Journal Phasis - Greek and Roman Studies

Tcheishvili, Tamar

Phasis 10 (II), 2007 
 
 
Tamara Tcheishvili (Tbilisi) 
MEDEA BY THEO VAN GOGH  
On November 2
nd
, 2004 being in Amsterdam, I witnessed the storm-wise 
shock the whole country was affected by, due to the murder of Theo van 
Gogh.  
The end of the happy chaos 
Theo van Gogh – a prominent Dutch journalist, writer, TV celebrity, film 
director was murdered by a Muslim extremist due to his negative stance on 
Islam, reflected with his usual cynicism in his documentary film Submission. 
The Dutch press wrote that the strangled throat of Theo van Gogh became the 
symbol of expression of free will, free speech and so called ‘The end of the 
happy chaos’. After the trauma caused by the death of the popular film 
director the traditionally tolerant and free nation limited entry of immigrants 
into the country.  
Wrongly understood idealism  
In the words of van Gogh, we are living in a nightmare, called the 
wrongly understood idealism, or ‘the happy chaos’.  
The criticism of the film director – cynicism-tainted free speech toward 
the Dutch press, actors, film directors, writers and all the people who were 
part of the Dutch ‘establishment’ was reflected in the controversial articles, 
books and film of van Gogh. He was often involved in debates with various 
politicians. Due to his cynical style he was often seeking refuge on his web-
site under the ironic nickname of The Healthy Smoker, with reference to his 
smoking habits as opposed to the ‘political incorrect’ attitude of the public 
towards the smoking.  
Politicians were often the primary targets of his cynicism. After the 
political motivated murder of Pim Fortuyn (the unconventional politician the 
"divine bold man" as van Gogh commonly referred to, 2002), he filmed the 
Tamara Tcheishvili 
 
272 
272 
films 6
th
 May and Medea (in 6 series, 300 minutes in total) where he 
continues his severe ideological crusade against the established political elite. 
Avro Television, a Dutch media-project creates an initiative aimed at 
staging of the Greek tragedies. Remarkably, it is Theo van Gogh who initiates 
the first project by producing Medea. Theo van Gogh usually refused funding 
from the film industry preferring to fund his films by his own or friends’ 
funds and with the help of his loyal sister (script director and composer) to 
produce controversial films without financial or ideological sponsor attached 
to them.  
My interest towards Theo van Gogh’s life and production increased when 
I learned about the existence of his Medea; it was of my particular interest to 
learn his reasons for choosing this very tragedy and whom he wanted to 
confront thereby; what did he want to say by filming this well-known tragedy. 
Theo van Gogh’s Medea 
The Theodor Holman’s script, created with co-authorship of van Gogh, is 
based on Euripide’s Medea but deployed place on the contemporary Dutch 
political scenery.  
It is difficult to discuss Euripides without considering the democratic, 
liberal and intellectual values of his times. By the same token, it is difficult to 
speak of Theo van Gogh’s oeuvres without taking into consideration the 
democratic politics, ‘political correctness’ and ‘political idealism’ of his 
times, that this self-made film director often confronted (Theν van Gogh was 
even joking often ironically that if he inherited his predecessor’s – a famous 
painter’s heritage (that his family gifted to the Dutch state) he would willingly 
invest it in the ideological battle that takes place in his movies.) For the film 
director, this modern form of dramaturgy was a powerful medium to confront 
the society immersed in ‘political correctness’ and ‘wrongly understood 
idealism’.  
It is by staging Euripides´s Medea, by describing psychologically tense 
relations of Medea and Jason that the he tries to depict the real state of ‘idyllic 
politics in an idyllic country’ with his typical cynicism: politicians with their 
intrigues, dirty games and interests, and ever-prominent mass-media, to which 
van Gogh assigns a task of a sort of ‘choir’.  
It is remarkable how skilful the script writers are in expressing the context 
of Euripide’s work, key elements, characters, psychological sphere and at the 
same time adjusting this all to the modern reality: depicting contemporary 
politicians and normal citizens, making them real, convincing, tragic and 
ironic, applying van Gogh’s irony and cynicism.  
Medea – the name of the film – and two main characters: Jason and 
Medea, are the only two names taken from the antique work. Aietes’s, 
Medea by Theo van Gogh  
 
 
273 
273 
Medea’s father’s prototype is represented as Mr. Moyra, i.e. Mr. Destiny, 
because in the modern Dutch political reality the politician who often utters 
the words like ‘people’, ‘for the people’, ‘in coram publico’ etc. are doomed 
for failure, falling prey to the political intrigues. Van Gogh sympathizes to 
Moyra, the ‘excape goat’ as we see him in the film, by naming him (albeit 
once) by the first name – Theo. Similarly, the film director applies the tool 
often used in dramaturgy – characterizing each of the characters accompanied 
by the dramatic-lyrical music, semantics, and the symbolism of color of 
clothes they are wearing.  
At the funeral of mother Moyra, the daughter of the Prime Minister 
(Moyra) meets a man that intrigues her: Jason is a young, attractive, 
ambitious real estate tycoon. Also, we learn that Mr. Moyra has a problem of 
political nature. Medea reveals that he is a suspect in a corruption scandal. 
Jason offers Medea a helping hand but Jason’s shaken image, connections 
with the real estate mobs could potentially create more problems for Moyra. 
Medea and Jason, nevertheless, become allies.  
The film develops further around Jason´s character: the film director 
shows Jason’s path of becoming a modern Dutch politician.  
Jason is a character without any family ties – even on his credit card both 
first and last names are written as ‘Jason’. Despite his financial affluence he 
has even higher ambitions – to enter politics. The scandal around Moyra is an 
ideal opportunity for Jason to enter the political arena. Mr. Moyra is his 
political idol. Medea´s mother is an aspirator to enter the politics and Medea 
Moyra the desired mother of his future children. The family harmony that 
Jason lacked and sees at the Moyra’s, become fatal for him.  
The family complex inspires Jason’s monologues that we witness in the 
beginning of each of the series; when preparing for the election speeches; 
reference to his non-existing ideal family and children; Jason is obsessed by 
the thought of running the country as a family! At a certain point we see, 
symbolically, that four months are left before him becoming the Prime 
Minister and the birth of his children. Four months before he can run the 
country as family and create the reality where he wants his children to grow 
up. For Jason there is no boundary dividing the family and the politics; For 
him it is important to have family to run the country and run the country for 
his children to live in the ideal reality. This is the key political alibi that is 
meant to justify his later betrayal of Medea and more importantly betrayal of 
his political principles.  
Owing to Medea, who takes charge of the political campaign, Jason 
becomes more and more popular day by day. The TV talk shows are the 
medium for Jason to convince the people that he will stand for their interest. 
People, according to his words, applaud him in the streets of the Hague and 
Tamara Tcheishvili 
 
