Journal Phasis - Greek and Roman Studies

Tsanava, Rusudan

Phasis 5-6, 2003 
Rusudan Tsanava (Tbilisi) 
MARRYING A KING'S DAUGHTER 
Marrying a king‟s daughter and, subsequently, gaining the governing authori-
ty within the kingdom is one of the ways of obtaining the superlative position. 
This model is so popular and distinguished that it often serves as a tradi-
tional plot-story for various people‟s fairy-tales. Though, beyond the see-
mingly romantic story we could notice a very "strict" ritual, which will be 
described below. 
Let‟s discuss different variations of the ancient Greek mythoritual model 
– "Obtaining a wife". It is a common knowledge that there are various myths 
and legends created on the ground of analogy with the "major", "initial" myth. 
In this way, a whole kaleidoscope of resembling stories is being gradually 
formed. And further, applying the methods of excluding and summarizing this 
variety is brought down to one restricted story, which could be conditionally 
called an archetype model, using the terminology of Jung. 
As we mentioned above, seeking hand in marriage and obtaining govern-
ing authority in such myths are equivalent to each other. Marrying a king‟s 
daughter means capturing authority. Here we come to describing the central 
image-symbols of this mythoritual model:   
1. The Father of a bride 2. A youth seeking hand in marriage.  
Both these symbols are related to capturing power. The former acknowl-
edges that by letting his daughter get married he looses the throne, while the 
latter, on the contrary, having obtained the desired woman, seizes the throne. 
The Model of the Father 
Oenomaus reigned in Peloponesos, Pisa city in Elis. He was the son of Ares 
and Asterope, daughter of Atlas. He got famous for his wonderful herds of 
 Rusudan Tsanava  
 
206 
horses,
1
 gift of Ares himself. Oenomaus had several sons but they have only 
nominal function in the myth, and a daughter Hippodameia
2
 – the "horse ta-
mer". The king didn‟t want his daughter to get married. There were two dif-
ferent reasons according to the versions: Oenomaus either desired to marry 
his daughter himself, or had been warned by an oracle that he would die by 
the hand of the man who married her. Hippodameia‟s father competed with 
fiancés in carriage racing. Oenomaus used to kill the defeated fiancés, cut 
their heads and extremities, neil them over the door of his palace leaving the 
bodies unburied.This way the king had disposed of twelve or thirteen rivals 
for his daughter‟s hand. Finally Pelops beat him.  
Danaos – was a descendant of Io from Argos – the fourth generation. He 
was obstinately against marring his daughters to his nephews – sons of Ae-
gyptus. Danaos escaped with his 50 daughters from Egypt to Argos. Danaos 
ran away to Argos in approxiately the same period when his cousin – Cadmos 
arrived in Greece. Cadmos was looking for his sister – Europa and Danaos 
accompanied his daughters and sought a shelter in Argos. According to one 
version of the myth, Danaos had claimed the legal right to Argos‟ throne as a 
descendant of Io from Argos. The discussion over this issue was scheduled 
for the next day. But a very strange thing happened that very night. A wolf 
that ran out of the forest rushed into the Argos‟ cattle and ripped into pieces 
the leader of cattle herd. Argos‟ people considered that this was the divine 
sign and gave the throne to Danaos. 
The compulsory marriage of Danaos‟ daughters to the sons of Aegyptus 
had a tragical end. The girls took their father‟s side and killed their husbands 
                                                             
1
  The horse is one of the central figures of mythoritual. Mural paintings of wild horses of the Ice 
Age have been found on cave walls. Presumably the horse was domesticated in the IV mille-
nium BC in East Europe or Central Asia (Hans Biedermann. Knaurs Lexikon der Symbole 
1996). The overall Indo-European similarity of the root of the word "horse" is identified in all 
dialects. There are certain proofs of faith and imagination regarding the horse. In  the ancient 
Greek tradition the horse appears in the texts of the Mycenaean period. The horse is a ritual an-
imal and its cult is symbolized by a particular goddess. In Mycenae they called this goddess 
"Horses‟ Lady". Гамкрелидзе Т. В. Иванов Вяч. Вс. Индоевропейский язык и 
индоевропейцы, Т. II Тб. 1984: 550. The horse is an animal for the  sacrifice ritual. This mo-
ment was very important in the burial rituals. The horse generally is assumed to have a "trans-
ferring role" and has death semantics. Being an sacrificial animal, its parts possess a big power. 
The horse is also a "Helper". Пропп В.Я. Исторические корни волшебной сказки. Л. 
1946:152-163. The horse portrayals and  skulls were believed to be powarful amulets. 
2
  Hippodameia is associated with the cult of the horse. This connection is not limited to the 
etymology of the name. The fiancés were obliged to win in carriage racing. Myrtilos, the faith-
ful coachman of her father was in love with Hippodameia. He betrayed his master under the 
sole condition that he would have been granted the right of first night with Hippodameia. And 
finally, Hippodameia is the person who establishes the annual sports competition dedicated to 
Hera. 
Marrying a King's Daughter 
 
207 
on the night of the marriage. Only one daughter betrayed the father preferring 
the husband.  
50 daughters are 50 priestesses of the highest deity, i. e. a huge force 
enabling Danaos to prove to the people of Argos that their appearance is a 
divine sign and will. According to the myth the establishment of Demeter‟s 
cult and Thesmophoria festival in Argos is connected to Danaids‟ name.  
Tyndareus – the king of Sparta, Leda‟s husband. Leda was the partner 
both of Zeus and Tyndareus simultaneously. With these two partners, she had 
two twins – Helen and Clytemnestra, Polydeuces and Castor. Out of these 
twins Helen and Polydeuces are considered to have been conceived by Zeus 
and Clytemnestra and Castor – by Tyndareus. Although Tindareus patronized 
all of them equally.  
Helen‟s fiancés gathered in Sparta. Tyndareus wanted to avoid distur-
bance and following Odysseus‟ advice, dismembered the horse. Then he 
made fiancés stand on horse parts and swear that they would cause no trouble 
to each other in case of defeat. Afterwards, when Menelaos got Helen‟s hand, 
he became governor of Sparta.  
 The story on Adratos, king of Argos, can also be viewed in the same "Fa-
ther‟s Model". He had two marriageable daughters, of whom an oracle told 
him to give one daughter to a lion and the other to a boar. When Adratos no-
ticed Polyneices and Tydeus with lion and boar emblems respectively, he 
understood the meaning of the oracle. He did not object to their marriage, 
moreover, he even tried to help these two heroes during the competition 
process. 
If we consider the Argonaut myth very carefully, we shall find that Aeetes 
also fits into the "Father‟s Model". Aeetes tries to give Jason very hard tasks. 
He sends Apsyrtus to persue the kidnapped sister and tries to get his daughter 
back. We could look at some other samples: e.g. Teukros has his daughter 
Batia marry to Dardanus of Krete (or Samothraky) and leaves the throne to 
him. Also, Eneas from Troy got married to Lavinia and received the kingdom 
of Italy. 
We could call up other samples from ancient myths, but I think that an 
additional material wouldn‟t add to the concept. 
The model of the Fiancé 
Pelops – son of Tantalos – sought hand of Hippodameia, Oenomaus‟ daugh-
ter. This is the very Pelops dismembered, boiled up and presented to Gods by 
his father. Pelops revived due to Gods‟ will who have supported him after-
wards as well. Pelops is a hero with "sign". His right shoulder was made of 
ivory. All his descendants had a white sign on their right shoulder. 
 Rusudan Tsanava  
 
208 
Pelops was under Poseidon‟s protection. Poseidon presented him the gol-
den chariot drawn by winged steeds. Pelops overcame the sea
3
 and the earth 
with this carriage. He reached Peloponesos from Asia Minor (Lydia or Phry-
gia) and competed with Oenomaus in carriage racing. 
Pelops won the victory himself or was helped by someone else (Myrtilios 
– the Oenomaus‟s charioteer, a son of Hermes ) and, subsequently, he got 
Hippodameia.
4
 Later Pelops subdued most of the rest of the peninsula and 
named to Peloponnesus. Previously the region was called Apia. 
Agamemnon and Menelaos are descendants of Pelops and they also are 
fiancés seeking a throne. But they do not have to fight against their future 
father-in-laws. Menelaos got Helen‟s hand and throne after competing with 
other fiancés.  
Sons of Aegyptus are also known as fiancés who strive to marry Danaides 
and subsequently, reinforce their real power and win the Gods‟ sympathy.  
I propose that Jason is also a "seeking" fiancé. See below why: 
Jason‟s goal is to get the throne. To reach this goal he has to fulfill a task 
– to capture the golden fleece. According to the popular version, Medea is 
helping Jason in the fulfillment of this task. She, actually, facilitated the cap-
ture of the golden fleece and accompanied Jason to Greece. The main thing is 
that the action in the myth follows a strict logic. If Jason had no need in Me-
dea, he could have left her like Theseus abandoned Ariadne.
5
 According to 
rules of myth the "supporting hero" disappears from the action as soon as 
he/she fulfills his/her function.
6
 But Medea accompanied Jason to Greece and 
gave birth to his children. 
Now let us consider the logic of this myth: 
Jason arrived to Colchis and fulfilled Aeetes‟ tasks: yoked the team, 
ploughed the valley, and killed the giants that grew from the dragon‟s teeth. 
Giving the task, that is the model of examining is incorporated into the story 
of "looking for" fiancés. The extract of seeking hand of a woman who betrays 
her father also belongs to the line of the same stories. 
                                                             
