Tokyo Polytechnic University Repository / 東京工芸大学学術リポジトリ

1KJ00008629220論文Articledepartmental bulletin pape

木村, 瑞生

1320

キムラ, ミズオ

山本, 正彦

1321

ヤマモト, マサヒコ

Kimura, Mizuo

1322

Yamamoto, Masahiko

1323

＊1 東京工芸大学工学部基礎教育研究センター教授  
＊2  東京工芸大学工学部基礎教育研究センター助教 
 2012 年 9 月 10 日 受理 
下肢筋パワーが階段昇りの心拍数に及ぼす影響 
 
木村 瑞生*1 山本 正彦*2 
 
 
Influence of leg muscle power on heart rate in ascending stairs  
 
 Mizuo Kimura*1  Masahiko Yamamoto*2 
 
Abstract  
The purpose of the present study was to investigate the influence of leg muscle power 
(leg extension power and vertical jump) on heart rate (S-HR) in ascending outdoor stairs of a 
campus. Subjects were 447 healthy freshmen (male:322, female:125). Subjects were 
instructed to ascend 181 steps of stairs (each step height of 14.0~16.5 cm, each length of tread 
of 30~34 cm) for 2 min at constant speed (105 steps / min). In the relation between S-HR and 
leg extension power, the significant negative correlation coefficient (male: r=-0.257, p<0.01, 
female: r=-0.247, p<0.05) was shown. Also in the relation between S-HR and vertical jump, 
the significant negative correlation coefficient (male: r=-0.211, p<0.05, female: r=-0.354, 
p<0.01) was shown. These results suggested that S-HR reflecting the cardiorespiratory 
circulatory function is influenced in the function of the muscular output of the leg. 
 
 
はじめに 
日常生活動作の中で階段昇りは、比較的強度の高
い身体活動である 1)~3)。それゆえ、エレベータやエ
スカレータなどが当たり前の設備となっている現
代の生活環境では、階段を昇ることを億劫に感じ、
ついつい昇ることを避けるような行動様式をとっ
てしまう人が多い。体力的に低下しつつある中高年
者ならまだしも、体力のピーク期にある大学生でさ
え、わずか校舎の２階への移動にもエレベータ待ち
をしている次第である。現代社会で暮らす人々のこ
のような行動様式は、如何に階段が身体の負担にな
っているかということを表しているが、逆に身近な
生活環境の中に体力トレーニングとして好都合の
場があると言うこともできる。鈴木と高瀬ら 2) は、
職業上階段の昇り降りを余儀なくされる被験者を
対象にアパートの１～４階までの階段昇降の運動
強度を調べ、昇段時の心拍数が 136 拍/分に達する
ことを示している。そして、一般の被験者ではさら
に心拍数が高くなることを指摘している。Aziz と
Teh4) は、１２階建ての公共の住居の階段を使って
階段昇りをさせた際に、心拍数が 154.6±16 拍/分に
も達することを報告している。同様に Tan ら 5) も
公共の住居の階段を使って180段の階段を昇った時
の心拍数が、男性で 158±14 拍/分、女性で 172±9
拍/分に達することを報告している。このように階
段を昇ることは、心臓呼吸系への負荷が高いことか
ら、全身持久力（心臓呼吸系）の体力テストにも応
用されている。Teh と Aziz6)は、公共の住居の階段
を 使 っ た 心 臓 呼 吸 系 の 体 力 テ ス ト と し て
“Stair-Climb Test”を開発している。また、階段昇
降については、体力テストへの応用だけでなく日常
の体力トレーニングにも応用されている。北村ら 7) 
は、週３日、１０週間の階段昇降トレーニングによ
って、全身持久性能力が改善されることを示してい
る。一方で、飯塚ら 8) は、週３日、４カ月間の階
段昇降トレーニンでは、心臓呼吸系の機能の改善に
は至らなかったが、脚筋力と脚筋持久力が向上する
1
東京工芸大学工学部紀要 Vol. 35 No.1（2012） 
東京工芸大学工学部紀要 Vol. 35 No.1（2012） 
 
