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Tax Expenditures in the Tax System
No full textThe paper discusses the use of what are known as tax expenditures in various member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), with a view to analyzing the scope of state aid in these countries. Tax expenditures are defined as losses to the Treasury from granting certain deductions, exemptions, or credits to specific categories of taxpayers. Tax breaks are one method that the government uses to promote certain policy objectives. Tax expenditures are an alternative to direct government spending on policy programs. A specific feature of this type of assistance is that it takes place through the revenue side of the budget and not through direct spending. In most countries, government revenue is predominately generated from taxes. This explains why tax expenditures are usually part of the tax system and take the form of various tax breaks, exemptions, deferments or credits. Their use leads to reduced tax burdens, thus being a hidden form of subsidizing specific policy objectives or groups of taxpayers. This invariably leads to a situation in which an increased part of public spending spins out of control and is not subject to standard budgetary rules, the author says. This form of assistance needs to be identified and evaluated properly, Wyszkowski says, because it leads to a lack of transparency in the government’s policies with regard to businesses and the public. The author analyzes this method of subsidizing in comparison with direct spending from the budget. In some cases, the use of tax expenditures in the tax system may prove to be more expensive than direct spending from the budget, according to Wyszkowski. An analysis of tax expenditures helps determine the effectiveness of specific government policies. This is especially important in the context of the ongoing debate on reforming the public finance system, Wyszkowski says
Koncepcja tax expenditures w systemie podatkowym
Get PDFThe paper discusses the use of what are known as tax expenditures in various member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), with a view to analyzing the scope of state aid in these countries. Tax expenditures are defined as losses to the Treasury from granting certain deductions, exemptions, or credits to specific categories of taxpayers. Tax breaks are one method that the government uses to promote certain policy objectives. Tax expenditures are an alternative to direct government spending on policy programs. A specific feature of this type of assistance is that it takes place through the revenue side of the budget and not through direct spending. In most countries, government revenue is predominately generated from taxes. This explains why tax expenditures are usually part of the tax system and take the form of various tax breaks, exemptions, deferments or credits. Their use leads to reduced tax burdens, thus being a hidden form of subsidizing specific policy objectives or groups of taxpayers. This invariably leads to a situation in which an increased part of public spending spins out of control and is not subject to standard budgetary rules, the author says. This form of assistance needs to be identified and evaluated properly, Wyszkowski says, because it leads to a lack of transparency in the government’s policies with regard to businesses and the public. The author analyzes this method of subsidizing in comparison with direct spending from the budget. In some cases, the use of tax expenditures in the tax system may prove to be more expensive than direct spending from the budget, according to Wyszkowski. An analysis of tax expenditures helps determine the effectiveness of specific government policies. This is especially important in the context of the ongoing debate on reforming the public finance system, Wyszkowski says
Business as a supported area by income taxes
No full textSystem podatkowy prawie w każdym państwie, oprócz funkcji fiskalnej,
realizuje określone funkcje pozafiskalne. Ustawodawca, oddziałując przez podatki,
oczekuje od podatników podjęcia lub ograniczenia określonych działań. Jedną z takich
grup podatników stanowią przedsiębiorcy. Ich wsparcie przez system podatkowy jest
związane przede wszystkim z chęcią wzmocnienia działalności inwestycyjnej, mającej
przyczynić się do przyspieszenia tempa wzrostu gospodarczego. Rodzaj oraz zakres
stosowanych rozwiązań w tym obszarze (tzw. tax expenditures) jest różnorodny. Występują
one w szczególności w ramach podatków dochodowych, które są głównym przedmiotem
analizy opracowania. Wielkość wsparcia uzależniona jest od możliwości budżetowych,
a także od przypisywanej podatkom roli w polityce gospodarczej realizowanej
przez poszczególne państwa. Ma to również swoje odzwierciedlenie we wpływie tych
działań na tempo zmian PKB.In almost every country the tax system is used to achieve not only fiscal
goals. One of them is supporting enterprises by creating tax expenditures to help them
especially in investments. It is very important in realization economic policy by government.
In many countries this kind of public aid is integrated into income taxes. By tax
allowances, exemptions, rate reliefs, tax deferrals or credits government try to make tax
liability lower for specific tax subjects or entities. In this article author analyzed Polish
and US tax expenditures systems in creating fiscal aid for business
Going Beyond Counting First Authors in Author Co-citation Analysis
Get PDFThe present study examines one of the fundamental aspects of author co-citation analysis (ACA) - the way co-citation
counts are defined. Co-citation counting provides the data on which all subsequent statistical analyses and mappings
are based, and we compare ACA results based on two different types of co-citation counting - the traditional type that
only counts the first one among a cited work's authors on the one hand and a non-traditional type that takes into
account the first 5 authors of a cited work on the other hand. Results indicate that the picture produced through this non-traditional author co-citation counting contains more coherent author groups and is therefore considerably clearer. However, this picture represents fewer specialties in the research field being studied than that produced through the traditional first-author co-citation counting when the same number of top-ranked authors is selected and analyzed. Reasons for these effects are discussed
Variations on the Author
Get PDF“Variations on the Author” discusses two of Eduardo Coutinho’s recent films (Um Dia na Vida, from 2010, and Últimas Conversas, posthumously released in 2015) and their contribution to the general question of documentary authorship. The director’s filmography is characterized by a consistent yet self-effacing form of authorial self-inscription: Coutinho often features as an interviewer that rather than express opinions propels discourses; an interviewer that is good at listening. This mode of self-inscription characterizes him as an author who is not expressive but who is nonetheless markedly present on the screen. In Um Dia na Vida, however, Coutinho is completely absent form the image, while Últimas Conversas, on the contrary, includes a confessional prologue that moves the director from the margins to the center of his films. This article examines the ways in which these works stand out in the filmography of a director who offers new insights into the notion of cinematic authorship
Appropriate Similarity Measures for Author Cocitation Analysis
Get PDFWe provide a number of new insights into the methodological discussion about author cocitation analysis. We first argue that the use of the Pearson correlation for measuring the similarity between authors’ cocitation profiles is not very satisfactory. We then discuss what kind of similarity measures may be used as an alternative to the Pearson correlation. We consider three similarity measures in particular. One is the well-known cosine. The other two similarity measures have not been used before in the bibliometric literature. Finally, we show by means of an example that our findings have a high practical relevance.information science;Pearson correlation;cosine;similarity measure;author cocitation analysis
Dispelling the Myths Behind First-author Citation Counts
Get PDFWe conducted a full-scale evaluative citation analysis study of scholars in the XML research field to explore just how different from each other author rankings resulting from different citation counting methods actually are, and to demonstrate the capability of emerging data and tools on the Web in supporting more realistic citation counting methods. Our results contest some common arguments for the continued
use of first-author citation counts in the evaluation of scholars, such as high correlations between author rankings by first-author citation counts and other citation
counting methods, and high costs of using more realistic citation counting methods that are not well-supported by the ISI databases. It is argued that increasingly available digital full text research papers make it possible for citation analysis studies to go beyond what the ISI databases have directly supported and to employ more
sophisticated methods
koamabayili/VECTRON-author-checklist: VECTRON author checklist
No full textWe have done our best to complete the author checklist relating to the use of animals in the hut study. Note that the objective for the hut study was to evaluate the IRS treatment applications for residual efficacy against Anopheles mosquitoes, including the local An. coluzzii mosquito population. Cows were only used to attract mosquitoes into the huts and no tests were carried out directly on the cows. The author checklist is intended for use with studies where experiments are carried out on animals, which is why we have had such difficulty in completing this for the hut study, as many of the questions do not relate to how the cows were used
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