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Assessment of the Influence of Municipal Bonds on Infrastructure Financing In Nairobi County, Kenya
No full textA Project Report submitted to the Chandaria School of Business in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Masters in Business Administration (MBA)The purpose of this study was to find out the influence of municipal bonds on infrastructure financing in Nairobi County, Kenya. The study was guided by three key research questions namely: What is the viability of municipal bonds in financing public infrastructure in Nairobi County? What are the perceived challenges of utilizing municipal bonds to finance county infrastructure? What are the perceived benefits of utilizing municipal bonds to finance Nairobi County infrastructure?
To answer these research questions the researcher adopted a descriptive research design. The study population comprised of the Nairobi County government senior officials, as well as 66 firms drawn from fixed income professionals in Kenya: commercial banks (47) and brokerage firms (19). This study employed stratified random sampling to select respondents. The type of firm constituted the strata thus the study population was stratified into Nairobi County, investment bank and brokerage firms in one grouping, and commercial banks in the other. After stratification simple random sampling was used to select a sample size of 100 respondents, in proportionate the population of each strata: commercial banks (47), brokerage firms (17), and County officials (36). Questionnaires were used as the data collection instruments while the collected data was analyzed using SPSS software. The analyzed data was presented and summaries in form of charts, frequency tables, and graphs.
The findings on the viability of municipal bonds in financing public infrastructure in counties in Kenya revealed that municipal bonds can provide a mechanism of infrastructure in Counties; as well it was revealed that lack of municipal debt market hinders municipal governments from seeking financial rating. The study also revealed that central government restrictions on municipal bond issuances, hinders municipal governments from seeking financial ratings. Additionally, the study established that high fees charged for ratings hinders municipal governments from seeking credit rating. Finally, the study established that in their current form, local credit rating agencies provide adequate coverage to support establishment of a local municipal debt market
The findings on the perceived benefits of using municipal bonds to finance infrastructure at counties in Kenya revealed that majority of the respondents agree that indeed Municipal bonds (MB) offer a lower interest rate cost as well as lower administrative costs arising from arranging loans, processing information about borrowers and monitoring them. In the same regard, municipal bonds issues are large in size hence benefit from economies of scale. Similarly, municipal bonds are attractive to institutional investors’ pension funds and insurance companies due to the size of the issues. Majority of the respondents also argued that municipal bonds can be structured in several ways, to suit the needs of the issuer. Finally, it was established that Municipal bonds require less collateral.
The findings on the perceived challenges of utilizing municipal bonds to finance county infrastructure revealed that majority of the respondents believe that the current legal and regulatory framework hinders issuance of Municipal bonds, because the process of accessing the capital market has not been developed. Lack of financial management capacity in municipal governments in Kenya exhibited weakness in capacity for accounting, budgeting, and financial management. Additionally, the study established that limited long term commercial interest is likely to hinder the performance of municipal bonds and pricing in the local debt market is likely to impede the performance of municipal bond. In the same regard, municipal governments face a challenge of adequate cash flows to pay debts.
The study recommends the need for the government, as well as the county governments to seek ways of creating a conducive environment for the municipal bond markets in a bid to enhance their performances, specifically with regards to the financing of public infrastructure. This can well be achieved if there is macroeconomic stability, this means that the government needs to provide fiscal discipline in order to contain market uncertainty. There is also the need to enhance market transparency, by the central government as well as credit rating agencies. The study also recommends the need for a vibrant bond market to enhance the performance of bond markets. As well, investor education, is key in order to make municipal bond attractive to both institutional and retail investors. The study recommends the need for County governments to adopt the use of Municipal bonds in financing public infrastructure in the respective counties in order to benefit from the various aspects that come with the adoption of Municipal bonds. The study also recommends the need for enhancing financial management and project appraisal capacity in Nairobi County in a bid to minimize the challenges and limitations of using municipal bonds
Millenials and the Work Place Environment; Case Study of Kenya Revenue Authority
No full textA Research Project Submitted To the Chandaria School of Business in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Business Administration (MBA)The purpose of this research study was to determine the effects of Millennials in the work place environment, a case study of KRA. The specific objectives of the study were to examine the challenges faced by millennials, how their behavior affects productivity, their benefits in the workplace and the roles of millennials in the boardroom. The beneficiaries of this study was the management of KRA, management of other organizations dealing with/employing millennials and other researchers.