ことを報告している。木村ら 9) は、階段昇りの心
拍数には、脚の筋出力の能力が関与していると指摘
している。飯塚ら 8)や木村ら 9)の報告は、脚筋の機
能が階段昇りの際の心臓呼吸系への負担度にも影
響することを推測させる。 
そこで、本研究では本学キャンパス内の 181 段の
階段昇りの心拍数と下肢筋パワーの関係を調べる
ことを目的とした。 
方 法 
１）被験者 
被験者は、2008 年度から 2009 年度の本学工学部
１年次生 447 名（男子 322 名、女子 125 名）であっ
た（表１）。本研究は、本学の保健体育科目（フィ
ットネス演習 A）において実施した体力測定より得
られた結果である。したがって、体力測定の事前授
業において、学生は測定の目的や測定内容および測
定方法を十分理解したうえで体力測定に臨んだ。 
 
 
２）階段昇りの方法 
本研究では、本学キャンパス内の屋外に設置され
たビルの８階相当の 181 段の階段を使用した。その
形状は、蹴上 14.0～16.5cm、踏面 30～34cm、平均
斜度 22.4°で、７カ所の踊り場が設置されている。
各踊り場の距離は、１カ所目 238cm、２カ所目 940cm、
３カ所目 240cm、４カ所目 248cm、５カ所目 244cm、
６カ所目 245cm、７カ所目 292cm であった。被験者
は、電子メトロノームの発信音に合わせて一定のテ
ンポ（105 ステップ/分）で１段ずつ階段を昇った。
結果として、７カ所の踊り場を含めて階段昇りに要
する時間は、ほぼ２分であった。 
３）階段昇りの運動強度と下肢筋パワーの測定 
 本研究では、階段昇りの運動強度の指標として心
拍数（階段 -HR）と主観的運動強度（Rating of 
perceived exertion : RPE）を、下肢筋パワーの指標と
して脚伸展パワーと垂直跳びを測定した。尚、RPE
の日本語表示には、小野寺と宮下 10)のスケール（表
２）を用い、学生が 181 段の階段を昇り切った直後
の辛さの程度を７～２０の数値で記録させた（６の
数値は記録しないように指導した）。 
表２　RPE scale の日本語表示
20
19 非常にきつい
18
17 かなりきつい
16
15 きつい
14
13 ややきつい
12
11 楽である
10
9 かなり楽である
8
7 非常に楽である
6
カテゴリースケール
 
階段-HR の測定には、心拍計（Accurex Plus, PLAR 
Electro 社製）を用いて、各被験者が 181 段を昇り
切った直後の心拍数を記録した。脚伸展パワーの測
定には、脚伸展パワー測定装置（アネロプレス 3500、
コンビ社製）を用いた。垂直跳びの測定には、滞空
時間より跳躍高を求めるマルチジャンプテスタ
（DKH 社製）を用いた。 
４）データ解析 
 男子学生 322名と女子学生 125名それぞれについ
て、階段-HR と脚伸展パワーおよび階段-HR と垂直
跳びの回帰直線の相関係数を求めた。有意水準は
５％（ｐ＜0.05）とした。 
結 果 
１）階段昇りの運動強度 
表３に男子学生と女子学生の安静時の平均心拍
数（安静-HR）、平均階段-HR および平均 RPE を示
した。安静-HR、階段-HR および最大心拍数の予測
値（220－年齢）から、運動強度を求めると男子学
生では 61.5％HRreserve、女子学生では 72.6％
表１　被験者の身体的特徴
測定項目
年齢 18.5 （±0.6） 18.5 （±0.6）
身長 (cm) 171.4 （±5.9） 158.4 （±5.4）
体重 (kg) 63 （±11.9） 53.7 （±8.3）
BMI (kg/㎠) 21.4 （±3.8） 21.4 （±3.0）
体脂肪率 (%) 17.3 （±5.8） 25.8 （±5.6）
男子学生
（322名）
女子学生
（125名）
2
下肢筋パワーが階段昇りの心拍数に及ぼす影響 
 