3
  Ships of Phoenicians furrowed the Mediterranean Sea from the ancient times. The small size 
ships were called "horses", because  the top and backside of the ships were decorated by heads 
of horses. Циркин Ю. Мифы Финикии и Угарита, М. 200:12. 
4
  Hippodameia is a correlate of Hera. see  Robert Graves. The Greek Myths. Transl to Rus. 
1992: 301. 
5
  Ariadne has provided the same assistance to Theseus as Medea has done to Jason. If not for the 
ball of threads, Theseus wouldn‟t have been able to overcome the labyrinth. It is also important 
that both ladies are supporting the heroes to solve the buffalo related problems. These two la-
dies, who have betrayed their fathers, are relatives. Ariadne is Medea‟s cousin. 
6
  See: Joseph Campbell. The Hero with a Thousand Faces.Transl. to Rus. 1997; Claude Levi-
Strauss. Mythologiques. Le Cru et le Cuit. Transl. to Rus. 2000; Пропп 1946. 
Marrying a King's Daughter 
 
209 
Jason had an opportunity to marry Medea and settle in Colchis, but he 
went to Greece and continued struggle for the throne. In fact Jason could not 
reach the satisfactory result by obtaining the golden fleece. He couldn‟t get 
the kingdom of his father – Aeson. The kingdom was ruled over by the 
daughters of Pelias. Jason left for Corinth seeking for the throne. I think this 
is exactly where the archaic version of the myth circles. Why? According to 
Corinthian version of the Argonaut myth, Corinth was assigned under Aeetes 
authority and his descendants had all rights for getting the throne.
7
 Hence, 
according to the Corinthian version Medea is a legal ruler of the Corinth 
kingdom. It should not be excluded, that Euripides made an allusion to this 
version in his "Medea."  
In Euripides tragedy the king
8
 has nominated Jason as his daughter‟s fiancé. 
Jason wants to receive the desired throne through marring the princess.  
Now we shell try to summarize. 
On Peloponesos (also in different regions of Greece: e.g. Boeotia) in an an-
cient period the throne assignment was inherited through maternal line. "The 
Princesses" (the same as "Queens" e.g. Jokasta, Helen, Clytemnestra) became 
priestess and hypostaces of the supreme Goddess. They had the right to rule 
the weather, regulate the fruit growing, ensuring the sympathy of the God-
dess. As to the priestess‟ partners that is their husbands, initially they had 
only nominal rights. These partners were even substituted after the lapse of 
time or due to unaccomplished responsibilities. It is proposed that priestess‟ 
male partners were offered to Deity as a divine partners of "Great Mothers" 
(Tamuz, Adonis, Jason…). The echo of this mythoritual model must be re-
flected in Danaides myth that killed their husbands. Clytemnestra, also, kills 
and dismembers her husband. She thinks that she sacrifices Agamemnon to 
Deity.
 
Male
9
 throne keepers, apparently, were very tense and sometimes re-
sorted to use "substitution" tool and instead of themselves offered the Deity 
their first child, for example: Tantalos – Pelops, Agamemnon – Iphigenia, 
Aeetes – Apsyrtos… or another close relative. Some examples of self-
sacrifices were also witnessed. 
Numerous myths have reached our times stating about fathers‟ attempts to 
lock their marriageable daughters into the castles and underground just to 
                                                             
7
  A. Urushadze, Ancient Kolchis in the Myth of Argonauts (in Georgian). Tbilisi 1964: 21-22. 
8
  It may be intentional that the name of king is Creon in the tragedy. The fact is that readers of 
Theban tragedies have the impression that there was a temporary governor under the name 
Creon. We can say that Creon "fill in the gap" between two legal governors. 
9
  See Frazer G.G. The Golden Bough.Transl. to Rus. 1980. 
 Rusudan Tsanava  
 
210 
avoid the hated competitors, future son-in-laws pretending to get the throne.
10
 
As we have stated above, at the end father is forced to set a competition to 
identify a fiancé. The king competes with the fiancé himself or fiancés are 
competing with one another. 
It is identified that the competition is an ancient ritual and it continues the 
ritual of burying. All Greek "game"– competitions starting from Olympic and 
ending with Heraee, were dedicated to the death of a certain hero and served 
to perpetuate his name. 
The scientists had paid their attention to a most interesting fact: sportsmen 
move against the Sun and counter-clockwise at stadiums even nowadays. The 
same thing happens on hippodromes, car racing and cycle track. There is no 
doubt that the contemporary competitions are based on the old traditions. It is 
also known that in the mythoritual language movement against the Sun has 
the death semantics. This is proved by the ancient texts from Greece, India 
and Hittite. E. Gardiner
 
investigated the relation between competition and a 
burying ritual. Horse carriage racing has the same semantics.
11
  
 Scientist can not name the date of the foundation of the competition. But 
they regard it as an ancient ritual conceived in the ancient epoch.The competi-
tion ritual is universal as is evidenced in lifes and imaginations of various 
peoples of the world.
12
  
According to Pausanias the first carriage racing was held on Arkadiosis‟ 
son Azano‟s funeral in Greece (Paus. VIII 4.5). Starting from Homer, Greek 
writers used to describe sports competitions conducted after the burying rit-
ual. So, materials to analyze are numerous, and therefore, we shall stop here. 
Based of the material considered in the present paper, we come to the fol-
lowing conclusion: at the stage of social structure when the governing power 
was handed down through the maternal line, the struggle for obtaining the 
                                                             
10
  Gardiner E.W. Greek Athletic Sports and Fastivals. Lond. 1910. 
11
  Балoнов Ф. Р. Колесничные ристания как форма погребального жертвоприношения, В 
сб. Жертвоприношения, М. 2000. 
12
  It should be admitted that Ethiz ritual has found its way in The Knight in the Panther’s Skin.  If 
we consider the poem with regard to the myth model, we shall see there are two similar situa-
tions in the poem: the throne keepers had two beautiful daughters. One of them T‟hinat‟hin as-
cended the throne and needed a partner, while the other princess was locked in the castle.  In 
the first case a hunting competition was held between the king and the fiancé.  Actually in 
Arabia  the future status and the destiny of the kingdom was determined after that hunting 
competition of Rostevan  and Avt‟handil.  Proposing Avt‟handil as T‟hinat‟hin‟s husband and 
the throne keeper was a matter of time. 
As to  P‟harsadan‟s, he often competed with Tariel (though the results are concealed). He was 
expecing a fiancé from far away. This case is modeled after a different pattern: fiancés must 
struggle with each other to liberate and marry the beauty locked up in the castle and afterwards 
obtain the throne. 
Marrying a King's Daughter 
 
211 
throne was merciless and severe. This battle implied killing of the current/old 
throne keeper – which meant a ritual murder, e.g. sacrifice that was the neces-
sary requirement for the future well being of the social group. In honor of the 
murdered i. e. a sacrificial person, ritual competitions were held. This event 
finalized one circle of mythoritual spiral. Those moved by a strong desire of 
obtaining throne were involved in this severe circle until other principles and 
world outlines were established. These new principles can conditionally be 
called as a "Dynasty Serenity". But through this "Serenity" another fault and 
sin occurred. 


English

Marrying a King\u27s Daughter

Gagua, Iamze

Phasis 5-6, 2003
Iamze Gagua (Tbilisi)
THE MYTH OF ACTEON AND THE REASON FOR  OVIDIUS'
EXILE
As it is known Ovidius states that the poem „Ars amandi" and an incident of 
which he became an unintentional witness were the reasons for his exile. 
However, he does not specify the second reason. An extract from book II of 
„Tristia", where the poet draws parallel between the myth of Acteon and his 
tragedy, is worth being heeded.
cur aliquid vidi? cur noxia lumina feci?
cur imprudenti cognita culpa mihi?
inscius Actaeon vidit sine veste Dianam,
praede fuit canibus non minus ille suis,
scilicet in superis etiam fortuna luenda est,
nec veniam laeso numine cassus habet.
Tristia II, 103, 108-112
The extract further became a source of a lot of fantasy whether what the 
poet could have seen and to what he fell a victim.1 Why does the poet bring 
up the myth of Acteon in connection with the reasons for his misfortune? By 
what does his fate resemble Acteon's? Naivety would it be to think that the 
poet like Acteon had eyewitnessed a delicate scene. Here one thing is to be 
emphasized. For what did Acteon deserve his punishment and why was the 
Goddess angry with him? I think the extract from book III of „Metamor-
phoses", where the myth of Acteon is worked out, will answer the question.
Acteon and his companions were rambling through the woods to amuse 
themselves (non certis possibus errans – Met. III, 175) and quite occasionally 
they approached the Diana shrubbery and a beautiful cave where they found a 
wonderful sight – bathing Diana surrounded by the nymphs. On seeing Acteon 
they were startled. In vain were the nymphs trying to cover the naked Diana 
                                                            