The study answered these questions and adopted a descriptive research design on a population of 80 employees within the KRA Training and Human Resource (HR) Department. Stratified random sampling was employed from which a sample of 38 employees was derived. To collect data from the sample respondents, closed-ended questionnaires were used. A five point Likert scale was employed in seeking responses for these questions. A response rate of 48% was realized. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) tool was used for data analysis, both descriptive and inferential statistics were used in the data analysis. Descriptive statistics included frequency distributions, Measures of Central Tendency was used, mean and standard deviations whereas correlation analysis were performed for inferential statistics. The data was then presented in form of tables and figures to communicate the patterns and to simplify the sample findings to the population.
The study found out there exists diverse challenges facing millennials at KRA, the analysis found out there exists generational conflict in the organizational hierarchy as well as intergenerational conflict at workplace. It was observed that millennials are willing to change jobs when new opportunities arises, this means high turnover. The study found out that millennials are focused on a job that will give them a comfortable life, they lack proper communication especially among other generations, desire of instant career growth. Further study found out there are benefits associated with millennials; they are the most technologically friendly generation, are good at multi-tasking, quick to learn and practice new ideas and support diversity and inclusion. The study also found out that they are loyal although liberals and can align themselves to team goals very easily.
On Effects of Millennials Behavior on Productivity, it was found out that millennials impatient behavior affect their productivity, millennials tech savvy behavior helps improve efficiency at work. The study also found out that millennials lack concentration at work, are addicted to social media applications, are indecisive, are sensitive about how others feel about them, and always want to be popular and liked.
The study hence confirmed that KRA millennials have distinct characteristics that sets them apart from other generation. They are tech savvy, adaptable, learner centered and are open to new ideas. Millennials lack formality especially on how they communicate to their supervisors, who see this as a disrespect. They will switch jobs when a new opportunity arises, it was also concluded that millennials work well in teams which enhances innovation at the organization. Millennials have shifted ways in which work get done in organization through their adaptability to new technology which has improved efficiency. It was concluded that it is a task on retaining millennials in organization, who have different work values and attitudes.
The study recommends that KRA should engage and involve the millennials in the major decision making, come up with effective strategies for engaging millennials on various organizational issues. There should be a change of systems, processes and a change in organizational culture in the workplace to accommodate this generation, who will form a bigger percentage of the workforce. Organizations need to have proper communication channel that allows for instantaneous feedback on millennial performance. KRA should leverage on key strengths held by millennials, should change their policies to accommodate millennials, and include flexibility schedule to accommodate work styles preferred by millennials. There should be millennials inclusivity in KRA board as they are influencing the market trends globally, and the lack of millennials in the boards may pose risks for businesses, regardless of their industry
The Influence of Strategic Planning On Performance of Rugby Clubs in Kenya
No full textA Research Project Report Submitted to the Chandaria School of Business in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Masters in Business Administration (MBA)The purpose of study was to establish the influence of strategic planning by rugby clubs on their performance. The study was guided by the following questions: How does having a create vision and goals influence performance of rugby clubs in Kenya? How does strategic formulation influence the performance of rugby clubs in Kenya? How implementation of strategic plan influence performance of rugby clubs in Kenya? Descriptive research was used for this studyto investigate facts., the target population were officials, technical team and players in the Rugby teams in the Kenyan league. According to the Kenyan rugby union data there are currently 8 teams in the Kenya Cup that are based in Nairobi as at June 2017. The respondents included the