274 
274 
the mass-media names him ‘the people’s choice’ or ‘the king of the people’. 
As in Euripides´s Medea, in van Gogh´s work we do not see any genuine 
interest on Jason’s behalf toward the people. The virtual people whom we 
never see in the film are one more cynical reminder of the film director of 
idleness of the people and obsoleteness of the ‘people’s choice’ ‘plastic 
politician’.  
Creon and Creusa – Minister Medelinck and his daughter Anna – friends 
of the Moyra family that actually caused the death of Moyra are themselves 
active participants in the corruption case. Betrayal of Medea and Jason, and 
political intrigues are the chosen tactics of the two for reaching out to the 
Prime Minister seat. Unfortunately, from Medea Moyra they get hold of the 
corruption-related materials and if revealed Jason is doomed for politically 
death. The People’s ‘King’ or ‘Slave’ – the question that Jason asks himself 
when he has to ask her rival to marry his daughter in order to achieve the 
dream.  
Jason cancel his political marriage but still witnesses the death of Medea 
and his children. Like the tragic ending of the Euripides’s tragedy, the future 
of characters and that of the country left without a Prime Minister remains 
equally unclear in Theo van Gogh’s Medea. Each of the characters goes 
through the painful road with the tragic ending because, in Theo van Gogh’s 
words the pain incurred upon to a human (in a ruthless-cynical way) is the 
only way to wake him up to ‘the pseudo idealism’ and ‘the wrongly 
understood idealism.’  
Euripides´s work Medea is often perceived as the criticism of his 
contemporary lifestyle and culture. Likewise, Theo van Gogh wrapped the 
modern political reality into the Euripide’s tragic story and presented to the 
public as the soap film series. This is perhaps the easiest way to convey the 
message to the modern society and to show the reality that the modern film 
director made tragic and cynical at the same time: ‘the nightmare named the 
wrongly understood idealism.’  


English

"Medea" by Theo Van Gogh

Werner, Jürgen

Phasis 5-6, 2003 
Jürgen Werner (Berlin) 
“ICH BIN ALS GRIECHIN GEBOREN ...” 
Zu den griechischen Künstlerinnen, die weltbekannt geworden sind, gehört 
die große Schauspielerin, die engagierte Politikerin, die leidenschaftliche 
Patriotin Melina Mercouri (1925-1994). Außerhalb ihrer Heimat kannte man 
sie vor allem aus Filmen wie "Sonntags nie" (1959). Zu drehen begann sie 
1955; auf der Bühne stand sie seit 1951, im Nationaltheater Athen und auf 
zahlreichen anderen Bühnen Griechenlands und der USA. Unmöglich, ihre 
Rollen aufzuzählen. Sehr beeindruckt hat sie mich in Saloniki als Medea. 
Auch als Chansonsängerin hat sie sich international einen Namen gemacht. 
Im Piräus wurde das "Mädchen vom Piräus" (das war sie in "Sonntags 
nie") 1977 und erneut 1981 als Kandidatin von Andreas Papandreous PASOK 
ins Parlament gewählt. Sechs Wochen führte sie unter Verzicht auf lukrative 
Rollenangebote aus dem Ausland ihren Wahlkampf, wobei es kein "Sonntags 
nie" gab! 1981 wurde sie Ministerin für Kultur und Wissenschaft, ein Ressort, 
wo bisher stets Wissenschaftler und Verwaltungsfachleute ihres Amtes wal-
teten. (Außer ihr gehörten dem Kabinett zwei Vizeministerinnen an. So viel 
Damen gab es noch in keiner griechischen Regierung.) Jetzt hatte sie Gele-
genheit zu realisieren, was sie im Wahlkampf gefordert hatte: "die verkalkte 
griechische Kulturpolitik radikal zu ändern". So hob sie die Filmzensur auf. 
Sie hatte den Job bis zur PASOK-Wahlniederlage 1989 und dann wieder ab 
1993.  
Als 1967 in Griechenland eine Militärjunta die Macht ergriff, da begann 
die Mercouri, schon seit der Diktatur von Metaxas (1936-41) überzeugte An-
tifaschistin, 1967 gerade auf Gastspiel in den USA, einen enthusiastischen 
Kampf gegen die Obristen. Vom Innenminister Pattakos ausgebürgert, sagte 
sie: "Ich bin als Griechin geboren und werde als Griechin sterben." Und sie 
kämpfte unbeirrt weiter, bis 1974, als die Junta endgültig mit ihrem Latein 
bzw. Griechisch am Ende war. Dabei traf es sie hart, nicht in die Heimat 
fahren zu können. Sie reiste oft in die Türkei, um von dort aus wenigstens 
“Ich bin als Griechin geboren ...” 
 