1 See J. S. Tibault, The Mystery of Ovid's Exile, Berkelei, Los Angeles, 1964.
Iamze Gagua98
with their bodies. The Goddess was their superior in height and figure. Furi-
ous Diana splashed Acteon's face with water and addressed him so:
nunc tibi me posito visam velamine narres
si poteris narrare, licet...
Met. III, 192-193
The Goddess felt fear that he would disclose his seeing her naked. Diana 
threatens him by not giving him a chance to tell the story to anybody. She 
transforms Acteon and his companions. Turned into deer, i. e. punished by 
Diana, Acteon stands baffled, knowing nowhere to go, whether hide himself 
in the woods or to come back to the palace. He is suffering from fear and 
shame:
quid faciat? repetatne domum et regalia tecta
an leteat silvis? timor hoc, pudor impedit illud.
Met. III, 204-205
Ovidius thinks, that neither Acteon nor his companions are to be blamed. 
They have committed none of the crime; That was a mistake and they were 
destined for it.
et bene si quaeras fortunae crimen in illo
non scelus invenies, quod enim scelus error habebat.
Met. III, 141-142
Here is one more detail of some interest. At the end of the myth Ovidius 
points out that Acteon's misfortune gladdens Jupiter's wife, though she does 
not express it orally (Met. III, 256, 258).
Now Let us see how Ovidius' fate resembles Acteon's. I. Ovidius' guilt 
lies in his writing amusing, jocular verses. In his love elegies the poet wasted 
his talent and enjoyed himself (Tristia I, 62, II, 74, II, 313).
Acteon's guilt lies in the fact that for the sake of pleasure he was rambling 
through the woods where he came across the naked Goddess.
2. Ovidius was at his friend Cotta Maximus' holiday house when furious 
Augustus summoned him to his place. The confused and frightened poet did 
not know what answer to give to his friend who asked him if the evil rumours 
about his guilt were true (Ex Ponto II, 3, 8-88). Let us recollect confused Ac-
teon who did not know which path to take. He was overwhelmed with fear 
(timor) and shame (pudor). Ovidius mentions „timor" and „pudor" in connec-
tion with his tragedy in „Tristia" (III, 628, IV, 39).
4. Acteon's mischief gladdens Iuno whose earthly image is Livia. To put it 
mildly, she is not troubled by the tragedy of Ovidius, as she has not even tried 
to ease his punishment, to say nothing of her being the initiator of his exile.
The Myth of Acteon and the Reason for  Ovidius' Exile 99
5. The nymphs are trying to cover the naked Diana with their bodies, but 
they are not able to do this as the Goddess is their superior in height and fig-
ure. Augustus greatly tried to hide the scandalous histories of his daughter 
and granddaughter, but everybody was aware of everything, as the behaviour 
of the Prinsep's family – members, certainly, caught the public eye.
6. Acteon, turned-into a deer, is torn by his own friends turned-into dogs. 
And Ovidius, the same way, becomes the victim of his own verses.
In "Tristia" Ovidius continuous talking on his tragedies:
quo videar quamvis nimium iuvenaliter usus,
grande tamen tot nomen ab orbe fero,
turbaque doctorum Nasonem novit, et audet
non fastiditis ad numerare viris
corruit haec igitur Musis accepta, sub uno,
sed non exiguo crimine lapsa domus.
Tristis II, 117-122
Though the poet isolates his verses from the event to which he has fallen 
victim and which reminds him of Acteon's guilt, he unexpectedly declares 
that the reason for his tragedy is one thing, though of no insignificance. This 
allows us to infer that the reason for the exile of Ovidius is one that appears in 
various aspects. I think Acteon’s seeing naked Diana allegorically represents 
a Roman urban lifestyle full of luxury, which Ovidius sang of and which he 
was punished for. Ovidius was praising all against what Augustus was. The 
Prinsep wished the morality of his family members to be exemplary for the 
Romans, to make everybody sure in fairness of his reforms. But all his at-
tempts turned out vain.
Augustus was afraid that in his elegies Ovidius in his own manner would 
express the distress the Prinsep had endured owing to his Family members. 
The poet could by his habitual humour and hints (subtexts) show Augustus' 
failures in home affairs and compromise him in the eyes of the society, and 
that was partially reflected in his poems.
The poet sang for the Rome of the Augustus' period; he declared what he 
had seen. Irritated Augustus sentenced the poet to silence,2 the way Diana had 
done to Acteon. If we let Augustus speak by Diana's words, he threatened the 
poet: Go and boast of what you have seen i. e. Rome, not what Augustus 
wanted it to be – highly moral, but the way it was in reality and the way 
Ovidius described in his love elegies.
                                                            
2 Ch. Corten, Ovid, Augustus und der Kult der Vestalinnen (Studien zur klassisehen Literatur), 
Fran. am Main, Bern... Bd. 72, 191.


The Myth of Acteon and the Reason for Ovidius\u27 Exile

Metreveli, Medea

Phasis 5-6, 2003 
Medea Metreveli (Tbilisi)  
THE FUNCTION OF THE MYTHOLOGICAL FEMALE IMAGES 
IN THE BIG CHIMAERA – A NOVEL BY M. KARAGHATSIS 
M. Karaghatsis, who greatly contributed to modernization
1
 of the New Greek 
literature, is a representative of the generation of the 1930s. He transferred a 
number of issues relevant in his contemporary Europe into the context of the 
Greek reality and rendered them with quite a new interpretation. In 1953 his 
novel The Big Chimaera was published. It was a transformed version of his 
earlier story The Chimaera published in 1936 and developed into a novel. The 
Greek literary critics showed a rather controversial attitude towards the novel, 
determined by the moral image of the protagonist of the novel – Marina. Dis-
cussing Karaghatsis‟s works, the critics view mostly the preponderance of 
sexual aspect, but give no heed to quite a few interesting elements of the nov-
el. In our opinion, a special attention should be given to the unusual way 
the classical Greek tradition is interpreted in that work. Let us make a short 
review of the subject matter of the novel. A Greek sailor brings home from 
France Marina, a young girl, and marries her. Marina has experienced severe 
hardships in her past being a daughter of a prostitute. Still, she arrives in 
Greece with great hopes and expectations. Unfortunately, her life in the new 
country takes a dramatic turn. This was determined by a fatal step she under-
took at the time of her husband‟s absence. In fact, not being quite sure of the 
propriety of her step, she nevertheless spent a whole night aboard ship with its 
captain, a stranger… Since her absence caused the worsening of her child‟s 
health, Anna, her mother-in-law and Minas, her brother-in-law disclosed her 
behavior. They both became extremely indignant at her immorality. This is 
followed by her another fatal step. By mere chance, Marina leaves her ailing 
child on its own and spends the night having a love affair with her brother-in-
                                                             
1
  Μ. Καξαγάηζεο, Νεαληθά Γηεγήκαηα, Πξόινγνο ηνπ ΢ηξαηή Παζράιε, Αζήλα 1993, 9-17. 
 Medea Metreveli  
 
160 
law. That night her child dies. The moral burden of a perpetrated blunder 
proves unbearable for Minas who finally commits suicide. Marina, being 
pregnant from Minas, is incapable of withstanding public pressure and com-
mits suicide too. 
 Our interest is aimed at the manner the author introduces images of the 
Greek mythology in connection with Marina, and also at the function these 
images are burdened with. Let us go back to the episode of Marina‟s arrival in 
Greece. Setting foot on the land of Hellas, the woman states: "Different gods 
now govern my fate. The gods, who harshly tested Medea, Clytemnestra, 
Jokasta and Phaedra...I must cover my heart with steel in order to elevate my 
soul and its suffering. I must be ready up to the core of my breast. I have to be 
considered with the divine, all knowing, towering and, terrifying gods. With 
the gods of Greece."
2
 
 In our opinion, by bringing the mentioned images into the narrative, the 
author displays notable parallels between the fate of his protagonist and that 
of the mythological heroines. 
 As far as we know, in the literary criticism available, there is no special 
study devoted to functions of above-mentioned female images in the artistic 
structure of the novel. Apart from that, there is also one considerable episode 
in the novel where Marina is compared to Helen. Apparently, factual identifi-
cation of Marina with Helen has far-reaching artistic aims. Marina‟s likeness 
to Helen is revealed not only in their appearance, but also in the major result 
that their role implies: Marina destroyed the family she entered – in the same 
way as Helen destroyed Priam‟s family and Troy. An episode of our particu-
lar interest deals with the scene when Marina goes down into the city with her 
brother-in-law after visiting Acropolis. Catching sight of her, a group of el-
derly Athenians, sitting at the wall of Acropolis, suddenly repeat the words 
through which Trojan old men express their attitude towards Helen in front of 
Teichoscopia in the III song of Iliad, lines 156-160. In this case Karaghatsis 
represents Homer‟s text, word by word, in Old Greek: 




3 
                                                             
2
  Μ. Καξαγάηζεο, Μεγάιε Υίκαηξα, Αζήλα 2001, 46. 
3
  Μ. Καξαγάηζεο, Μεγάιε Υίκαηξα, 107.  
    "Small blame that Trojans and well-greaved Achaeans should for such a woman long time 
suffer woes; wondrously like is she to the immortal goddesses  to look upon. But even so, for 
all that she is such an one, let her depart upon the  ships, neither be left here to be a bare to us 
The Function of the Mythological Female Images 
 
161 
 The only difference is that after line 158 the author breaks off quoting 
Homer and describes how pleased Marina appears at so high esteem her 
beauty received. Yet, when the old men added 159-160 lines of Iliad, their 
words frightened and mortified her. She failed to make out the reason why the 
old people addressed her with those words: "Her heart is frozen. What does 
the old Greek mean? What relation does she have with the awful words which 
Homer puts into the mouths of the elders of Troy for Helen."
4
 