Chairman, (Leaders) Head of the line, Head of pack, Flyhalf, Scramhalf, Hooker, Coach and Assistant coach in each of the eight teams resulting into 64 respondents.The researcher distributed 64 questionnaires and only 52 were filled and returned, this represented a response rate of 81 %. The descriptive records which include mean and standard deviation was measured. Both Pearson correlation and multiple Regression analysis was used to test for the relationship among the independent and dependent variables. The study established that 33% strongly agreed that their clubs have a well stated vision (M=3.79) and 39% strongly agreed that they have clear goals before Kenya cup season starts, 39% agreed (M=4.06). The results also show that 40% believed the goals are realistic (M=3.92), while 48% agreed that goals are measurable (M=3.83). It was also established that 35% agreed that performance of a sports team is quantified by the amount of competitions it wins (M=3.78). The findings revealed that there was a positive relationship between having a great vision and goals and performance of rugby clubs in Kenya (R=.050, P=0.726). The findings show that 54% noted that strategy formulation was done yearly, while 21% noted it was done after 3-4 years. It was established that 46% disagreed that the organization regularly undertake strategy formulation (3.46), it was also noted that 29% strongly agreed that the clubs strategic plan clearly communicated to all (M=3.63). The findings revealed that there was a positive relationship between strategic formulation and performance of rugby clubs in Kenya (R=.093, P=0.513).
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The findings show that 60% reviewed their strategic plan yearly during implementation and 25% after 2-3 years. The analysis also show that 48% agreed that resource allocation influence strategic planning (M=3.50). On the other hand, 46% agreed that resource allocation influence strategic planning (M=3.87). The findings revealed that there was a positive relationship between strategic plan and performance of rugby clubs in Kenya (R=.046, P=0.743). The study recommends that clubs should at all-time maintain a well stated vision and have clear goals for the seasons. The plans need to be well outlined and proper communication done by the technical team to all stake holders. Clubs should undertake regulator strategy formulation and the plan clearly communicated to all, The clubs also need to minimize internal politics as it has an effect on the attainment of higher levels of organizational performance. The leadership need to show ample commitment towards the attainment of this results.Strategic plans ought to be reviewed regularly, and enough resource should be allocated for the process and monitored to ensure the attainment of results. Although sponsorship is the main source of revenue for the clubs, they should diversify and look into other sources of revenue
Influence of Promotional Mix Elements On Brand Loyalty In The Kenyan Banking Sector; The Case Study Of NIC Bank Ltd, Harambee Avenue Branch, Nairobi
No full textA Research Project Report Submitted to the Chandaria School of Business in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Masters in Business Administration (MBA)in the Kenyan banking sector. The study was guided by the research questions that were aimed at answering how personal selling affected brand loyalty in the Kenyan banking sector; how advertising affected brand loyalty in the Kenyan banking sector; and how direct marketing affected brand loyalty in the Kenyan banking sector.
The study used descriptive research design with the promotional mix elements as the independent variables, and brand loyalty as the dependent variable. The target population was all the accounts domiciled at Harambee Avenue branch which totaled 12400 in number. The total number was distributed into four categories of accounts; business accounts, personal accounts, fixed/call deposit accounts and loan accounts. Stratified sampling technique was used to select the respondents from among the list of active accounts. Thereafter Cochran’s sample size formula was applied to derive the final number of respondents to participate in the study, which came to a final 222 respondents.
The primary data collection was conducted using a four-part questionnaire. In this method, each person was able to respond to the same questions in a pre-determined way. This study employed standard deviations and correlation analysis as quantitative methods of data analysis. To guarantee ease in the analysis of the questionnaires, each questionnaire was coded in accordance with each of the research questions to ensure precision during the study process. The data collected was classified into meaningful categories and tabulations made from the same. The MS Excel was used to analyze the collected data.