221 
griechische Inseln zu sehen. Sie kämpfte als Schauspielerin, als Sängerin und 
als Autorin mit dem Buch "I was born Greek", in deutscher Übersetzung 1971 
bei Blanvalet, 1974 bei Rowohlt.  
Anders als die meisten schreibenden Actricen stellt die Mercouri nicht ihr 
Privatleben in den Vordergrund, sondern das politische Geschehen in Gegen-
wart und Geschichte ihres Vaterlandes. Der Leser erfährt viel Entlarvendes 
über die Athener Diktatoren und ihre politischen, militärischen, ökono-
mischen und publizistischen Helfer besonders in den USA, und zwar durch-
weg in höchst anregender, oft anekdotischer, ausgesprochen spritziger Form: 
Innenminister "Pattakos, Mitglied der Vereinigung ‘Zoi’, deren Ziel die Re-
organisation von Kirche und Gesellschaft nach puritanischem Muster war, 
schritt gegen Miniröcke und Bärte ein. Als er überall ausgelacht wurde, ver-
fiel er ins andere Extrem: Er gestattete die Abhaltung eines internationalen 
Minirock-Wettbewerbs in Griechenland." Makaresos wurde Wirtschaftsmin-
ister, "weil er der einzige der drei Diktatoren war, der addieren und subtra-
hieren konnte." 
Sarkastische Bemerkungen über die USA und ihre "milde ‘Bestrafung" 
der Junta: "Keine Düsenflugzeuge mehr, aber Gewehre" (die die Obristen für 
die Unterdrückung des Volkswiderstandes viel dringender brauchten); über 
den damaligen König (bald wurde Griechenland Republik) und über frühere 
Monarchen: 1831, nach der Befreiung von der Türkei, bestimmten die drei 
‘Schutzmächte’ England, Frankreich, Rußland: Griechenland braucht einen 
König. "Sie prüften die Liste der Arbeitslosen königlichen Geblüts, pickten 
den Prinzen Otto von Bayern heraus und schickten ihn ans Mittelmeer. Ob-
wohl er kein Wort Griechisch sprach, setzte es sich dieser arme Otto in den 
Kopf, unter sein Volk zu gehen. So zog er mit vollem Hofstaat, Ehren-
teppichen und Dolmetschern unter Glockengeläut durchs Land". Die Wittels-
bacher hielten sich nicht. Die ‘Schutzmächte’ etablierten einen dänischen 
Prinzen auf dem griechischen Thron. "Er blieb recht lange auf seinem Posten, 
fast 50 Jahre, bis jemand sagte: ‘Genug ist genug’ und ihm eine Kugel in den 
Kopf jagte." Über einen Offizier der faschistischen Besatzung (1940 ff.): "Er 
schwärmte für Mozart und konnte mitten in eine Truppeninstruktion über 
Vergeltungsmaßnahmen gegen Partisanen einen kleinen Vortrag über das 
vollkommene Ebenmaß des Parthenon einschalten." Über einen griechischen 
Gefängnisverwalter der Metaxas-Zeit: "Alle Bücher mußten durch die Zensur 
der Wachen gehen. Der Aufseher meines Vaters betrachtete alles Russische 
als bolschewistisch und maßte sich an zu wissen, wer Russe war und wer 
nicht. [Maßgeblich war für ihn die Familiennamen-Endung -ow.] ‘Lermon-
tow: Russe. Nein. – Tschechow: Russe. Nein. – Tolstoi: in Ordnung.’" 
Bücher von Gorki und Lenin hätte er also, vermute ich, passieren lassen! 
 Jürgen Werner  
 
222 
Warmherzige Worte über Theodorakis, über die Schriftsteller Ritsos und 
Varnalis sowie Kambanellis (auf ihn geht ein Teil der Texte von Theodora-
kis’ Oratorium "Mauthausen" zurück.) Viel über die künstlerische Arbeit der 
Mercouri; mit schönen Anekdoten, etwa über improvisierte Musikaufnahmen 
zu "Sonntags nie" – zum Entsetzen des Drehstabes kommt der Komponist 
ohne Partitur, weil die Musiker, die dann so vorzüglich spielen, keine Noten 
lesen können! – oder über die Schwierigkeiten, in leidenschaftlichen Kuß-
Szenen zu überzeugen, wenn man dabei an kalten Drehtagen Eiswürfel im 
Mund hat, damit der Atem nicht auf den Film kommt; schließlich spielt der 
Film im Sommer! Herrlich die Beschreibung, wie die Mercouri, noch ziem-
lich jung, das Hervorbringen von Tränen übt. – Beim Friseur: "Sämtliche 
Damen der High Society waren da. Sie saßen unter ihren Trockenhauben, und 
jede war entweder mit einem Bankdirektor oder einem Reeder verheiratet. 
Ein Kurzschluß hätte die Hälfte aller griechischen Millionäre zu Witwern 
gemacht." 
Sie trifft einen französischen Theaterschriftsteller und will ihn auf sich 
aufmerksam machen: "Ich sah gut aus an diesem Tage, und ich wußte es. Ich 
trug den malerischen rosa Hut, der äußerst kleidsam war. Ich wollte von 
Achard gesehen werden. Er sollte mich anschauen. Und er tat es ..." Bei 
Dreharbeiten rettet sie Filme, die der Regisseur vernichten will: "Ehe wir aus 
dem Wasser stiegen, hatte ich die Filmrollen an mich genommen und ver-
steckt. Fragen Sie nicht, wo. Wenn eine Frau Sachen verstecken will, dann 
weiß sie schon, wie." Freimütig, aber ohne Exhibitionismus äußert sich Me-
lina Mercouri über Privates: "Männer. Fangen wir mit den Männern an. Ich 
lebe heute im festen Bund einer Ehe und sogar einer unwahrscheinlich guten. 
Zu meiner eigenen Verwunderung bin ich meinem Mann [Jules Dassin] seit 
14 Jahren treu. Aber ehe er in mein Leben trat, habe ich andere Männer ken-
nen- und liebengelernt, und es war keiner unter ihnen, mit dem ich es nicht 
schön gehabt hätte." Über den Komponisten Hadzidakis: "Ich liebte ihn so-
fort, und ich liebe ihn noch immer, obwohl er so unausstehlich sein kann, 
daß meine Zuneigung sich mehr als einmal in Wut verwandelt hat. Während 
ich dies schreibe, bemühe ich mich gerade wieder einmal, ihn zu hassen, ob-
wohl ich genau weiß, daß es mir nicht gelingen wird oder nur so lange, bis 
ich ihn wiedersehe. Sobald ich seine menschliche Wärme und seinen Charme 
spüre, werde ich ihm wieder um den Hals fallen, und er wird mich ‘Agoraki’ 
[Bübchen] nennen, und ich werde völlig in ihn vernarrt sein, bis zu unserem 
nächsten Krach ..." 
"Ich bin als Griechin geboren" ist eines der informativsten und char-
mantesten Bücher über das Griechenland um die Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts. 
Wann wird die längst vergriffene Autobiographie der Mercouri wieder das 
Licht der Buchhandlungen erblicken? 