HRreserve であった。RPE の平均値は、男子学生は
13.1 の「ややきつい」に相当し、女子学生では 13.8
の「ややきつい」と「きつい」の中間に相当した。 
表３　安静時心拍数と階段-HRおよびRPE
測定項目
安静-HR （拍/分） 72.2 （±9.6） 76.5 （±10.5）
階段-HR （拍/分） 151.7 （±12.7） 167.3 （±11.7）
RPE 13.1 （±1.7） 13.8 （±1.9）
男子学生
（322名）
女子学生
（125名）
 
 
２）階段-HR の分布 
男子学生と女子学生について、階段-HR の分布を
図１に示した。男子学生の階段-HR の最小値と最大
値および平均値は、119 拍/分、186 拍/分、151.7±
12.7 拍/分であった。女子学生の階段-HR の最小値、
最大値および平均値は、それぞれ 131 拍/分、197 拍
/分、167.3±11.7 拍/分であった。このように、男子
学生および女子学生の階段-HR は、それぞれ広範囲
に分布した。 
 
３）下肢筋パワーと階段-HR の関係 
 前述の階段-HR の広範囲の分布が、下肢筋パワー
の大小と関係するのか否かについて調べた。図２と
図３には、男子学生と女子学生それぞれの脚伸展パ
ワーと階段-HR の関係を示した。男子学生において
も女子学生においても、脚伸展パワーの値が高い者
ほど階段-HR の値が小となる負の相関が示された。
それぞれの相関係数は、男子学生ではｒ＝－0.257
（ｐ＜0.01）、女子学生ではｒ＝－0.247（ｐ<0.05）
と高くはないが有意な値であった。 
次に、男子学生と女子学生それぞれの垂直跳びと
階段-HR の関係を図４、図５に示した。これらの関
係においても脚伸展パワーと階段-HR の関係と同
様に、垂直跳びの値が高い者ほど階段-HR の値が小
となる傾向を示した。それぞれの相関係数は、男子
学生ではｒ＝－0.211（ｐ＜0.05）、女子学生ではｒ
＝－0.354（ｐ<0.01）と高くはないが有意な値を示
した。 
 
 
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
（人数）
心拍数 （拍/分）
男子（322名） 平均心拍数：151.7±12.7 拍/分
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
（人数）
心拍数 （拍/分）
女子（125名） 平均心拍数：167.3±11.7 拍/分
図１ 男子学生と女子学生の階段‐ＨＲの分布  
 
100
120
140
160
180
200
6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46
階
段
-Ｈ
Ｒ
（
拍
/分
）
脚伸展パワー（W/kg）
図２ 男子学生における脚伸展パワーと階段‐ＨＲの関係  
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
階
段
-Ｈ
Ｒ
（
拍
/分
）
脚伸展パワー（W/kg）
図３ 女子学生における脚伸展パワーと階段‐ＨＲの関係  
 