The study revealed that most banks consider personal selling as more persuasive among the marketing communication mix elements in NIC Bank since it consolidates customers and maintains the buyer-seller exchange relationship. The reason behind the bank adopting personal selling approach is to cope with stiff competition, expand its portfolio in the growing market, adapt to changes in customer tastes and preferences, changes in technology, enhancing customer relationships as well as increasing sales volume of the firm.
The study revealed that the bank pays special attention to the aspects related to the design of their advertising campaigns in the media through developing original and creative strategies, and in turn advertisements have enhanced consumer knowledge and perception which has ultimately strengthened the brand loyalty. Through advertising by NIC Bank, users gain motives to purchase the advertised product and this has had positive effects on brand image and perceived quality which thus contributes toward enhanced brand loyalty.
The study revealed that NIC Bank has developed marketing programs to establish knowledge structures for the brand so that consumers respond favorably to marketing activities. The bank uses direct marketing to obtain an immediate response and cultivate lasting customer relationships. In addition, NIC Bank finds it convenient and quick to convey any information through mobile devices via text messages, push messages and email to cultivate positive effects on consumers’ brand relationships and long-term purchase behavior.
The study concludes that customers buy into the presentation and knowledge skills personal sellers possess as regards bank products and services, and the manner in which they are convinced into buying the brand and becoming loyal. The study also concludes that advertisements placed in the media and press regularly are equally appealing to different sections of the bank’s target market. The study also concludes that the approach of direct marketing used by banks plays an appropriate role in delivering what the brand stands for, its abilities and promises in order to reach towards customer trust.
The study recommended that adequate and timely personal selling should be encouraged for brands of products that are performing dismally in the market as well as products in the product life cycle that are in decline stage in an organization. With the improvement in the technology, different firms should consider use of different ways to attract new customers and to increase awareness among them. Likewise, the study recommended that banks should adopt advertising since it gives information, persuades, reminds, corrects false impressions, convinces as well as creates a brand image for buyers of a product or service. The study also recommended that banks need to build relationships with their customers through dedicated relationship managers because it is much more personal than other forms of marketing and selling
The Impact of Working Capital management And Profitability of Construction Firms Listed on the Nairobi Securities Exchange
No full textA Research Project Report Submitted to the Chandaria School of Business in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Masters in Business Administration (MBA)The study aimed to investigate the relationship between working capital management and profitability of construction firms listed on Nairobi Securities Exchange. The study sough to address the following key questions: What is the effects of Average Collection Period on profitability on the firm in the construction industry? What is the impacts of Inventory Conversion Period (ICP) on profitability of firms in the construction industry? And lastly, what is the effect of Cash Conversion Cycle (CCC) on profitability on firms in the construction industry?
The research applied descriptive research design and this was the most appropriate as it allowed for the reporting of the data summary by use of measures of central tendency including the mean, standard variation, percentage, and correlation between variables. The population comprised of 180 employees of the construction firms listed at the Nairobi securities exchange. A sample size of 124, representing 68.89% of total population was used. After the analysis using Excel and SPSS, the results were presented in the forms of tables.
The findings revealed a positive significant relationship between the average collection period and firm profitability at a beta value -0.258 with a T-Value being 1.955. As a result, the firm‟s practices such as effective management of credit mechanisms, sufficient average collection period, effective credit standards, undertaking of customers‟ credit analysis, best collection periods indirectly influenced the firm‟s profitability. Furthermore, a correlation of 0.665** indicated that decrease in average collection period leads towards increase in profitability and vice versa. The findings indicated a correlation of .604*. As a matter of fact, large raw material piles, efficient record maintenance, frequent stock taking, proper inventory control systems, and rapid inventory turnover, as well as holding of minimal inventory with aim of reducing costs influence profitability of construction firms. The correlation of .701** that shows that low cash conversion cycle of construction firms is resulting into higher profitability and vice versa. Therefore, lack of funds, insufficient inventory, and acquisition of good on credit, regular budgeting for future firm‟s expenditure, as well as meeting of both short-term and long-term obligations had a bearing on the overall firm‟s profitability.