”Ich bin als Griechin geboren ...”

Makharadze, Neli

The Arabisms of Greek-Georgian Transcriptional Manuscript from Lebanon

Nadareishvili, Ketevan

Women in the Law of Democratic Athens

Abulashvili, Medea

Phasis 5-6, 2003 
Medea Abulashvili (Tbilisi) 
ON TWO UNUSUAL RITUALS  
Happiness and sorrow, torture and consolation, hope and despair, life and 
death are companions in all epochs and centuries, in the history of a country 
or a life of an individual. None of the greatest creators and architects has in-
terpreted this logical, consistent and inevitable coexistence the way it is re-
flected in folklore and ritual traditions. We should not exaggerate if we said 
that Greek folk songs acquire a peculiar place in this respect as they express 
the above mentioned coexistence in a double way, which is determined by 
two basic factors: 
1. Their performance is evidenced throughout the long history of the Greek 
people and therefore, along with conveying the ages-old wisdom and ex-
perience, they imply convergence of mythology, history and contempo-
raneity.  
2. Since they are directly related to ritual customs, they acquire a compre-
hensive character and are equally interesting to folklorists, ethnograph-
ers, anthropologists and literary critics. 
Close links between folk songs and diverse rituals related to the human 
existence is a natural fact. However, Greek folk songs are particularly re-
markable due to two facts mentioned below: 
1. The bridal ritual incorporates mourning elements. 
2. The funereal ritual includes ceremonies characteristic of a wedding. 
Before considering each of the two cases separately, we should mention 
that the content, symbols, vocabulary, character and ritual functions of the 
two types of songs are so similar that it is difficult to discern the initial cor-
respondence between the songs and the rituals – i.e. whether the songs were 
initially composed for funerals or a wedding. Scholars also admit that some 
 Medea Abulashvili  
 
10 
purely bridal lyrics were later pertained to or transformed into the ritual of 
mourning.
1
  
Elements of Mourning in the Bridal Ritual 
Mournful content of many of bridal songs would not appear strange if the 
latter were performed at the wedding arranged regardless of the couple‟s de-
sire and consent, or if the couple suddenly met an accident. However, the 
songs are free from such a content, while their number gives no grounds for 
pertaining them to a specific case.  
It would be in the least surprising if love songs included tragic tones and 
lamentations caused by love-related suffering. However, Greek love songs are 
very cheerful and merry. Against such a background, the mournful character 
of a big number of bridal songs is rather unexpected, the more so as they usu-
ally follow the songs to be performed during the eight day preparations to the 
wedding – the songs that are full of joy, blessings and hopes.  
In the course of the long history, the bridal songs have acquired the ear-
nestness and respectfulness, hopefulness and gaiety – the properties of the 
Greek bridal ceremony. Every song illustrates the people‟s respect for each 
mystical element of this significant event. The songs likewise convey happi-
ness and diligence on the part of the couple‟s relatives and friends throughout 
the long preparatory ceremony preceding the wedding. The universal cheer-
fulness and excitement, buoyant and merry tunes and lyrics suddenly give 
place to a heavy and grave melody and the content full of despair and sorrow. 
Nature, environment and home are pictured the way as in funereal songs:  
΢ήκεξ καύξνο νπξαλόο, ζήκεξ καύξε κέξα  
....................................................................... 
Φεύγεηο θη ν νπξαλόο βξόληα θαη ε γεο νύιε ηαξάζζεη 
θη ν ηόπνο όπνπ θαζόζνπλ θιαίεη θαη αλαζεληάδεη2 
Οη θαξδηέο ιπγίδνπλ, ηα κάηηα όισλ βνύξθαλαλ3 
An ordinary reader would find it difficult to guess that the lyrics pertain to 
the group of bridal songs. Many of them even exceed the usual mourning 
songs by their grievous character. According to G. Saunier, by their vocabu-
lary, they resemble The Lamentations of the Virgin and The Mourning over 
Dygaenis. 
In some songs, the bride mourns and invites death the same way as a sis-
ter grieves over her dead brother in funereal songs: 
                                                             
1
  Saunier G.,Ο γάκνο θαη ν ζάλαηνο. Διιεληθά δεκνηηθά  ηξαγνύδηα, Αζήλα, 2001, 503. 
2
  βιαζηνο Π.,Ο γάκνο ελ Κξήηε, Αζήλα, 1853, 74. 
3
    Παππάο Η.Α., Με αθνξκή ηα δεκνηηθά καο ηξαγνύδηα, Θεζζαινλίθε, 2001, 275. 
On Two Unusual Rituals 
 