ｒ=-0.257＊＊ 
ｒ=-0.247＊ 
3
東京工芸大学工学部紀要 Vol. 35 No.1（2012） 
 
100
120
140
160
180
200
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
階
段
-Ｈ
Ｒ
（
拍
/分
）
垂直跳び（cm）
図４ 男子学生における垂直跳びと階段‐ＨＲの関係  
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46
階
段
-Ｈ
Ｒ
（
拍
/分
）
垂直跳び（cm）
図５ 女子学生における垂直跳びと階段‐ＨＲの関係  
考 察 
本研究では、大学キャンパス内の 181 段の階段を
利用して、階段-HR と下肢筋パワーの関係について
調べた。 
本結果において、男子学生と女子学生それぞれの
階段-HR は、広範囲に分布することが示された（図
１）。このことは、ビルの７～８階に相当する 181
段の階段昇りの身体負担度には、大きな個人差があ
ることを意味している。この個人差は、Teh と Aziz6)
が開発した Stair-climb Test からも明らかなように、
各被験者の心臓呼吸系機能の差を反映しているも
のと思われる。しかし、階段昇りは鉛直方向への体
重移動を伴う動作であるから、同じ階段を昇ったと
しても、仕事（体重）や機械的効率（身長）11)など
が個々人によって異なるので、これらの物理的な要
因も階段-HR の個人差の原因となりうる。加えて、
階段を昇るスピードの差も階段-HR の個人差の原
因として挙げられる。特に昇るスピードの差は、心
拍数に強く影響を及ぼすことが報告されている 12)～
17) 。本研究では、階段昇りのテンポ（105 ステップ
/分）を一定にしたので、この階段昇りのスピード
の要因は除外できる。他に階段-HR の個人差の要因
として、除脂肪体重 18)、筋断面積あたりの筋力 19)、
筋線維間の脂肪蓄積量 20)などの身体的要因も考え
られる。 
このように、今回の階段-HR の個人差には、心臓
呼吸系機能だけではなく物理的要因と身体的要因
が複雑に絡み合って影響していることが推測され
る。それにも係らず、下肢筋パワーと階段-HR の関
係には、有意な負の相関（ｒ＝-0.211～-0.354）が示
された。このことから階段-HR には、物理的・身体
的要因よりも下肢の筋機能の方が強く影響してい
ることが推測される。木村ら 9) は、男女間の階段
-HR の差は体重差でも無く、身長差でも無く、除脂
肪体重差でも無く、脚の筋出力の機能的な差である
と示唆した。このことは、まさしく本結果を裏付け
るものである。 
本研究結果は、階段昇りの心拍数は、心臓呼吸系
の機能と併せて下肢の筋出力の機能を反映してい
ることを示唆している。 
したがって、日常生活動作の中に階段昇りを取り
入れることは、心臓呼吸系機能および下肢筋機能の
体力の診断として利用できること、また、それらの
機能を維持・増進するための体力トレーニングとし
て有用であることを意味している。 
まとめ 
本研究結果では、大学キャンパス内の屋外の 181
段の階段を利用して、階段-HR と下肢筋パワーの関
係ついて調べた。被験者は、男子学生 322 名（18.5
±0.6 歳）、女子学生 125 名（18.5±0.6 歳）であった。 
男子学生と女子学生それぞれにおいて、階段-HR
と脚伸展パワー関係および階段-HR と垂直跳び関
係に有意な負の相関（ｒ＝－0.211～－0.354）が示
された。これらの結果は、心臓呼吸系の機能を反映
している階段-HR が、下肢の筋機能に強く影響され
ることを示唆している。 
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4
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19) Kanehisa H., Ikegawa S. and Fukunaga T. : 
Comparison of muscle cross-sectional area and 
strength between untrained women and men. Eur.J. 
Appl. Physiol. 68:148-154, 1994 
20) 中川喜直、服部正明、原田邦明、坂東道夫、岡
野五郎： 1H-MRS 法によるヒト骨格筋内の脂
肪量と性差，体組成，全身持久力との関係，体
力科学，52:149-158，2003 
 
5


Influence of leg muscle power on heart rate in ascending stairs

20KJ00007823439作品Workdepartmental bulletin pape

大津, はつね

2971

オオツ, ハツネ

OHTSU, Hatsune

2972


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表紙のことば

作品(中扉)

17KJ00007823379作品Workdepartmental bulletin pape

吉野, 弘章

2965

ヨシノ, ヒロアキ

YOSHINO, Hiroaki

2966

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Non-Fixed Point Observation

24KJ00007823519作品Workdepartmental bulletin pape

三浦, 剛

2979

ミウラ, ツヨシ

MIURA, Tsuyoshi

2980

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CD Jacket Design "Z3 DRIVE MUSIC"

14KJ00008629719レビューReviewdepartmental bulletin pape

岡野, 光俊

1370

オカノ, ミツトシ

Okano, Mitsutoshi

1371

Harvesting electric energy from plants -Polymer electrolyte fuel cells using the ingredients of phloem saps-

3KJ00008966839論文Articledepartmental bulletin pape

重光, 由加

1882

シゲミツ, ユカ

植野, 義明

1883

ウエノ, ヨシアキ

松本, 里香

1884

マツモト, リカ

Shigemitsu, Yuka

1885

Ueno, Yoshiaki

1886

Matsumoto, Rika

1887

A Review of Liberal Arts Education at a University level through an Omnibus Lecture series "Modern Society and People A & B" (Part 6 )

