmiş hali ile irdelenmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Film jenerikleri, Türk sineması, grafik tasarım, teknoloji
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