11 
Καη γσ λα κείλσ θαη αο ραζώ 
αο κείλσ θαη αο πεζάλσ
4
  
Moreover, the bride leaves a will to her mother asking her to water her 
flowers with dew in the evening and with tears in the morning: 
Μάλα κνπ  ηα ινπινύδηα κνπ  
ζπρλά λα ηα πνηίδεηο 
ην βξάδπ βξάδπ κε δξνζηά 
θαη ην πξσί κε δάθξπα5 
The mother mourns as well and promises to never smile again: 
κηζεπγείο ζπγαηεξά κνπ θαη  
πιηό δε ζα γειάζσ6 
Similar to the funereal songs, the bridal lyrics also have the bride asking 
her mother to keep away from a "stranger" (μέλνο – "a stranger", "a for-
eigner"), who wishes to kidnap her daughter: 
Σνπο μέλνπο κελ ηνπο κπάδεηο 
θαη κεο ηνπο θνπβεληηάδεηο7 
ηνπο μέλνπο κελ ηνπο δέρεζαη,  
ηξαπέδη κελ ηνπο θάλεηο8 
Remarkably, in bridal lyrics, a "stranger" refers to the bridegroom, while 
in funereal songs the word is applied to Death, Charon. 
Κξύςε κε κάλα, θξύςε κε λα κελ κε πάξεη ν Υάξνο9 
Presumably, the old, initial version of the above song belonged to the 
bridal songs group and sounded as follows: 
Κξύςε εκέλα, θξύςε κε o μέλνο  κε κε πάξεη 10 
It would take us long to consider common symbolic images of wedding 
and funereal songs (e.g. killed or kidnapped hind). Our immediate concern is 
to trace down the reason which determined inclusion of such grievous songs 
                                                             
4
  Saunier G. Ζ θξίζε ηνπ γάκνπ.Θξήλνο θαη ηειεηνπξγία. Διιεληθά δεκνηηθά ηξαγνύδηα, 
Αζήλα, 2001, 413. 
5
    Πεηξόπνπινο Γ. ( ed.), Διιεληθά δεκνηηθά ηξαγνύδηα,ηνκ.Β, Αζήλα,119, Η΄. 
6
  Βιάζηνο Π., 75. 
7
  Saunier G.,Διιεληθά δεκνηεθά ηξαγνύδηα, Σα κνηξνιόγηα, Αζήλα,1999, 427.  
8
  Op. cit., 427. 
9
  Saunier G, 2001, 503. 
10
  Πεηξόπνπινο Γ., 117. 
 Medea Abulashvili  
 
12 
in the bridal ceremony – the songs which are so mournful that some of them 
were later performed only at funerals. We can easily find an answer if we 
consider the phase of the ceremony, when the songs are performed.  
Parcels of the bride‟s dowry are all packed during several days of prepara-
tion and are already taken to the bridegroom‟s house. Close relatives of the 
bride are in the yard, while the bride herself is waiting by a white horse, 
which is to take her from her father‟s home. The young lady is not only leav-
ing her habitual, native environment, but is starting a new life, which does not 
prove easy. (Here we should also bear in mind that the songs were composed 
in the epoch when marriages were arranged in accordance with fathers‟ will 
irrespective of their daughters‟ opinion, which was common in Greece.) The 
sorrow is mutual – the bride was parting from her home and parents are let-
ting a strange man to take their daughter. Everyone and everything is petrified 
at the moment: 
΢ηέθνπλ ηα άινγα ζηξσκέλα 
ζηέθεη ε λύθε αξκαησκέλε 
΢ηέθνληαη θη‟νη ζπκπεζέξεη 
ζην θνληάθη αθνπκπηζκέλνη 
Να θηλήζεη δε θηλάεη 
λα θαζήζεη δε θαζέηαη 
δελ κπνξεί λ‟απνρσξήζεη 
απν κάλλα θαη παηέξα11 
The bride awaits encouragement from her parents, her father in particular, 
to help her decide to leave or force her to do so. This is the moment when the 
bride performs a purely funereal song:  
Φεύγσ θιαίσληαο  
θεύγσ παξαπνληώληαο
12
 
The above is followed by mother‟s responsive part. Usually, in Greek ce-
remonies, mothers are allowed to a greater extent to express their emotions. It 
is difficult to make out by her words whether she is seeing off her daughter – 
the bride, or is mourning over her dead child: 
Άλνημαλ νη εθηά νπξαλνί, ηα δώδεθα  
    βαγγέιηα 
θαη πήξαλ ην παηδάθη κνπ από ηα δπό κνπ ρέξηα 
............................................................................ 
κηζεπγείο ζπγαηέξα κνπ θαη πιίν δε ζα γειάζσ. 13  
                                                             
11
  Saunier G., 2001, 412. 
12
  Παππάο  Η.Α., 275. 
On Two Unusual Rituals 
 
13 
Φεύγεηο θη ν νπξαλόο βξνληά θη ε γεο νπιή ηεξάζζεη 
θη ν ηόπνο όπνπ θάζνπζνπλ θιείεη θη αλαζηελάδεη 14 
Mournful character dominates among the songs performed at the moment 
when the bride parts from her father‟s home, while the post-bridal ceremony 
lacks grievous tones. This can be explained in the following way: the mourn-
ing bears a symbolic and ritual sense and allows the bride to "give herself 
airs" and "look effected" for a while. Her parents emphasize that they are 
losing and the bridegroom is acquiring their treasure in the person of their 
daughter. Another reason which puts an end to lamentations is the fact that 
the bride enters the bridegroom‟s family from that moment and at once as-
sumes a new role. Correspondingly, the rituals emphasize the significance of 
marriage and responsibilities of the couple as well as of their close relatives 
and friends. 
Mourning over the bride‟s departure is an intrinsic part of the ritual lyrics, 
while no such songs are performed by the bridegroom and his household. 
This may be explained by the fact that a traditional Greek family does not part 
with their son after his marriage, as the latter either stays in his father‟s fami-
ly, or settles nearby.  
Mournful lyrics become less and less characteristic of the bridal songs of 
later period as the bride‟s lot is much eased and her opinion upon her own 
marriage is considered. Consequently, the funereal mystery gradually loses its 
emotional component, which results in the transfer of bridal lamentations to 
the ceremonies of funeral and parting.  
Investigation of evidence of mourning elements in other peoples‟ bridal 
rituals lies beyond our immediate goal. At the present stage, we may only 
assert that unlike Georgian tradition, the above mentioned phenomenon exists 
in the Hellenic world, and is present in the Greek bridal folk songs.  
 