6KJ00008966899論文Articledepartmental bulletin pape

星野, 芳恵

3167

ホシノ, ハナエ

Hoshino, Hanae

1891

* Part-time lecturer, General Education and Research Center, Tokyo Polytechnic University 
 Received Sept. 14, 2012 
 
Developing Fluency in English Speaking 
 
For Japanese English Learners  
 
Hanae Hoshino* 
 
 
Abstract 
The purpose of this paper is to show the significance of developing fluency in spoken English based on the 
latest Japanese results of TOEFL speaking scores. There has been a lot of discussion concerning what 
would be useful in developing fluency in spoken English. Previous research has revealed some definitions 
of fluency that can be helpful for exploring how to develop fluency in spoken English; these definitions can 
be useful for both English teachers and Japanese English learners. For Japanese English learners, how to 
exploit English learning techniques and the English learning environment are vital factors for developing 
fluency in spoken English. 
 
Why fluency is important 
Developing fluency in English speaking is one of the most fundamental subjects Japanese English 
learners need to work on. 
 There has been a lot of discussion about how students and teachers should improve fluency in the 
classroom. One of the English proficiency tests, TOEFL, (Test of English as a Foreign Language), indicates 
the current situation of speaking for Japanese English learners. According to the internet-based TOEFL test 
data for 2010 released by Educational Testing Service, Japanese results of TOEFL iBT speaking show that 
Japan has the lowest mean score among 33 Asian countries (p. 10).  
The speaking section of TOEFL measures one’s speaking ability in academic settings. It includes 6 
questions. The first two questions are called “Independent Speaking tasks” because test takers are asked 
about their own experiences and opinions. The other four questions are called “Integrated Speaking tasks” 
because questions are integrated with reading and listening ability both in and outside the classroom.  
According to ETS, each of the six tasks is rated from 0 to 4. The sum is converted to a scaled score of 
0 to 30. Independent and integrated speaking rubrics are as follows (TOEFL® iBT, 2004):  
 
Rubrics for a score of 4 for independent speaking: 
(1) General description    
The response fulfills the demands of the task, with at most minor lapses in completeness. It is highly 
intelligible and exhibits sustained, coherent discourse.  
(2) Delivery                
Generally well-paced flow (fluid expression). Speech is clear. It may include minor lapses, or minor 
difficulties with pronunciation or intonation patterns, which do not affect overall intelligibility. 
(3) Language Use 
The response demonstrates effective use of grammar and vocabulary. It exhibits a fairly high degree of 
automaticity with good control of basic and complex structures (as appropriate). Some minor (or 
systematic) errors are noticeable but do not obscure meaning. 
52
ACADEMIC REPORTS Fac. Eng. Tokyo Polytech. Univ. Vol. 35 No.2 (2012) 
  
(4) Topic development  
Response is sustained and sufficient to the task. It is generally well developed and coherent; 
relationships between ideas are clear (or clear progression of ideas). 
 
Rubrics for a score of 4 for integrated speaking: 
(1) General description 
The response fulfills the demands of the task, with at most minor lapses in completeness. It is highly 
intelligible and exhibits sustained, coherent discourse. 
(2) Delivery 
Speech is generally clear, fluid, and sustained. It may include minor lapses or minor difficulties with 
pronunciation or intonation. Pace may vary at times as the speaker attempts to recall information. 
Overall intelligibility remains high. 
(3) Language Use 
The response demonstrates good control of basic and complex grammatical structures that allow for 
coherent, efficient (automatic) expression of relevant ideas. Contains generally effective word choice. 
Though some minor (or systematic) errors or imprecise use may be noticeable, they do not require 
listener effort (or obscure meaning).  
(4) Topic development 
The response presents a clear progression of ideas and conveys the relevant information required by 
the task. It includes appropriate details, though it may have minor errors or minor omissions. 
 