 We can see that the old Athenians, like their Trojan counterparts in Iliad, 
on the one hand are charmed by the young woman‟s beauty, but on the other 
hand, they cannot help noticing that her beauty can bring a series of misfor-
tunes. So, in fact, they urge her to leave the country. 
 Thus, with this passage the author point out that a drama she brings to 
Yannis‟s family will not be only the drama of a single Greek family, but it has 
a more generalized meaning. This is clearly shown by the author in the final 
of the novel where the death of Yannis‟ brother Minas, along with his family, 
reminds the scene of destruction that followed the Trojan War with the deaths 
of Hector and his family.  
 The female mythological images that Marina mentions in her above-cited 
monologue have a definite common aspect that unifies them with her. Conse-
cution of female names corresponds to the activities and deeds of the charac-
ter, as well as to the intensity of that unity with the image. 
In The Big Chimaera the likeness of Marina to Euripides‟s Medea is un-
derlined repeatedly. From Marina‟s reminiscences we learn that she had 
majored in classical philology and her thesis for the doctoral degree was dedi-
cated to the interpretation of the image of Medea. Marina remembers her 
words she addressed the examination commission members with on the day 
she defended her thesis: "Medea obsessed me. Is she, a woman, who out of 
jealous love murders her children, a psychopath? That is the question, which 
tyrannizes me. No, she is not a psychopath. If she were, she would not have 
inspired the genius of Euripides, who never pursues the themes of his tragedi-
es in a cycle of morbidness. Medea is a normal person, whose passion for lo-
ve obscures her logic, just like in each normal person. According to the mea-
ningless conclusion: a person who cannot feel such an emotion is not nor-
mal."
5
 We are supposed to conclude that driven by the desire to defend Me-
dea, she succeeded in reorienting the professors‟ initial skeptic attitude to-
wards the matter and was duly awarded the degree. We can state that from the 
                                                                                                                             
and to our children after us." (Homer, The Iliad, with an English translation by A.T. Murray, 
Cambridge, Massachusetts 1924).   
4
   Μ. Καξαγάηζεο, Μεγάιε Υίκαηξα, 107-108 
5
  Μ. Καξαγάηζεο, Μεγάιε Υίκαηξα, 24. 
 Medea Metreveli  
 
162 
days of her youth, Marina felt close to the pathos that was linked with the 
image of Medea. Marina found it motivated and justified, what Medea did 
under the influence of her erotic pathos and after the darkening of her mind. 
Marina‟s life continues in such a way that an attraction she felt towards 
Medea gradually transforms into her likeness to Medea. We must mention the 
detail of Jason‟s story: he brought Medea to Greece and Yannis did the same 
with Marina, the minor difference lies in comparatively changed functions 
that we trace in the novel. According to the Old Greek tradition, Jason 
brought a barbaric bride to the civilized homeland, while Yannis brings his 
emancipated wife from the civilized country – to the rather patriarchal and 
less emancipated Greece. And it goes without saying that the strongest 
connection and likeness is in the death of the heroine‟s children. A so-called 
fantastic scene deserves special attention – a dialog between Eosphoros and 
the planets, when Marina cites Medea of Euripides: "Medea? Who was she?" 
,,She was a woman who killed her children out of love. She killed them in 
order to take revenge on their father, the man whom she loved, because he 
loved another woman." "How does this happen? How can a woman kill her 
children out of love? " "She can. When I, Eosphoros, grasp with my strong 
fingers the womb of a woman, when I bury my nails in the flash of pleasure 
and folly, the woman is capable of everything." "And this woman why she 
reads the story of a woman who killed her children?" "And this woman also 
killed her child out of love. This unfortunate one however did not want it. She 
did not want it. Whereas Medea wanted it." "Then, this woman is not so 
awful as Medea." "You are making a mistake. She is more horrible. Because 
the time when I, Eosphoros impelled Medea to kill her children, I was a god! 
Who dares to judge the wish of a god? "
6
  
 Marina strongly feels her likeness to Medea: after she had conceived her 
second child, she wanted to distance herself from her mythological prototype. 
This idea is supported by the following passage: "From the day that she felt 
her pregnancy, she didn‟t pick up "Medea" again from the little table."
7
We 
can feel here a desire of the woman to escape killing of her second child. Yet, 
her suicide, which implies the death of an unborn child, never lets her free 
herself from "Medea complex". 
 Thus, we can state that in Karaghatsis‟ novel, Medea is presented as a key 
figure. Most of all, the author is obsessed with the sole line of killing one‟s 
child. In both cases we can name erotic pathos as the reason, but the differ-
                                                             
6
  Μ. Καξαγάηζεο, Μεγάιε Υίκαηξα, 294-295. 
7
  Μ. Καξαγάηζεο, Μεγάιε Υίκαηξα, 298. 
The Function of the Mythological Female Images 
 
163 
ence is that in Medea it emerges after learning Jason‟s betrayal, while Marina 
herself succumbs to her passion and becomes involved in adultery. 
It is possible to link Clytemnestra with Marina through the following 
features: like Agamemnon‟s wife, Marina, too, is unfaithful to her husband at 
the time of his absence. And again, like Agamemnon‟s wife, Marina too starts 
an affair with her husband‟s next of kin. Clytemnestra is involved with her 
husband‟s cousin, Aegisthus
8
, and Marina – with her husband‟s brother, 
Minas. In both cases such links lead to destruction and death: Aegisthus and 
Minas, Clytemnestra and Marina. We can go farther and trace a certain 
likeness in other cases as well: Although Clytemnestra murders Agamemnon 
and Marina does not kill her husband physically, it can be inferred from the 
novel that her activity causes him to perish. Marina‟s mother-in-law predicts 
Yannis‟s possible "death" with these words: "If Yannis learns the truth, he 
will die from heartache. For him to live, he must know nothing".
 9
 
Marina also represents a clear link with Jocasta. The cause of misfortune 
in both cases is incest. In Jocasta‟s case the drama is even more horrifying 
because it is impossible to blame her for the fact and she represents a victim 
of Fate. Marina‟s case is different, because she is conscious of her behavior 
and fully understands the controversy related to the attitude of the social 
moral. Marina‟s mother-in-law‟s words of damnation, said at the grave of her 
husband, do not spare the deed of Marina and Yannis She points out that the 
step they had taken was incest: "Konstantine, our son Minas turned out bad, a 
masked person and incestuous. He dishonored his brother and became the 
reason for the death of his niece – our grandchild".
10
 Both women fell victims 
to moral blow, caused by incest. 
The likeness to Phaedra is not in the matter of incest, but rather in the 
understanding shared by the heroes about what kind of reaction they should 
expect from their husbands and society for what they had done. Phaedra kills 
herself before she gets an idea of the social attitude from her son-in-law – 
Hippolytus‟s stance towards the matter. As for Marina, she felt the force of 
the social reaction in the form of the mother in low‟s attitude towards her: ,,Is 
your goal to reveal to all of the world your disgrace? Do you want to 
humiliate my son completely? No, you will not come out from inside here! 
You will not come out in spite of a good deed, you as well as your bastard 
seed. The door is open. If you want you can go away. But don‟t come back; 
                                                             
8
  It is known that Atreus, Aegisthus‟s uncle, the son of Thyestes, after taking a severe revenge 
on his brother, brought up and cared for Aegisthus as if he were his own son, therefore, Aegis-
thus can be considered, in fact, Agamemnon‟s brother.  
9
  Μ. Καξαγάηζεο, Μεγάιε Υίκαηξα, 301. 
10
  Μ. Καξαγάηζεο, Μεγάιε Υίκαηξα, 282 
 Medea Metreveli  
 
164 
you will find it closed".
11
 And with her suicide Marina tried to escape the 
moral responsibility. 
Eventually, consideration of Karagatsis‟ novel from the angle we have 
chosen has revealed that the writer, whose works, at first sight, seem to lack 
notable links with the classical tradition (as is the case with so many other 
modern Greek writers), in fact uses Antique images in quite an original way 
to display individuality of his protagonist. If we take into consideration that in 
his early story the antique images are not present, and that the writer 
introduced them only after extending this story into a novel, we can assume 
that he gave considerable significance to this "innovation" and thus 
emphasized the properties of the main heroine. Consideration of the novel 
from this standpoint, shows that the so called "a thoughtless narrative" is not 
characteristic of Karagatsis, which he is traditionally accused of. In any case, 
usage of the antique images and their connection to the context of the novel 
reveals how profoundly the writer understands the function of those images in 
order to present Marina‟s destiny more distinctly. 
                                                             
11
  Μ. Καξαγάηζεο, Μεγάιε Υίκαηξα, 309 


The Function of the Mythological Female Images in "The Big Chimaera" – A Novel by M. Karaghatsis

Gordeziani, Rismag

Spätantike als Periode der Kulturgeschichte

Kobakhidze, Ekaterine

Etruscans in "Aeneid"