The Bridal Ceremony at the Funereal Ritual 
The opposite phenomenon, the bridal ceremony at funerals does not per-
tain to the Greek world alone. However, according to the sources at our dis-
posal, other peoples‟ folklore has preserved fewer materials in this regard, 
while Greek sources convey rich and invaluable information about this con-
troversial phenomenon. Among the bridal lyrics performed at funerals two 
types are distinguished: 
1. Songs composed specially for the ritual. 
2. Songs that transferred from the bridal ritual to funerals. 
                                                                                                                             
13
  Πεηξόπνπινο Γ.,118 
14
  Βιάηζνο Π.,74 
 Medea Abulashvili  
 
14 
In parallel cases, type 2 songs were only slightly altered. The less signifi-
cant is the difference, the more tragic is the mourning emotion. In such cases, 
people usually perform the bridal songs that express the tragedy of parting 
and fear of the "stranger", as mentioned above.  
Numerous funereal songs picture a situation typical of a wedding. Only, 
the symbol of a bride, whom a youth is going to marry, refers to the earth. 
Here we usually come across the following epithets: 
λύθε πηθξή λύθε θαθή  
καύξε γεο λπθνύια15 
As commonly acknowledged, the Greek mystery of mythical marriage 
was related to the early death of young men who went to the nether land un-
married. Remarkably, if a betrothed young man or girl died, the imitation of 
the bridal ceremony was performed at the funerals. (Some songs say that Cha-
ron takes away the bridegroom and leaves the bride. In other cases the 
mourners lament that bridal crown and one candle are left lonely.) 
Φέξλνπλ ην ζηέθαλν κόλν θαη ηε ιακπάδα κία3 
Often, mourners remark that the wedding lacks gayety and laughter: 
΢ηνλ Άδε θαη ζηελ καύξε γε  
δελ είλαη γιέληηα θαη ρνξνί 16 
 
The above makes it clear that the songs considered were composed specif-
ically for funereal rituals, like the lyrics which say that the wedding will take 
place in Hades. 
΢ηνλ νπξαλό ρνξεύγνπλε 
ζηνλ Αδε γάκν θάλνπλ 
Ο ράξνο θάλεη κηα ραξά 
παληξεύεη ηνλ ηγηό ηνπ17 
According to the songs in this category, people are invited to the wedding 
party either by Charon, or a widow, or any of the dead person‟s parent. This 
occurs when the latter is also dead and welcomes his/ her child in the nether 
land. 
                                                             
15
  Saunier G.,1999,288 
16
  Op.cit.289 
17
  Op.cit.290 
On Two Unusual Rituals 
 
15 
Most surprising are the songs in which Charon or the deceased speaks in 
the first person. This undoubtedly indicates that the mourners used to play the 
part of Charon or the deceased, which aimed at overcoming fear of death and 
the dead. 
The ritual, which was compulsory to perform, evidently, helped the 
mourners express their grief in all its intensity, assert existence of the nether 
world and eased their sorrow.  
The unique rituals considered above vividly picture links between death 
and marriage. The funereal mystery at the bridal ceremony and elements of 
bridal ritual at funerals are the phenomena which will always attract scholars‟ 
particular interest. 
 


On Two Unusual Rituals

Vacheishvili, Zurab

For Cognition of God in "Asceticism" by N. Kazandzakis

Gamrekeli, Tea

The Principle of Circular Arrangement of Elements in Konstantinos Cavafis’ Poems

Dolidze, Nino

Interpretation of the Concepts of ΦΥΣΙΣ and ΝΟΜΟΣ in Sophists\u27 Teaching

Decreus, Freddy

Antiquité et temps modernes, ou les changements dans les conditions du savoir

Dularidze, Tea

Phasis 10 (II), 2007 
 
 
Tea Dularidze (Tbilisi) 
THE ARGONAUTS’ VOYAGE  
IN THE TRANSITIONAL PERIOD OF GEORGIAN LITERATURE  
(THE 18TH-19TH CENTURIES) 
Georgian people were historically well acquainted with ancient culture owing 
to centuries-old political and cultural contacts with Greece. This is clearly 
reflected in old Georgian literature. Greek mythology and especially the 
Argonaut myth, whose episodes and mythological characters are mentioned in 
many old Georgian written sources, invited particular attention. Ephraim 
Mtsire’s (the 11
th
 century) translation of the Hellenic Tales were very popular 
in medieval Georgia.
1
 It was one of the main sources of Greek mythology in 
Georgian language. The work influenced the original Georgian writing as 
well.
2
 However, it is noteworthy that Georgian literature of the so-called 
transitional period offers information about Greek mythology with different 
ampleness and interpretation. The works of the 18
th
-19
th
 centuries mention 
mythological characters and plots unknown to Georgian literature of the 
previous period. By that time, quite a number of collected works relating 
Greek myths were available in Georgia. "In the 18
th
 century, closer contacts 
between Russia and Georgia resulted in the translation from Russian into 
Georgian of numerous works by ancient authors, many of which included 
modified redactions of particular plots or motifs from ancient writing."
3
 A 
large number of scholarly works were devoted to the study of these issues, 
                                                 