The study concludes that there exists a strong positive relationship between average collection period and profitability of construction firms listed on Nairobi Securities
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Exchange. The study also concluded that construction firms need to reduce the duration of converting cash. The cash conversion cycle has to be reduced to the minimum as well. Therefore, the study suggests that decreasing cash conversion cycle is a measure of effective working capital management and it is appraised by companies. However, the firm should use effective policies that would neither result into bad debts nor loss of customers to the firm.
The study also recommended that construction firms should keep the receivable collection period at minimum in order to enhance financial performance, profitability. In addition, the construction firms should ensure that stock levels stocks are sufficient to meet customer demands at all times. At the same time, the firms should avoid holding onto dead stock as it ties up finances hence negatively impacting on the firm‟s financial performance. It is recommend that construction firms should adopt effective measures of ensuring the cash conversion cycle is reduced. There is need to examine why construction firms should pursue small inventory conversion period, low average collection receivable period and small Cash conversion cycle
Effect of Information Technology Strategies on Organization Effectiveness A Case Study of United States International University-Africa
No full textA Research Project Report Submitted to the Chandaria School of Business in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Masters in Business Administration (MBA)The purpose of this study was to determine effects of Information Technology strategies on United States International University-Africa’s organization performance. The study sought to establish how blackboard affects learning efficiency, library information systems affect academic research output and how enterprise systems integration affects productivity at United States International University-Africa. The study considered quantitative methods and descriptive statistics features predominantly in the collection and analysis of data. Descriptive statistics addresses the research questions through empirical assessments that involve numerical measurements and statistical analysis. The variables identified in the research topic were organization performance as the dependent variable and information technology strategies as independent variables.
The study sought to establish the relationship between the chosen variables and to what extent each variable affects the performance of United States International University-Africa. The population of study was 392 staff at the university. Sampling technique chosen for this study was stratified random sampling technique using a sample of 137 respondents, approximately 35% of the target population. A structured questionnaire was formulated using the research questions in the study and was self-administered and sent to constituents through email and drop and pick hard copies method. In this study, the descriptive statistics such as percentages and frequency distribution was used to аnаlyze the demographic profile of the participants. In order to describe the data, the study used means of each variable and correlation аnаlysis between the independent and the dependent variable.
The findings revealed that Blackboard e-learning is aligned to the mission of the university and the institution encourages its use to support learning. The study established that Blackboard makes it easy to organize course-learning outcomes and has improved course content delivery. The second objective revealed that there was uncertainty on number of scholarly publications at the university have increased since the introduction of library information systems. In addition, the Online Public Access Catalog search engine has easy to use features. The third objective revealed that enterprise system integration has contributed to a reduction in labor costs due to streamlined operations and better decision making. The findings revealed that integrated systems reduce the orientation and training effort and allows university employees to work and resolve issues from a single workstation.
It is recommended that the university needs to encourage production of more literary material conveniently using the Online Public Access Catalog s. There is a need to educate the employees on the benefits of Blackboard considering the amount of investment made. Students should be encouraged to use of Blackboard to support peer learning. Secondly, the university needs to create awareness on increased number of scholarly publications at the university’s library information systems. Lastly, the university needs to maintain enterprise system integration to reduce labor costs because of streamlined operations. Data security needs to be enhanced to safeguard the institution’s data.
Further studies need to be undertaken in other private and public learning institution to be able to compare and generalize the findings. Other studies should also be done to determine student’s perception and use of the internet as a hub for learning and the effect of modern technology on students’ performanc
Effects of Selected Porter’s Five Forces on Competitive Advantage in Steel Industry: A Case of Flat-Steel Segment
No full textA Research Project Report Submitted to the Chandaria School of Business in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Masters in Business Administration (MBA)advantage in steel industry in Kenya. The specific objective of the study was to examine the effect of the bargaining power of consumers, intensity of rivalry and threat of new entrants on competitive advantage within the steel industry in Kenya. The study focused on Mabati Rolling Mills Limited.