Kauchtschischwili, Tinatin

 Tinatin Kauchtschischwili  
 
134 
  
Tinatin Kauchtschischwili (Tbilisi) 
NEUENTDECKTE GEGENSTÄNDE MIT GRIECHISCHEN 
INSCHRIFTEN AUS MZCHETA 
In Mzcheta, im Hof der Kirche Swetizchoweli hat das archäologische Institut 
von Mzcheta, am 13. August 2001 ein Steingrab, N 14, eröffnet (Direktor des 
Instituts von Mzcheta Prof. Andreas Apakidze). Die im Grab liegende Person 
ist noch nicht identifiziert. Man weiss nicht genau, ob sich es um eine Frau 
oder um einen Mann handelt (aber viele sind der Meinung, dass dort eine 
Frau begraben ist). Im Grab fanden sich etwa 25 verschiedene Gegenstände, 
hauptsächlich aus Gold und Silber. Zu meiner Kompetenz zu meinem Arbeit-
bereich gehören zwei Gegenstände: 1. Ein Goldring mit Gemme und grie-
chischer Inschrift und 2. Ein Schreibzeug ebenso mit griechischen Inschriften. 
1. Ein Siegelring aus Gold, in dem eine Gemme-Intalio aus Karneol sitzt. 
Auf dem Siegelring ist ein Frauenkopf im Profil mit einer Kopfbedeckung in 
Form eines abgeschnittenen Zylinders dargestellt: Die Kopfbedeckung ist 
nach vorne verschoben. Grösse des Ringes: Höhe – 19 mm, Breite – 28 mm. 
Die Länge der Gemme ist 20 mm, Breite 17 mm, Gewicht – 9,890 gr. 
Um die Gemme zieht sich eine sorgfältige, fein verfasste griechische 
Inschrift, die man auf dem Abdruck so lesen kann:  (am rechten 
Rand, dem Frauenprofil entlang), (am linken Rand, hinter 
den Darstellungen. Richtung: von unten nach oben). Dort steht: 
– Königin Ulpia aus Naxos. 
Ich halte es auch für möglich, den zweiten Teil der Inschrift so zu lesen: 
Königin Ulpia Herrscherin. (Hier würde eines 
der beiden fehlen. Aber die Annahme, dass ein Buchstabe "fehlt", ist wenig 
glaubwürdig, weil die Inschrift sehr sorgfältig und schriftkundig verfasst ist). 





 Tinatin Kauchtschischwili  
 
140 
Ausgehend vom obenerwähnten Material, glaube ich, dass die 
griechischen Inschriften auf den neu entdeckten Gegenständen in Mzcheta 
(auf der Gemme, auf dem Schreibzeug mit einer goldenen durchbrochenen 
Platte, auf den Darstellungen im Hochrelief und unter den Musen) aus einer 
Zeit stammen. 
Die Buchstaben sind nicht ganz ähnlich (auf der Gemme sind sie fein, auf 
der durchbrochenen Platte und hochreliefierten Darstellungen deutlich und 
sorgfältig geformt, unter den Musen dagegen – ein wenig nachlässig). Das 
Datum dafür musste das 2.-3. Jh. sein. 


Neuentdeckte Gegenstände mit griechischen Inschriften aus Mzcheta

Chikhladze, Nino

Phasis 5-6, 2003 
Nino Chikladze (Kutaisi) 
EURIPIDES’S PRINCIPLES OF REPRESENTING 
CONTRARIETY IN MEDEA’S CHARACTER 
Underlined contrariety of Medea‟s character in the tragedy of Euripides has 
caused considerable interest among scholars. The most typical and popular 
example is the scene where Medea kills her children. In this scene Euripides 
reveals the opposition in the protagonist – a loving mother / an unmerciful 
avenger. 
It is considered that in the tragedy two opposite beginnings – emotion and 
rationality are contrasted with each other and are personified by Medea and 
Jason.
1
 It‟s also noted that the opposition is a defining factor of the action of 
this drama. It‟s emerged on different levels: a man and a woman, heroic – 
archaic and enlightening – new thinking, barbarity and Hellenism, Eros (feel-
ing) and Sophia (thinking, wisdom).
2
 Medea personifies the first member of 
the opposition Mowerer, I think that the contrast between emotion and sharp 
reason (which can be stimulated by emotion) is emphasized in Medea‟s char-
acter as well. 
The contrast in Medea‟s character is one of the most important properties 
of Euripides‟ heroine. It conforms to the natural principle and the whole trag-
edy. The circumstance that at the beginning of the tragedy Medea, horrified 
by his husband‟s betrayal at the and of the tragedy is transformed into a per-
son who is elevated above earthy deeds and empty of emotions, takes her 
vengeance and in fact, devastates Jason‟s rationalism, is clear-cut exposure of 
this contrast. 
                                                             
1
  For the interpretation of Euripide‟ Medea  cf. A. Lesky, Geschicte der griechishen Literatur,  
München 1971
3
, 301 ff. 
2
  Nickel R. Lexikon der Antiken Literatur, Düsseldorf, Zürich 1999, 551 ff. 
Euripides‟s Principles of Representing Contrariety in Medea‟s Character 
 
17 
Analysis of the drama shows that in Medea‟s character two spiritual con-
ditions constantly succeed each other: emotional state and illusory tranquility. 
Euripides achieves the effect by using incessant scenes, where the pro-
tagonist gives proof of her ability to make analytic decisions after outburst of 
strong emotions.
3
 
From this point of view its possible to distinguish three pairs of scenes, 
which essentially create the basis of the play. The first pair includes 96-357 
lines and consists of the following scenes: 1. Medea‟s reaction on learning her 
husband‟s betrayal. 2. Medea‟s meeting with Creon. In the first scene 
Medea‟s sharp reaction is shown her words before her appearing on the stage 
draws our attention: "O hopes I! O miseries heaped on mine head! Ah me! 
would God I were dead!"(96-7). Insulted by her husband‟s betrayal, Medea is 
unable to control her feelings. She sobs and begs immortal god to take mercy 
and curse her husband, his bride and the whole court. She even doesn‟t spare 
herself. The whole extract can be called Medea‟s lamentation. It manifests 
that Medea prefers death to such a bad luck. 
After appearing on the stage, the protagonist gradually begins to realize an 
inconsolable lot of wife and woman generally. It is demonstrated by Medea‟s 
well-known words addressed to Corinthians women in order to gain their 
disposition as she realized that she had sacrificed her life to the man who 
turned out be the worst among the men. Medea generalizes her life. She tries 
to show to the Corinthian women that a woman is the poorest and feeblest 
creature in the world because of a despotic and cruel husband. Women are not 
even allowed to divorce such husbands and have to conform to new customs, 
habits, alien atmosphere and keep their eyes on their cruel husbands. They 
find death preferable to living under such conditions. If a woman is in her 
motherland, she is supported by her friends and so she is protected. But if she 
is lonely, without any relatives, has no sanctuary and is outraged by her hus-
band, her lot is very hard. Woman quails at every peril, faint-heart to face the 
fray and look on steel, but when in wedlock – rights she suffers wrong, no 
spirit more bloodthirsty shall be found (213-66). 
The first seeds of vengeance are planted in Medea‟s lamentation and then 
in her speech to Corinthian women about her own tragedy. But her striving to 
change the existing situation is an emotional yell and is not sensible. 
After Medea‟s analysis of the lack of woman‟s rights and the inequality 
with man, she received sympathy from Corinthian woman and their permis-
sion on getting vengeance for adultery and humiliation of dignity that resulted 
from it. 
                                                             
3
  See also J. Latacz, Einführung in die griechishe Tragödie, Göttingen 1993, 280 ff. 
 Nino Chikladze  
 
18 
In the scene of Medea‟s meeting with Creon, Medea judges more sensibly 
rather than emotionally. Creon doesn‟t intend to compromise Medea. He de-
mands firmly that she should leave with her children immediately. "Home-
ward go into again, ere from the land‟s bounds I hare cast thee forth" (271-6). 
Medea‟s whole conversation with Creon includes several points: 1. To 
make Creon feel sorry for her 2. To give convincing reasons why she can not 
leave the town at once, which is followed by 3. Her request to permit her to 
stay only one more day in the town. In this scene Medea contrasts her own 
rationalism to Creon‟s strict, but emotional sentence. It‟s apparent, when she 
accepts Creon‟s demands and finds some arguments by which she makes 
Creon change his demand and let her stay in the town one more day. These 
arguments were: "Of some my wisdom with my jealousy, lest I work thee 
harm. Not such am I – dread not me that against princes I should dare trans-
gress. How hast wronged me? Thou hast given thy child to whom so pleads 
thee. But I hate my hustand; So doublless, this in prudence hast thou done. I 
grudge not thy prosperity. . . Suffer me yet to farry this one dye, and some-
what for our exile to take thought, and find my babies a refuge, since their 
sire cares naught to make provision for his sons. Compassionate these – father 
too art thou of children" (277-89). 
At the and of the scene after Creon‟s exit Medea throws off the mask of a 
"submissive" and "poor" woman and shows that everything she had told 
Creon had been planned beforehand by her reason to achieve her aim. Her 
words demonstrate her attitude: "To such height of folly hath he come, that, 
when he might forestall mine every plot. By banishment this dye of grace he 
grants me to stay, wherein three foes will I lay Dead the father, and the 
daughter, and mine husband" (365-70). 
The next stage in the graduation of the contrast in Medea‟s character is 
represented by the following pair of scenes – Jason and Medea‟s two meet-
ings. It is noteworthy that at their first meeting Jason is self-confident. This 
sophistic arguments make Medea lose her temper. Jason‟s arguments are 
based on sophistry and can be formed in this way: Medea could have lived a 
peaceful life if she had obeyed the king. Her infuriation is hard to understand. 
The most important thing for parents is their children‟s happiness. By means 
of marrying the King‟s daughter Jason can achieve the status which would 
guarantee their son‟s good luck. From this point of view Jason is right when 
he is going to leave Medea and marry the King‟s daughter, and she should 
have been satisfied with her husband‟s decision (449-64). 
Medea reacts sharply, emotionally without self-control to Jason‟s argu-
ments pronounced quietly. Medea tries to explain to Jason why she is differ-
ent from ordinary, mortal people: she strictly punishes all who attempts to 
disguise injustice by eloquence and tries to justify his unmerciful betrayal by 
Euripides‟s Principles of Representing Contrariety in Medea‟s Character 
 