1
  For more information, see Abuladze I., Hellenic Tales, The Bulletin of the Institute of History 
of Language and Material Culture, Tbilisi, 1941 (in Georgian).  
2
  Asatiani V., Classical and Byzantine Traditions in Georgian Literature, Tbilisi, 1996, 194 (in 
Georgian); Kutateladze L., Lexicographic Works of David and Ioane Bagrationi, Tbilisi, 1967, 
10-13 (in Georgian). 
3
  Asatiani V., 1996, 234. 
Tea Dularidze 28 
including researches by Korneli Kekelidze, Simon Kaukhchishvili, Ilia 
Abuladze, Akaki Urushadze and others, which are no less relevant nowadays. 
The study of ancient literature was considered to be especially important 
in the transitional period. This may be attributed to increasing interest in 
ancient world on the part of 18
th
-19
th
 century Europe. Public awareness of 
ancient Greek mythology and its popularity was largely contributed by the 
works of distinguished writers and literary men taking interest in the related 
issues. This tendency is attested by the materials found in manuscripts. 
Presently, I will dwell on literary activities of Princes David, Ioane and 
Teimuraz Bagrationi (popularly known as Davit, Ioane and Teimuraz 
Batonishvili), whose works reflected the phenomenon of Greek myth in a 
very interesting way. The princes carried on old Georgian literary traditions, 
which implied close cultural contacts with the Greek world (ancient as well as 
Byzantine) throughout many centuries. 
David Bagrationi (1767-1819) combined public work with literary, 
translating and scholarly activities. The Mythology ascribed to him has 
survived through many manuscripts including comments on ancient 
characters and terms. Admittedly, the source for David Bagrationi’s 
Mythology was Chulkov’s Concise Mythological Dictionary.
4
 However, the 
Georgian text offers elements missing in the Russian source. Studies also 
revealed that many comments included in the Mythology imply references to 
the Hellenic Tales; moreover, the work enables to reconstruct quite a number 
of illegible fragments from the Hellenic Tales.5 
In the Mythology, David Bagrationi comments on Jason’s identity and 
offers the traditional version of the retrieval of Golden Fleece from the 
Argonaut cycle: "Iason, the son of Iazon, king of Phessaly, whose great feat is 
that with the help of Medea, the daughter of the Colchian king, he obtained 
Golden-Fleeced Ram protected by many dragons, and Medea put the dragon 
to sleep cunningly."
6
 Remarkably, the Hellenic Tales mentions Jason on one 
occasion describing him sowing the dragon’ teeth. It says nothing about the 
obtaining of the Golden Fleece, about Medea and the Colchian king, while the 
Mythology offers brief information from the Argonaut cycle. Presumably, the 
author referred to the Russian translation of the Greek source.  
Ancient mythology is widely commented on in Kalmasoba or Teaching 
through Games by Ioane Bagrationi (1768-1830). The work proved to be a 
                                                 
4
  Чулков М., Краткий мифологический лексикон, Сб., 1767. 
5
  Asatiani V., 1996, 247. 
6
  Asatiani V., Antiquity in Old Georgian Literature, Tbilisi, 1987, 199 (in Georgian). 
 The Argonauts’ Voyage in the Transitional...  29 
real encyclopedia
7
 of those times, including huge information about various 
branches of science such as philosophy, psychology, ethics, logics, law, 
linguistics, poetics, rhetoric, history, medicine, theology and what is the most 
relevant for the present paper, about mythology. He was thoroughly 
acquainted with the Russian sources available in that period. They are clearly 
reflected in his writings. Presumably, Ioane Bagrationi must have referred to 
Russian translations of works by Greek philosophers and writers when he 
treated mythological themes. The author used a Roman version to provide 
detailed explanation of nearly all deities and relates the stories of the heroes 
known from Greek mythology including Jason. As the Argonaut legend is 
connected with Colchis, it is natural that Ioane Bagrationi treated it with 
particular interest and attempted to present it completely to Georgian readers. 
Kalmasoba provides a detailed description of how the Argonauts started their 
campaign to ancient Colchis. "He gathered all heroes and they went to 
Colchis to obtain the Golden Fleece. This campaign is called the Campaign of 
the Argonauts."
8
 This is one of the comparatively full versions of the 
Argonaut myth in Georgian literature of the transitional period. The story 
starts with the information about Jason’s origin and identity. Then the author 
dwells on the tasks which Aietes set for him, on how he managed to 
accomplish them with Medea’s help, and how he finally obtained the Golden 
Fleece: "Jason went to the Dragon and when he approached it, he gave the 
Dragon the sleeping drugs and immediately the Dragon fell dead on the 
ground. Then he took the Golden-Fleeced Ram as the award for his trial and 
came to his companions filled with joy and everybody congratulated him."
9
 
The story told by Ioane Bagrationi accurately and coherently follows 
Apollonius’ Argonautica.
10
 However, unlike Apollonius, he goes on with the 
story and tells us about Medea’s lot after she left her country together with 
Jason. Medea married Jason but later on "Jason disliked his wife and wished 
to marry another woman."
11
 The Kalmasoba describes how Jason’s fiancée 
was burnt by the clothes sent to her by Medea. The Georgian author follows 
the Euripidean version and tells the readers how Medea, enraged by her 
                                                 
7
  See Kekelidze K., History of Georgian Literature, vol. I, 1960; Baramidze A., About the Realis-
tic Stream in the 17
th
-18
th 
c., Georgian Literature, Literary Studies, vol. 9, Tbilisi, 1955; Jambu-
ria K., Genre Properties of the Kalmasoba, Matsne, Series of Language and Literature, 1984, 3 
(in Georgian). 
8
  Ioane Batonishvili, Teaching through Games, prepared for publication by T. Kakhabrishvili 
and T. Kikvidze, vol. 1, 1990, 334 (in Georgian).  
9
  Ioane Batonishvili, 1990, 335. 
10
  Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, translated from Greek, introduced and commented on by A. 
Urushadze, Tbilisi 1948; Urushadze A., Ancient Colchis in the Argonaut Legend, Tbilisi, 1964 
(in Georgian). 
11  Ioane Batonishvili, 1990, 335. 
Tea Dularidze 30 
husband’s unfaithfulness, killed her own children.
12
 Admittedly, Euripides 
deliberately changed the myth to present Medea as a truly tragic character.
13
 