Those rubrics for speaking do not use the word “fluency”. It is feasible that the word “fluency” itself is 
too vague to define; however, one can say that fluency is linked to each category.   
The internet-based TOEFL test data for 2010 neither shows which question types nor which speaking 
scoring category are particularly weak for Japanese test takers, but when one focuses on reading and 
listening mean scores, Japan does not show the lowest score among the 33 Asian countries. From this brief 
data it is logical to suggest that there is more room for Japanese test takers to work on their fluency in 
speaking.   
 
Definitions of fluency 
Fluency in speaking has been discussed by many researchers but there is no single definition. 
Segalowitz (2010, p. 4) claimed that “Clearly, the natural language term fluency is not well defined.” 
However, Segalowitz stated that “One could examine that fact that in other languages, including English, 
there is a conceptual metaphor underlying the meaning of fluency, namely that “language is motion” 
(Kaponen and Riggenbach, 2000). In other words the word “fluency” originally had the meaning of 
movement or flow. Segalowitz also repeated the idea of Fillmore (1979) saying fluency consisted of these 
four abilities:  
one is the ability to talk at length with a minimum of pauses. The second is the ability to package the 
message easily into “semantically dense” sentences without recourses to lots of filler material (for 
example, “you know,” “the thing is that,” etc.). The third is the ability to speak appropriately in 
different kinds of social contexts and situations, meeting the special communicative demands each 
may have. The fourth is the ability to use the language creatively and imaginatively by expressing 
53Developing Fluency in English Speaking 
 ideas in new ways, to use humor, to make puns, to use metaphors, and so on.  
 
Segalowitz pointed out that those four belonged to different categories and must be “delivered with 
appropriate timing within the ever-evolving communicative situation; in this sense all four, as examples of 
kinds of fluency, are based on a temporal flow in the use of language” (p. 4). Also, fluency is related to 
intonation in the language learners speak. This means that “intonation is an integral part of the English 
language and that fluent nonnative speakers have acquired it” (Wennerstrom, 2000, p. 102).  
Meanwhile, Pawley and Syder explained two linguistic capacities: nativelike selection and nativelike 
fluency; they explained this in order to elaborate ideas of what is going on behind fluency. Nativelike 
selection was defined as “the ability of the native speaker routinely to convey his meaning by an expression 
that is not only grammatical but also nativelike (p. 191). Nativelike fluency is “the native speaker’s ability 
to produce fluent stretches of spontaneous connected discourse” (p. 191). “Fluent and idiomatic control of 
a language rests to a considerable extent on knowledge of a body of ‘sentence stems’ which are 
‘institutionalized’ or ‘lexicalized’” ( p. 191). Pawley and Syder added that the stock of lexicalized sentence 
stems mastered by mature ordinary English speakers is hundreds of thousands. More specifically, they gave 
an example of a 70 year old New Zealand man recalling his familys circumstances at the outbreak of WW
Ⅱ by paraphrasing his narrative. As a result, his narrative became grammatical but generally unnatural. 
That means language learners who want to make their language nativelike should “learn not only a 
generative grammar as this term is usually understood – a set of rules specifying all and only the sentences 
of the language (p. 194); they also advocated that language learners should “learn a means for knowing 
which of the well-formed sentences are nativelike—a way of distinguishing those usages that are normal or 
unmarked from those that are unnatural or highly marked” (p. 194). Furthermore, Lennon said “More 
advanced learners will usually, however, start to automatize ready-made chunks of language so as to ease 
processing loads (p. 28). Thus, it seems that to improve fluency, one should consider how learners acquire 
the ability to control their language system using a nativelike stock of lexicalized sentences with 
appropriate intonations. 
 