The target population was the 112 staff working in senior and middle level management at Mabati Rolling Mills Limited. The actual study was carried out between May and August 2017.The study adopted a stratified random sampling method to select 82% of the target population giving an ample size of 93 respondents. The study adopted primary data which was collected through structured questionnaires administered using emails and drop-and-pick method. The qualitative data collected was analysed content-wise and subsequently presented in prose form. Thereafter, inferential and descriptive statistics were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 21).The said descriptive statistics included mean, standard deviation, frequency and percentages of the data collected. Inferential statistics used correlation analysis to establish the relationship between the independent and dependent variables of the study which were the selected Porter’s five forces and competitive advantage respectively.
The study established that the bargaining power of consumers affects the competitiveness of organizations in the steel industry in Kenya and that favourable and attractive product prices create value to the customers who purchase an organization’s products thus helping an organization deliver consistent profits. The positive relationship between bargaining power of buyers/consumers and competitive advantage in the steel industry was affirmed. It was further established that the bargaining power of buyers influences consumers purchasing decisions thus affecting return on investment positively or negatively. The study further established that intensity of rivalry amongst the players in the steel industry in Kenya affects the competitive advantage of companies within the industry. In addition, product differentiation creates value to customers and consumers thus making an organization a winner in this highly competitive industry. The study revealed that the entry of new players in the steel industry has affected the companies’ pricing strategies. Furthermore, in spite of the stiff competition in the flat-steel industry in Kenya, it is still very attractive for long-term profitability hence the entry of new players. It was established that due to the entry of new players in the industry, the return on investment and indeed profitability for players have been affected.
The study concludes that bargaining power of consumers, intensity of competitive rivalry and threat of new entrants do influence the competitive advantage of firms in the steel industry in Kenya and that innovation and high level of competition increases competitive advantage in the long run. Each of these forces influence a firm’s competitive advantage at a different level and extent, depending on the industry the firm operates in. Moreover, the competitive forces determine the intensity of competition and hence the profitability and attractiveness of the industry. Therefore, information derived from an analysis of the selected Porter’s Five Forces helps management decide how to influence or exploit particular characteristics of their industry.
The study recommends that a further study be conducted to establish whether findings from this study are applicable to other industries. Additionally, the study suggests that detailed research could be done to ascertain the effect of all the Five Forces as opposed to selected Porter’s Five Forces in a package, as were the case in this study. Further, a study could also be conducted on individual players within each force such as the effect of threat of new entrants, bargaining power of suppliers, bargaining power of buyers, intensity of rivalry, threat of substitutes and government policies on performance of companies within and outside the industry
The Influence of Economic Policies in Business Tourism: A Comparative Case Study of Kenya and South Africa
No full textA Thesis Submitted To The School Of Humanities And Social Sciences In Partial Fulfillment Of The Requirements For The Degree Of Master Of Arts In International RelationsThe primary objective of this study was to carry out a comparative case study research on the influence of economic policies in business tourism in Kenya and South Africa. This study intended to present a comparative point of view regarding the influence of economic policies on the business tourism industry with reference between Kenya and the Republic of South Africa. The objectives of the study included the need to examine the economic policies of Kenya and South Africa in relation to the business tourism sector, the need to assess the economic contribution of conference tourism in Kenya, the need to discuss and analyze the factors that lead to an attractive business tourism destination using South Africa and Kenya as case studies as well as the intention to assess South Africa's development in business tourism over 2005- 2015.