19 
speaking eloquently, who represents villainy as deliberate kindness (579-87). 
In fact Medea opposes bitterly not only Jason but sophistry as well. Threat is 
obvious here but it‟s emotional again: "Away! – impatience for the bride new 
– trapped consumes thee loitering from her bower afar! Wed: for perchance – 
and God shall speed the word – thine shall be bridal thou wouldst Fain re-
nounce" (623-6). 
The next meeting with Jason is preceded by a short interlude – the scene 
with Egeus (663-755). It‟s function is to make Medea acknowledge once 
more what a son means for will do, she can find a shelter as on her own initia-
tive and rationally as it was in plan how to take vengeance. This makes the 
contrast between what she thinks and what she says more obvious. In this 
case, Medea uses the instrument which was used by Jason in the preceding 
scene. She tries to persuade her husband to accept to play the role of the 
woman who regained consciousness due to Jason‟s eloquence. She copes with 
it so skillfully that Medea manages to convince Jason by his own arguments 
that she obeys her lot and admits: she can not be against her well-wishers who 
take care of her children. They need to be taken care of, as she has neither 
motherland nor devoted friends. Medea should have supported Jason to get 
merry again (869-905). 
Culmination of the tragedy lies in the next pair of scenes – from appear-
ance of a messenger till the murder of the children and the final scene in 
which Medea is already empty of emotions and elevated above the earthy 
being existence. 
The first scene (1120-250) is full of protagonist‟s emotions caused by the 
messenger‟s description of a terrible fact which happened in Creon‟s castle. 
This is followed by Medea‟s joyous emotions and then by her rage that re-
sulted in her killing of her own children, which is the best example of a per-
son overwhelmed with two opposite emotions. On the one hand the author 
shows sufferings of a mother who is worried about her children‟s fate and 
emotions of an insulted woman who demands her husband‟s punishment. The 
former‟s arguments are: "What need to wring their father‟s heart with ills of 
these, to gain myself ills twice so many?" (1047-7). The latter‟s arguments 
are: "Would I earn derision, letting my foes slip from mine hand unpu-
nished?" (1048-50). In the scene Medea is filled with rage. She is out of mind 
with passions. This passions makes her forget her own children‟s love. She 
loves and she slaughters. An emotional strife goes on. Medea is guilty – she 
murdered children, but she is a winner at the same time – she enjoys making 
Jason unhappy. Medea beholds the misfortune of her rivals and thus she com-
pensates for her own tragedy. 
Medea is again without emotions in the final scene (1246-419), but it is 
accompanied here by apotheosis. In this scene Medea and Jason change their 
 Nino Chikladze  
 
20 
roles: Jason‟s wit and eloquence are converted into spontaneous emotional 
outbursts. And horrified, furious Medea is transformed into an elevated per-
son who contrasts her rationalism and nihilism with Jason‟s subbing. At the 
beginning of the scene Jason appears with his aggressive emotionalism. He is 
seeking for his bride‟s murderer who will not avoid punishment even if she 
creeps into the hall or fly up in the sky with her sorcery. Jason expresses his 
fear that bloodletting Corinthian would take revenge on the children (1294-
1305). But Medea leaves no hope for him – she murdered his own children 
with her own hands. Jason‟s emotionalism is like lamentations. He curses his 
bad luck and the day when his children were born (1405-14). As for Medea, 
she celebrates, especially in the second half of the final scene, where she is 
standing on the coach with her dead children. In spite of it, she is happy as 
she took vengeance on her husband, his bride, the king and the whole society 
who are unable tell the truth from the false. 
The above brief consideration aims to maintain the following idea: some 
scholars‟ speculations that Jason and Creon personify rationalism and Medea 
– emotionalism requires certain corrections. Rationalism plays a very signifi-
cant role in Medea‟s actions. Some scholars qualify her rationalism as "a 
cleverly planned action".
4
 Morever, as we have seen, Medea‟s character is 
emotionally involved as well. 
                                                             
4
  J. Latacz, 106. 


Euripides’s Principles of Representing Contrariety in Medea’s Character

Abulashvili, Medea

Phasis 10 (II), 2007 
 
 
THE ARGONAUTICA AND  CONTEMPORARY WORLD 
Medea Abulashvili (Tbilisi) 
THE PHENOMENON OF RITUAL IN PIER PAOLO PASOLINI’S 
MEDEA AND LARS VON TRIER’S MEDEA 
Ritual is a very mystical, old, diverse and mysterious phenomenon. We can 
hardly imagine any historical period, individual or public life, the space of 
time, of being or country which ritual has not penetrated in some form or 
other. And it is absolutely impossible to perceive, conceptualize and interpret 
the age of mythology without comprehending ritual. It is relevant to the scope 
of any field of the humanities. Ritual dissolves local and chronological 
boundaries between the spaces.  
My immediate goal to consider ritual phenomenon in the films with the 
same name Medea directed by Pier Paolo Pasolini and Lars von Trier is 
motivated by several factors: 
It is impossible to imagine Medea, the niece of sorceress Circe, and the 
priestess of Hecate, without ritual; 
Contemporary studies tend to look for the cases of ritual not only in 
various tales and legends, but first of all in myths, religions and literary 
works. And Medea is a mythological, literary and religious character at the 
same time. 
 Cinematic presentation of ritual seems particularly interesting as cinema 
originated from theatre. And according to widely admitted theories, the latter 
is rooted in rituals long lost and subjected to modification and evolution along 
with the changes in consciousness and the development of human artistic 
vision. 
The more remote is the period in chronological terms, the more difficult it 
is to perceive the magic and moral implications, the meaning, the form, the 
functional logic, ethnic connotation, world outlook, and specific properties of 
Medea Abulashvili 
 
104 
the corresponding ritual. And in these circumstances, one may yield to the 
temptation to perceive ancient rituals through the interpretation, imagination 
and horizon of great masters of the cinematic art. 
Lars von Trier’s Medea starts with an impressive scene: Medea, lying on 
the ground, is washed over several times by the sea-water. At first, the viewer 
has the impression that the scene renders the despair of an ill-fated and 
exhausted woman, but Medea’s movements, expression and the words that 
follow compel to perceive the scene as an intentional behavior of a sorceress. 
Soon afterwards appears the daughter of Creon, the King of Corinth. Maids 
are washing the would-be-bride, i.e. the ritual of pre-bridal washing is being 
performed. After this, the viewer will interpret the preceding scene with 
Medea as water-based ablution, which the sorceress performs prior to an 
important decision or action. The emotion is intensified by the perception that 
the ablution of the bride is performed by hosts of maids, while the abandoned 
woman is assisted by nature itself. The director most skillfully makes a soft 
allusion that Medea is washed off by the waves produced by a passing ship – 
and, the vessel belongs to Aegeus, whom Medea is to heal from childlessness. 
The tragism conveyed through the juxtaposition of these scenes is echoed 
in the words of Pasolini’s Medea: ‘Chastity is also a curse. Gods love and at 
the same time hate.’ Pasolini also presents the scene of ablution twice: the 
first scene features purification by the fire, while the second one – by water. 
The first scene of ablution is set in Colchis: ‘Put dresses on me. I must pray in 
the temple’, Medea orders. The servants quickly array the daughter of Aeetes, 
set the fire, and the sorceress walks through it before entering the temple. The 
second scene of ablution presents the children, doomed to be slaughtered, as 
there are being washed and dressed in white. 
None of the above-mentioned ablution rituals are described in Euripides’ 
Medea, which in fact is the primary source for both films. However, owing to 
the marvelous mithopoetic design of both directors, all the four scenes fully 
correspond to the forms of mysteries connected with ancient Greek traditions 
and described in literature. I will recall several examples: ‘Thee I will hallow 
in the ocean waves’,
1
 says Iphigenia. On another occasion, Orestes reminds 
Iphigenia of the following: ‘For Aulis did thy mother bathe thy limbs?’
2
 
Greek literature illustrates the purifying power of fire as well: the episode 
when Odysseus cleans his home with fire and sulphur is certainly 
                                                 
1
  Iphigenia in Tauris, translated by R. Potter, The Plays of Euripides, Everyman’s Library, vol. I, 
1906, 1932, 362. 
2
  Ibid., 356. 
 The Phenomenon of Ritual in Pier Paolo Pasolini’s Medea and ... 
 