How to develop fluency in English speaking 
To improve a learner’s fluency, teachers can combine a teaching technique which takes into account 
the features of fluency. Developing fluency requires the following conditions, according to Nation and 
Newton (2009):  
1.  The activity is meaning-focused. The learners’ interest is on the communication of a message and 
is subject to the “real time” pressures and demands of normal meaning-focused communication (Brumfit, 
1984, pp. 56-57). 
2.  The learners take part in activities where all the language items are within previous experience. 
This means that the learners work with largely familiar topics and types of discourse making use of known 
vocabulary and structures. These activities are called “experience tasks” because the knowledge required to 
do the activity is already well within learners’ experience.  
3.  There is support and encouragement for the learner to perform at a higher than normal level. This 
means that in an activity with a fluency development goal, learners should be speaking and comprehending 
faster, hesitating less, and using larger planned chunks than they do in their normal use of language. A  
fluency development activity provides some deliberate push to the high level of performance often by 
using time pressure.   
54 ACADEMIC REPORTS Fac. Eng. Tokyo Polytech. Univ. Vol. 35 No.2 (2012) 
 Regarding 1, setting “real time” pressure seems vital. Nation and Newton wrote, in this context:  
“Fluency occurs because the learner is in control of the system of the language and can use a variety of 
efficient, well-connected, and well-practised paths to the wanted item” (p. 157).  Nation and Newton 
introduced activities which put an emphasis on repetition and rehearsal. They called these activities 
discreet activities (p. 161). Nation and Newton also suggested: 4/3/2 techniques, the best recording, an ask 
and answer technique, and rehearsed talks.  
4/3/2 technique requires pair work: one student is the speaker and the other is the listener. First, a 
speaker speaks for 4 minutes on a topic and then switches to listener and the other student speaks for 3 
minutes and then the listener and speaker again switch and the new speaker speaks for 2 minutes using the 
same information used for a four minute speech. Within diminishing time frames, learners organize their 
ideas better and process the information faster because of the time constraint.  
The best recording method is done in a language laboratory. The speaker talks to the microphone to 
record his speech and other learners give him feedback as to how it could be better. Based on the feedback, 
the learner records his talk and repeats it until he is satisfied with the recording. As for rehearsed talks, the 
learner rehearses a talk with a partner first, then in a small group and ultimately speaks in front of the class.  
All these activities focus on repetition and rehearsal and provide enough opportunities to reflect on 
students’ speaking. Also, the more learners speak, the better they become because they are given a chance 
to perform in a rather objective way.  
Nation and Newton also wrote about an ask and answer technique advocated by Simcock (1993), 
which is an activity followed by reading. Learners ask their partners questions about a teacher-prepared 
reading after they comprehend the text to a high level. Answers include a summary of the reading to 
promote their fluency. This could be a good way to practice chunk phrases often used by native speakers. 
At the end, learners can give presentations after rehearsing the speech in pairs.  
When one takes into account the English learning environment in Japan, those 3 methods can be used 
for learners from beginning to advanced. For advanced learners, setting time limitations and recording 
methods can be used for people who want to speak English in academic and business settings. As to 4/3/2, 
teachers could have beginners memorize model dialogues and then practice them within a more limited 
time frame. Each student could correct his or her partner’s speech during practice. Teachers could ask some 
pairs to demonstrate in front of the class to check the points they think students should correct. After 
teachers correct students’ mistakes, students can do the practice again until the model dialogues are their 
own. This can be used not only in the latter part of the lesson but also at the beginning of the lesson to 
review the previous lesson.  
The best recording methods can be effective to make learners aware of how they speak English. It’s 
often the case that Japanese English learners have a problem speaking English with appropriate 
pronunciation, stress, and intonation even though they think they are speaking correctly. The best recording 
method gives students the opportunity to realize their own weakness in pronunciation. Proper feedback 
helps Japanese English learners understand the difference in producing sounds in Japanese and English. 
Teachers could encourage students to record their English speech for practice using digital gadgets such as 
mobile phones and iPhones.  
An “ask and answer” technique might be challenging for beginners; however, teachers can use rather 
short stories written for native English speakers to provide some examples of the technique so that learners 
can know what they are supposed to acquire through the practice. It is particularly crucial for Japanese 
English learners to develop fluency practice focusing on repetition because the Japanese sound system is 
55Developing Fluency in English Speaking 
 different from that of English. For Japanese English learners, developing fluency is not only knowledge 
about language; students must also have physical exercise in the way to produce English sounds. For that 
purpose, these 3 methods can be used in the classroom learning environment. Also teachers need to speak 
in English even when the course focuses on single skills such as listening, reading, and writing. By 
accumulating this practice from the beginning of English learning, learners could be more comfortable in 
speaking English and be aware that developing fluency in English is not done only in speaking classes. 
That will help Japanese English learners to acquire native-like selection and native-like fluency because 
English knowledge is intertwined with the act of speaking.  
 