The study adopted a case study approach to a research and employed secondary research in gathering and analyzing relevant data for the purpose of informing this study and presenting a concrete inference. The study found out that there a great disparity in a number of capital investments in the sector with Kenya posing a 5.0 billion in 2015. South Africa enjoys economic policies that foster businesses competitiveness, safety, security, and affordability in its tourism offing compared to Kenya. The South African economic policies continue to create a business environment that is attractive to both investors in the MICE tourism sector as well as clients who are willing to consume the offerings of the sector in the country. Compared to Kenya, the country boasts of a high reputation which also contributes to elevating investor as well as customer confidence in the country's MICE sector. Incentivizing the industry has also helped pricing in the South African Mice industry to remain very competitive compared to Kenya which in most cases thrives on high–end services
The Relationship between Childhood Trauma, Adult Trauma and the Severity of Adult Criminal Behavior Committed by Female Clients at Langata Women’s Maximum Prison
No full textA Thesis Submitted to the School of Humanities and Social Sciences in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master of Arts in Clinical PsychologyChildren face various forms of traumatic experiences such as psychological, sexual, emotional or physical abuse (Payne, Gainey & Carey, 2007) which may be compounded by neglect (Hume, 2011; United Nations Children’s Fund, 2014). Abuse experienced in childhood is thought to set in motion psychological distress in adolescence or adulthood which may adversely affect the concerned individual in many ways such as the forging of intimate relationships in adulthood or engaging in criminal behavior (Nguyen, Karney & Bradbury, 2016). The focus of this paper was to investigate whether there was a link between severity of criminal behavior in adulthood and a history of adult or childhood trauma among female offenders. The study engaged 100 adult female offenders at the Lang’ata Women’s Maximum Prison, Nairobi. Rates of traumatic experience were higher in adults than in children. Significant positive correlations were found between general trauma and physical punishment r(100) = .44, p <.001, between general trauma and emotional trauma r(100) = .37, p <.001 and general trauma and sexual events r(100) = .33, p <.001. No interactions were found between the type of trauma one experiences and the severity of crime engaged in. There was no significant interaction between effects of childhood trauma and adult trauma on the severity of crime committed. Misdemeanors, the least severe classification, was found to occur at a higher frequency (n= 40) when compared to felonies (n = 36) and capital offences (n = 24), the most punitive classification for the participants in the present study
Effects of Exclusive Breastfeeding on Cognitive Development during Early Childhood in Kahawa West Ward, Nairobi, Kenya
No full textA Research Thesis Submitted to the School of Humanities and Social Sciences in Partial fulfillment for the Degree of Master of Arts in Clinical PsychologyBackground: The effects of breastfeeding during infancy have been a major point of inquiry among scientists. Scientists link breastfeeding to child cognitive, educational, mental, behavioral and psychomotor development (Kramer, 2008; Oddy, 2006). The literature was sourced using the relevant research articles from Psych Net, PubMed and Google Scholar among others.
Objectives: The general objective of the research was to find out the effects of exclusive breastfeeding on cognitive development on early childhood in Kamae, Kiwanja and Soweto slums at Kahawa West ward, Nairobi, Kenya.
Key words: cognitive development, low birthweight, exclusive breastfeeding, infants and toddlers and postnatal period.
Methodology: The research design was expostfacto in which the children who were exclusively breastfed for the first six months of birth were compared with their counterparts who were formula fed. Cognitive assessment was done for both groups using Bayley’s Screening test for infant development between 1-42 months. Total number of children was 180,(Females=93, males= 87).
Results: The results showed that there was no significant difference in cognitive development between the exclusively breastfed and the formula fed (M=1.444, SD=0.5) and (M=1.556, SD=0.5) respectively. ANOVA comparing the two groups was [F (1, 179) = 0.088, p= 0.767].Likewise there was no gender difference in cognitive functioning.ANOVA comparing the two groups (,males=87 and females=93) was[F (1,180) =0.147, p=0.997]. Socioeconomic status and cognitive development was not assessed.
Conclusion:
The research concludes that there is no difference in cognitive functioning of exclusively breastfed compared to the formula fed.Gender difference was also insignificant. Finally more longitudinal studies need to be done with large samples to establish the cause and effect of the investigated variables