105 
unforgettable.
3
 And putting on white normally follows the ritual of 
purification and indicates its completion.
4
 
Lars von Treir skillfully uses the third option of purification as well – 
roaming – when an ousted person leaves their sins on the way and is cleaned. 
This scene effectively accentuates the wavelike motion of colors, which 
shows how gradually the earth and the air take the burden of Medea’s sins. 
Contrary to this, I will recall the scene from Pasolini’s Medea, where the 
earth is covered all over with cracks, and the woman, who has betrayed her 
father and fatherland, shrieks in despair: ‘I touch the earth with my feet, but 
do not feel it, I watch the sun with my eyes, but do not recognize it!’ 
To produce a sharp sensation of tragism, Euripides has the daughter of 
Creon killed in the bridal attire: ‘Their charm and heavenly gleam will entice 
her to put on the gown and the circlet of the fashioned gold. But the bridal 
bed she lies in will be with the dead.’
5
  
The mythical connection of wedding and death is fulfilled through putting 
on the bridal gift sent by Medea: ‘Already the crown is on her head and the 
royal bride is perishing in the robe ...’
6
 In their cinematic versions, both Pier 
Paolo Pasolini and Lars von Trier increase the number of characters taking 
part in the scene and present a real ritual of dressing up a bride. Pasolini goes 
even farther: he presents the scene when, upon Medea’s arrival in Corinth, the 
locals put on her Corinthian clothes instead of her Colchian garment in the 
same mysterious way as they will later dress up Creon’s daughter. 
Pasolini’s Medea includes another highly impressive ritual: the scene is 
set in Colchis, where a human sacrifice is performed. The Colchians 
dismember a lad of distinguished appearance, adorned with the wreath of 
ears. The offering ritual is attended by the royal family as well. The 
participants of the ritual dip their hands in the blood of the sacrificed lad and 
then put the blood on the trees and leaves. The event is undoubtedly related to 
fertility. The Colchians softly tap each other with the twigs of the trees 
covered with leaves. The ceremony grows into dancing and games and 
closely resembles the ceremonies at Dionysian festivals or Georgian folk 
fertility celebrations. Medea, the daughter of the King, recites the main 
phrase, the phrase of the supreme order: ‘You gave life to the seed and the 
sun rised from the seed.’ 
This is the first scene of Pasolini’s Medea. Now let us recall the last one: 
Medea does not allow her unfaithful husband to perform the ritual of burying 
                                                 
3
  Homer, Odyssey, translated from Greek into Georgian by P. Beradze, Tbilisi, 1979, 490-495.   
4
  Ratiani N., The Reflection of Ritual in Ancient Greek Literture, Tbilisi, 2001, 123. 
5
  Euripides, Medea, The Loeb Classical Library, 1994, 2001, Stasimon IV, Antistrophe 1, 373.  
6
  Ibid., 1994, 2001, 381. 
Medea Abulashvili 
 
106 
and mourning their slaughtered children, sacrificed for the revenge. The same 
is described in Euripides’ tragedy: Medea categorically turned down Jason’s 
request: ‘Allow me to bury these dead children and to mourn them.’
7
 ‘But 
with all the strength I have, I make my lament and adjure the gods, calling the 
heavenly powers to witness that you killed my sons and now forbid me to 
touch them or bury their bodies’,
8
 utters Jason.  
The first and the final scenes of Pasoloni’s film make up a circle: they 
both picture human sacrifice. In the first case, the offering is made for the 
sake of fertility, while the sacrifice in the final scene brings about 
childlessness. The fulfillment of the mystery is the final touch of the tragedy. 
If in the beginning Medea is the guarantee for the accomplishment of the 
ritual, for the observance of moral rite and custom, in the end she becomes the 
prohibitor of ritual. Medea’s performance of ritual in the beginning of the 
film suggests regular progress of life, while its prohibition indicates the 
greatest tragedy. In this way, Pier Paolo Pasolini and Lars von Trier attempt 
to intensify the sensation of tragism and dramatism, and make it perceptible 
for contemporary viewers through reviving the remotest past. 
Owing to the performance of rituals, dictated by social morality and 
traditions, the world has been following a more or less regular path of life 
from ancient times till nowadays.  
 
                                                 
7
  Ibid., 409. 
8
  Ibid., 413. 


The Phenomenon of Ritual in Pier Paolo Pasolini’s "Medea" and Lars von Trier’s "Medea"

Werner, Jürgen

Mein Jannis Ritsos

Dvalidze, Nino

Phasis 5-6, 2003
Nino Dvalidze (Tbilisi)
A SYMBIOSIS OF ANTIQUITY AND MODERNITY IN THE 
DOUBLE BOOK BY DIMITRIS KHADZIS
The Double Book1 by Dimitris Khadzis is one of the works that caused heated 
arguments among Modern Greek literary critics of the last ten years of the 
past century. 
The novel consists of nine chapters: four of them (1,3,5,7) describe the 
monotonic life of the central character (Kostas) in Germany; other four chap-
ters (2,4,6,8) have their own protagonists (a friend or a relative of Kostas) that 
are set apart in different times.
In this article we would like to draw your attention to the image of Anas-
tasia,2 as we consider her to be the focal point for the concept of this novel. 
In our opinion, the critics have not yet paid relevant attention to the func-
tion and symbolics of this character. They seem to have limited themselves to 
the description of how she is introduced in the novel, without trying to ex-
plain what Khadzis meant to say through this image. We shall try to present 
some opinions around this issue. 
The writer presents Anastasia as a Greek woman carrying in her the secret 
of Eleusinian mysteries. Her features and abilities turn her into unordinary 
character that is surrounded with mystic soul. The writer does not only men-
tion this in the novel, but also brings in the series of symbolic that connect 
Anastasia with the image of mantic woman. On the one hand she is an ordi-
nary mortal, but at the same time she has some characteristics that are unusual 
for a typical mantic. 
Let us focus your attention on how the writer manages to include all sym-
bols characteristic to mantic women in the artistic structure. When describing 
                                                            
1 Δ.Χατζή, Το διπλό βιβλίο,  δεύτερη έκδοση ξανακοιταγμένη, ΚΕΙΜΕΝΑ, Αθήνα 1977.
2 Anastasia is Kostas' sister. She is a main character of chapter 8 of the novel.  
A Symbiosis of Antiquity and Modernity in The Double Book by Dimitris Khadzis 91
irrational aspect of Anastasia's character, Khadzis highlights her fortune-
telling skills that can be sorted into several hierarchies. 
Hair – The writer emphasizes the magic power of Anastasia's hair. Her 
hair carries a mystic power, therefore "I never cut my hair. My birds and my 
mother are in it".3 In this case Khadzis takes into account ancient symbolics. 
As we know, according to various traditions, hair is identified with life and is 
connected with an individual’s soul.4
Eyes – Anastasia’s eyes preserve the memories of Greek history. 
"In these eyes I see... continuously suffering Greek generations... women 
in despair, deprived of honor... from Khios, Psara, Mesolongi, the Asia Minor 
Disaster... collective murders during the occupation, internal disturbances..."5
In this case, again, Khadzis repeats old symbols. As known, eyes are iden-
tified with light and the ability of spiritual vision. 6
Tree – This mystic figure has a specific relation with outer environment 
and here again Khadzis uses typical symbols: ritual tree that has clearly my-
thopoetic receiving. Khadzis does not refer to the tree with its literally mean-
ing. This is a distinctly mythological tree that has special significance. In or-
der to reveal the irrational feature of Anastasia, it is important for this particu-
lar tree to exist. When Anastasia goes to Molaos she says: "I don’t have a tree 
anymore."7 Evidently this does not mean that there are no trees in Molaos. 
This is the indication that she does not possess her tree anymore. Here 
Khadzis, again, takes into the consideration ancient perceptions. As we know, 
in different cultures some trees were considered to be holy and magic. The 
tree represents three kingdoms: Chthonic, earthy and divine, which forms a 
cosmic structure. 8
Birds – The Double Book repeatedly underlines the mystic connection be-
tween birds and the tree. Illusionary birds are organically connected with the 
ritual tree of Anastasia. "Birds are not your property to call them whenever 
you may wish. You belong to them. They choose you",9 -Anastasia says. 
As we know, the birds play a significant role in antique literature in terms 
of pointing to the signs of predictions. Already in the Homeric epos we see 
various passages confirming this perception. The most important thing is that 
                                                            
3 Δ.Χατζή, 169.  
4 For more information, see: J.C.Cooper, Lexikon Alter Symbole, VEB E.A. Seemann Verlag 
Leipzig, 1986. 69-70.
5 Δ.Χατζή, 55-56.
6 For more information, see: J.C.Cooper, 15-16.
7 Δ.Χατζή, 180
8 For more information, see: J.C.Cooper, 18-23.
9 Δ.Χατζή, 178.
Nino Dvalidze92
this epos describes one group of mantics that is directly called "auspices".10
Following the Homeric tradition birds carry a special importance in Greek 
mantics. As it was said, divine signals were sent to humans by means of birds. 
In addition to this, the birds were regarded to have organic connection with 
divine spheres. We may suppose that Aristophanes' The Birds partially, al-
though humorously, shows the attitude of his contemporaries towards birds.11
Archangel – The bird is the symbol of soul. In this regard the angel is the 
product of the developing image of bird.12 Thus, it is not surprising that Anas-
tasia identifies mystic birds firstly with the archangel and then with her own 
soul. "These birds were I, my soul as you call it".13 We should not conceive 
the usage of archangel to be an attempt of the writer to attach religious light 
to the novel. Astral, shining body of angels resembles the phenomenon re-
ferred to in other cultures as astral bodies. According to Asian and Indian 
traditions, every human being has such astral body, but only wizards and ma-
gicians are able to feel its strength.14
Mystic knowledge – As we see, the novel delineate two types of sym-
bolics: symbols possessed by Anastasia in herself and those connecting her 
with surrounding environment, where she realizes the irrational abilities. 
These symbols are united by mystic knowledge. This is not the knowledge in 
its common meaning, but the knowledge that is provoked and revealed by 
particular situations. 
The writer emphasizes a special importance of woman (mother) in the 
Greek family. According to Khadzis, Greek women possessed mystic knowl-
edge that was carried from generation to generation similarly to Eleusinian 
mysteries.15 "Every Greek woman knew this ancient art... their Eleusinian 
mysteries that they used to learn from one another and pass on".16
Anastasia can feel this mystic knowledge, but she cannot use it in prac-
tice. "I could not read or write. I could not even think. I could only feel. I 
                                                            