Conclusions 
To summarize, there is no single definition for English language fluency; however, fluency has a 
conceptual meaning of the language in motion. To flow smoothly, speaking should be delivered with 
appropriate timing within appropriate situations, and the speaker should try to speak with a minimum of 
pauses and convey messages semantically dense in a creative way with proper intonation. More 
importantly, language learners should acquire the ability to convey meaning that is not just grammatically 
correct but nativelike. To do that, language learners should be able to produce fluent stretches of 
spontaneous connected discourse considering sentence stems which are institutionalized or lexicalized. 
That means a grammatically correct sentence doesn’t necessarily link to one’s fluency. Starting to 
automatize ready-made chunks of language can also show one’s fluency. Achieving fluency in listening, 
reading and writing English is not as simple as it seems, taking into account all the considerations above.  
Having considered the discussions on fluency, English language learners could definitely use those 
learning techniques to approach language with repetition practice with the knowledge they have learned. 
These techniques could be used actively in the language classroom as well as by setting limited times and 
setting even higher goals in the language learning process. Speaking is more transient than the other three 
language skills; (listening, reading, and writing.) Therefore, recording helps learners to perceive their own 
speaking in an objective way. With this practice, language learners need others’ feedback and enough 
reflection in each learning opportunity. TOEFL should be the test to measure one’s ability of English in an 
academic setting; however, Japanese learners should be able to speak English at academic institutions at 
English spoken countries after 6 years of English learning at school before they get into college. Fluency 
can be learned at any level of learning. As Nation stated, practicing speaking with reading, that is to say, 
integrated with other skills, can be applied without any equipment installed in the classroom. Learners can 
also spend much more time on exploring genuine expressions from readings which would help them 
automatize ready-made chunks to improve fluency. Curriculums which put emphasis on learner’s speaking 
fluency are necessary and should be designed. Given all these, it is possible that Japanese English learners 
can be more comfortable speaking English fluently and can get better scores in the TOEFL. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
56 ACADEMIC REPORTS Fac. Eng. Tokyo Polytech. Univ. Vol. 35 No.2 (2012) 
  
References 
 
ETS, Educational Testing Service (2011). TOEFL® Test and Score Data Summary for TOEFL 
Internet-based and Paper-based Tests: 2010 Test Data (TOEFL-SUM-10) 
http://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/TOEFL-SUM-2010.pdf. 
ETS, Educational Testing Service (2004). TOEFL® iBT Speaking Section Scoring Guide 
http://www.ets.org/Media/Tests/TOEFL/pdf/Speaking_Rubrics.pdf. 
Lennon, P. (2000). The Lexical Element in Spoken Second Language Fluency. In Heidi Riggenbach (Ed.) 
Perspectives on Fluency, (pp. 25-42). Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan.  
Nation, I. S. P. & Newton, J. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking. New York: Routledge. 
Pawley, A., & Syder, F. (1983). Two Puzzles for Linguistic Theory: Native-like Selection and Native-like 
Fluency. In J. Richards & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and Communication (pp. 191-226). London: 
Longman.  
Segalowitz, N. (2010). Cognitive Bases of Second Language Fluency. New York: Routledge. 
Wennerstrom, A. (2000). The Role of Intonation in Second Language Fluency. In Heidi Riggenbach (Eds.) 
Perspectives on Fluency (pp. 102-127). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 
 
57Developing Fluency in English Speaking 


Developing Fluency in English Speaking For Japanese English Learners

8KJ00008629559論文Articledepartmental bulletin pape

八代, 盛夫

1339

ヤシロ, モリオ

平賀, 美奈子

1340

ヒラガ, ミナコ

YASHIRO, Morio

1341

HIRAGA, Minako

1342

Theoretical Study on Estimation of Weak Coordination Bond between Various Ligands and Zn2+, an Essential Element in Biological Systems

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