This is proved by the fact that before the tragedy was composed, none of the 
sources mentions the episode of child-slaughter. Although many writers 
attempted to deny this fact, they referred to the Euripidean interpretation as a 
model as they treated the theme of Medea. It is hard to say whether Ioane 
Bagrationi shared this version or not but it is true that he presented to the 
Georgian public the character popular in ancient world and associated with 
great tragedy. It is beyond doubt that Ioane Bagrationi referred to many Greek 
sources as he treated the Argonaut myth. He even acquainted readers with 
Euripides’ version, which Georgian writers normally tried to avoid. This 
remarkable fact seems to be unique in Georgian sources. Despite the fact that 
Jason tried to take revenge on his wife, Medea who was known for her 
witchcraft "flew away in a chariot harnessed to two dragons."
14
 This is how 
the Argonaut myth ends in Kalmasoba. Remarkably, it offers a lot of 
important information in connection with the Golden Fleece as well as with 
other Greek and Roman myths. The fact is that the tendency of taking interest 
in this theme is clearly reflected in Ioane Bagrationi’s works. The author 
offers a definition of mythology: "Mythology is the art or study of traditional 
stories about gods and religions of the ancient Greeks and Romans."
15
 This 
was very important for the Georgian community of that period. The 
representatives of the transitional period carried on the diverse tradition that 
existed in Georgia throughout centuries and enjoyed original interpretation. 
As time passed, the interest in ancient world was increasing. 
Teimuraz Bagrationi, a well-known scholar of the first half of the 19
th
 
century, devoted his work to the treatment of the Argonaut myth. According 
to Akaki Urushadze, the "History of Iveria" by Teimuraz Bagrationi offers the 
most comprehensive account of the Argonaut myth.
16
 In the opinion of 
scholars, the author referred to Russian sources. However, one of Teimuraz’s 
manuscripts mentions that the story of "Phrix, Helle and the Golden Fleece" 
is based on the translated version of an early Greek source: "This story was 
found and translated into Georgian by Teimuraz, the son of King. It was 
translated from ancient Greek books and the translation, previously made by 
                                                 
12
  Euripides, Medea, translated by B. Bregvadze, introduced and commented by R. Gordeziani, 
Tbilisi, 1999, 69-71; See K. Nadareishvili’s article in the present volume. 
13
  Gordezaini R., Greek Literature. Hellenic Epos, Lyric, Drama, I, Tbilisi, 2002, 397-398; 
Schadewaldt W., Die griechishe Tragödie, Tübinger Vorlesungen, Band 4, Unter Mitwirkung 
von M. Schadewaldt, hrsg. I. Schudoma, 1996. 
14
  Ioane Batonishvili, 1990, 335. 
15
  Asatiani V., 1996, 257. 
16
  Urushadze A., 1964. 
 The Argonauts’ Voyage in the Transitional...  31 
some Georgian, was revised and improved. I believe that the story of Jason 
and the Myrmidons was translated into Georgian eight hundred years ago" (H 
_ 3723, 245).17 Apart from this, scholars admit that Teimuraz treated the first 
part of the Argonaut myth, namely Jason’s trip to Colchis at the behest of his 
uncle, Medea’s help, the retrieval of the Golden Fleece and the campaign of 
Jason and Heracles against Troy, on the basis of Historia destructionis Troiae 
by Guido de Columna. At this point Teimuraz finished his narrative as his 
only interest lay in the Argonaut theme.  
It is truly challenging to compare Teimuraz’s story with those by David 
and Ioane and trace differences. The plot and narrative structure varies in all 
the three works.
18
 David Bagrationi’s Mythology is more informative and 
does not aim at giving a detailed account of the Golden Fleece legend. 
Although Teimuraz Bagrationi frequently refers to Georgian sources, 
including the Mythology, he does not do this when he relates the Argonaut 
story. Ioane and Teimuraz Bagrationi offer different versions. Teimuraz 
Bagrationi avoids the episode of childslaughter and presents the traditional 
ancient story according to which, after Medea learned about Jason’s 
unfaithfulness, she leaft her children in Corinth and fled to Athens, while her 
children were skilled by the Corinthians.
19
 Teimuraz refers to the version of 
the myth existing before Euripides, which was repeatedly treated by authors 
of the later period. In the History of Iveria Teimuraz Bagrationi deliberately 
accentuates the Argonaut myth and tries to give a detailed account of the 
legend, which he regards as one of the most significant parts of the history of 
Iveria. So we may assume that Teimuraz Bagrationi deliberately included the 
traditional version of the Argonaut myth in his history.  
Thus the above-mentioned examples attest that the interest in ancient 
culture did not diminish in the Georgian literature of the so-called transitional 
period. The presented material is the later response to this interest. 
                                                 
17
  Asatiani V., 1996, 273; Akhobadze L., About the Sources of Phrix and the Golden-Fleeced 
Ram by Teimuraz Batonishvili (Prince Teimuraz), III, Tbilisi, 1973. 
18
  Jamburia K., Artistic Structure of the Kalmasoba, Criticism, 1983, 4 (in Georgian). 
19
  Gordeziani R., The Argonauts. The World of Greek Myths, Tbilisi, 1999, 128-130 (in Georgian). 


The Argonauts’ Voyage in the Transitional Period of Georgian Literature (the 18th-19th Centuries)

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