10 οιωνοπόλος, οιωνιστές in ancient Greek language.
11 About the auspices and their role in ancient mantics see:
P. Nilsson, Geschichte der Griechische Religion 1, Műnchen 1967², 166- and so forth.
12 For more information, see: J.C.Cooper, 205-206.
13 Δ.Χατζή, 171.
14 For more information, see: 
В.Бауер, И. Дюмотц, С. Головин, Энциклопедия Символов, Москва  1998, 191-195.
15 About the Eleusinian Mysteries see:
M.Giebel, Das Geheimnis Der Mysterien, Antike Kulte in Griechenland, Rom und Agypten, 
Műnchen 1993. 17-and so forth
W. Burkert, Griechische Religion der archaischen und klassischen Epoche, Stuttgart, Berlin, 
Kölln, Meinz 1977, 426- and so forth
P. Nilsson, Geschichte der Griechische Religion 1, Műnchen 1967², 663- and so forth
16 Δ.Χατζή, 32.
A Symbiosis of Antiquity and Modernity in The Double Book by Dimitris Khadzis 93
would touch subjects with fingers and see them like blind people do. I could 
hear like deaf people do. This is how I felt my life, our lives, and our for-
tune."17
Holy marriage – It is interesting whether this mystery of Anastasia is a 
closed system, or it is something that can be transferred to others. As we see 
in the novel, Anastasia is not able to share her knowledge with her brother, 
she is afraid of blood mixing as the knowledge can be transferred only via 
sexual act. We regard this to be the analogy of the "holy marriage".18
In ancient cultures the "holy marriage" used to be the symbol of unity of 
the earth and the sky, female and male origins, God and Goddess. Often the 
"holy marriage" would be executed through the sexual act between a priestess 
and the supreme governor. Priestess would be the image of Goddess i.e. the 
image of the universal female origin. In the perceptions of ancient people, this 
was the only way to maintain fertility and cosmic order the following year. 
Distinctly emphasized sexual aspect would transfer into spiritual and be re-
garded as a mystic reunion of God and man. 19
On the verge of real and unreal – Such is the "double life of Anastasia: 
dream and reality at the same time".20 The character is not able to couple, to 
consolidate the two. 
Anastasia’s marriage brings an end to her mysticism, spiritual life. The 
birds do not appear to her anymore. Archangel becomes a stranger. Even her 
own self becomes distant to her. 21
In the end, through the sexual act with the writer the ritual of conveying 
the mystic knowledge is executed. This is confirmed by the handing of Anas-
tasia’s cut hair to the writer. "I know you came here for the final word. I do 
not even know how to tell you. That is why I surrendered. Because I wanted 
to show you, I wanted to let you see beyond my mother’s mother. Where our 
roots begin. Where the graves of my murdered birds rest. I have nothing 
else."22
All the aforementioned allow us to conclude that Anastasia is a quite 
thoroughly described mantic woman, who, owing to her symbolics, is entirely 
                                                            
17 Δ.Χατζή, 165.
18 About the so called "Holly marriage" see:
W. Burkert, Griechische Religion der archaischen und klassischen Epoche, Stuttgart, Berlin, 
Kölln, Meinz 1977, 176 and so forth
P. Nilsson, Geschichte der griechischen Religion 1, Műnchen 1967², 121 and so forth 
19 See: Ганс Бидерманн, Энциклопедия Символов, Издательство "Республика", Москва 
1996, 236.
20 Δ.Χατζή, 171.
21 Δ.Χατζή, 178.
22 Δ.Χατζή, 180.
Nino Dvalidze94
connected with antique perceptions. The writer retracts the characteristics of 
ancient mantic with almost classic order: Anastasia has mystic knowledge that 
is embodied in her hair together with her power of life; her eyes give the pic-
ture of Greek history; nearby one particular tree the birds appear to her and 
she never tells anyone about them; at night she walks in the sky, exchanges 
places with stars and this way changes the destiny of human beings; she trans-
fers her mystic knowledge to the writer through a special "ritual". 
Anastasia’s identification with a mantic woman makes it clear why the 
writer refers to her as to a Diotima.23 "Here, in a mystic Thessaly Socrat 
found his Diotima. In the same place I look for mine in Anastasia".24
Diotima is one of the main figures in Plato’s Symposium. The image of 
Diotima is rather obscure in Plato’s work. We can regard it as a clear fiction 
and observe her purely symbolic nature. However, we should not exclude the 
possibility of Diotima’s real existence.25
It must be noted that the image of Diotima is rarely used in contemporary 
literature. Besides Khadzis, the only case of using this image known to us 
belongs to a German writer Friedrich Holderlin.26 The main character of his 
work is inspired by Plato’s Diotima, however, as we know, Holderlin’s 
Diotima had a real prototype – Susana Contard, the greatest love of the writer. 
Holderlin called his beloved lady Diotima, since according to the writer, "she 
shared with the writer the greatest cosmological secret of Eros, like Man-
tenean priestess shared it with Socrates".27 (The writer in The Double Book
tells Anastasia, "You inspired the real meaning of my art".28)
Helderlin’s Diotima, like Khadzis’ Anastasia, „is not born for this uni-
verse. Her image combines the great history of Greece and its future". 29
Anastasia – Diotima – mantic woman... this is how Anastasia’s image is 
generalized from a concrete human being to a common Greek phenomenon. It 
is noteworthy that in Anastasia we see different elements of a priestess and a 
mantic: Anastasia must preserve her virginity. The same was true about Py-
thia, but Pythia could not share the divine secret with others (Anastasia shared 
this secret with the writer). Only a priestess like Diotima is able to do this. 
                                                            
23 See:  NP 3.  677.
24 Δ.Χατζή, 57. 
25 See:  NP 3.  677.
26 Fridrich Holderlin, Hyperion and selected poems, German Library, Vol. 22
27 Παναγιώτης Κανελλοπούλος, Fridrich Holderlin, Η ζωή και το έργο του (στο βιβλίο Φρίντριχ 
Χαίλντερλιν, Υπεριων, s.a. 242-243. 
28 Δ.Χατζή, 190
29 Παναγιώτης Κανελλοπούλος, 242-243.
A Symbiosis of Antiquity and Modernity in The Double Book by Dimitris Khadzis 95
Besides, neither Pythia nor Diotima could tell fortune with the help of birds, 
although it is widely known that other mantic women had this skill. 
Anastasia, as an individual human being – is present (Kostas’ contempo-
rary), as Diotima – she represents past, as a mantic woman – she predicts and 
therefore is connected with future. The conclusion to be drawn from this is 
that Anastasia equally unites in herself past, present and future. She oversteps 
time bounds and acquires the feature of eternity. 
There is one more very important aspect of The Double Book concept 
connected with this character: correlation of antiquity and modernity. 
As known, the problem of "inheritance" acquired special importance after 
the release of Greece from Turkish conquerors. The problem was in the fol-
lowing: "What should be the attitude of Greek civilization toward the epoch 
that was universally regarded as one of the most significant stages in human 
culture, which left contemporary Greeks in a shadow. For Europe the impor-
tance of Greek culture was limited to antique civilization. The spiritual life of 
contemporary Greece, of course, looked rather colorless with such back-
ground. The Greeks had to face the problem of defining the way to overcome 
the complex of past superiority.30
Khadzis conveys an interesting interpretation of this problem in The Dou-
ble Book. He draws parallels between the meeting of the writer with Anasta-
sia and the meeting of Helen with Faust: "Here, in this very place, the second 
Faust of Goethe, young, strong and brave man found Helen for the wondrous 
merge of times".31
We believe that in this case, judging by the main concept of the work, it 
would not be right to compare Helen with Anastasia. In Goethe’s drama the 
merge of antique culture (Helen) with modernity (Faust) ends with collapse 
(Helen disappears, Evphorion dies). Despite of the fact that Anastasia is also 
destined to die (in the last scene she walks among the graves) Khadzis main-
tains the hope of her rising.32
Evidently, Anastasia is a quite complex character combining various as-
pects of The Double Book concept. 
The fact that Khadzis uses an antique image already draws attention to his 
work. The critics of The Double Book say nothing about writer’s attitude to-
ward the antiquity. And this is understandable, as the focal pathos of the 
novel is the problem of alienation of the main character, caused by the de-
                                                            
30 S. Shamanidi, The Classical Tradition in the Modern Greek Literature and George Seferis,
Tbilisi 1999, 68 (in Georgian).
31 Δ.Χατζή, 200.
32 Δ.Χατζή, 201.
Nino Dvalidze96
struction of the time connection. In-depth analysis of The Double Book brings 
us to the conclusion that the problem of alienation is deeply connected to the 
antiquity – the main concept of the novel is the problem of national identity, 
which in this particular case, conveys the attitude of modern Greece toward 
the antiquity. 
In our opinion, Khadzis tries to accord antiquity with modernity (Chris-
tian culture) through the image of Anastasia: 
a) He gives a purely Christian name to the woman, who represents a rein-
carnated image of priestess, Diotima (reincarnation is indicated in the seman-
tics of name itself: Anastasia – rising from death. Deeper semantics of this 
name takes us to androgynous roots of human beings. Anastasia herself notes 
this moment of reincarnation: "I can be re-born". 33
b) In the work, one of the main attributes of a mantic woman – illusionary 
birds are identified with an archangel. 
c) Anastasia transfers her mystic knowledge to the writer via a special rit-
ual. In the end, a Modern Greek Kostas obtains this knowledge in the shape of 
a book. 
                                                            
33 Δ.Χατζή, 201.


Not a member yet