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<Articles>The Avarizhane in the 16ᵗʰ century Ottoman Empire: Through a Case Study of the Ankara Sancaği
No full textThere are many unknown aspects regarding the 16ᵗʰ century avarızhane (household as extraordinary tax unit), generally written as hane or hane-i avarız in the first half of the 16ᵗʰ, of the Ottoman Empire; for example, the relationship between avarızhane and hane (household as tax unit), tax-bearing scale of each avarızhane, the process of setting avarızhane and others. This paper aims to clarify the procedure used to set avarızhane, mainly through a case study of the Ankara sancağı (sub-province). Generally, avarızhane and hane were used synonymously, and naturally, their numbers were the same in the reigns of Bayezid Ⅱ and Selim Ⅰ. However, both these tax units were completely different from each other. Avarızhane had an average and homogeneous tax-bearing power, which was formed for the allocation of the avarız tax (extraordinary tax). Moreover, although the number of avarızhane was recorded in the tahrir defteri (record of taxation survey), it was investigated each time avarız tax was collected; interestingly, avarız tax was collected on the basis of the number that actually existed. Therefore, I call the number recorded in the tahrir defteri, the standard number of avarızhane. Later, in the Ankara sancağı, the system of avarızhane was reformed twice during the reign of Süleyman Ⅰ. The first reform was done after tahrir (taxation survey) in 1523. Originally, the number of avarızhane should have been replaced with the number revealed by the survey, but it was not changed. The number used since former Sultan, Selim Ⅰ, was continued. This same number existed during the Iran expedition in 1514. As a result, avarızhane and hane became different numbers. This reform aimed at reducing the burden on reaya (ruled class), as seen in other tax amendments, since many reaya were exhausted during the late reigns of Bayezid Ⅱ and Selim Ⅰ. For example, the number of avarızhane that existed in 1514 was considerably less than the standard number of avarızhane at that time; moreover, the decreased rate was 22.4% in Anadolu eyaleti (province), 18.3% in Karaman eyaleti, 45.1% in Rum eyaleti and 26.0% overall. The second reform was done by the mid-16ᵗʰ century at the latest. In this reform, the tax-bearing scale of each avarızhane was changed to 1 çftlik (919.3 m2) of agricultural land or its equivalent; consequently, avarızhane decreased significantly. For example, the standard number of avarızhane in the Ankara, Çıbık, and Murtazaâbâd kazası (district) changed from 2782 to 1580, from 2153 to 1211, and from 1331 to 898, respectively. Through this, the government aimed at a more fair and just collection of the avarız tax. Furthermore, the standard number of avarızhane set at that time was followed until the beginning of the 17ᵗʰ century without major changes. As is well known, Ottoman historians have long argued when avarızhane came to be composed in multiple hanes. However, based on the considerations in this paper, it is no longer clear that such problem setting itself was a mistake
<Note>On Bad-ı hava Tax in Tahrir Registers during the Ottoman Period : A Case Study of Hüdavendigār Province, particularly Göynük District, around 1500
No full text<Article>Problems and Reforms of the Dirlik System : The Ottoman Empire and the European Countries at the End of the Seventeenth Century
No full textSocial changes that intensified in the Ottoman Empire from the last half of the sixteenth century, also accompanied by the appearance of new warfare forms, seriously impacted the Dirlik system of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman state, which was to secure a vast amount of state capital and achieve a gigantic troop mobilization, upgraded the Dirlik system. This, however, not only made owners of medium and small Dirlik holders bankrupt but also deteriorated the quality of soldiers and accelerated the decay of the local public order, typically seen in the form of illegal tax accumulations undertaken by the local rulers. Thus, when the Ottoman-Austria war broke out at the end of the seventeenth century, these problems increased in severity, placing the Ottoman state in a precarious position. The Ottoman state, at last understanding that it could no longer cope with the problems by slightly modifying the Dirlik system, adopted new policies that positioned the local districts (called kaza) in a more important administrative framework than in the past, accompanied by a much active role played by the local ayan-notables. The Ottoman state relied on the leadership abilities displayed by the ayan-people within the kaza-districts and on the wealth they had accumulated. These policies, widely accepted without serious local resistance, led to a smoother mobilization of soldiers, ending of illegal tax collection, and stabilization of the public order. This article is a study of the social crisis in the seventeenth century Ottoman state and the reform policies undertaken by government, and it discusses how the system of military mobilization and tax collection, and means of public order maintenance were improved in Bolu kazasi and its surrounding regions. Since similar policies were adopted in European countries during the same period, we might be able to discern here the principal policies required for the early-modern state system
<Article>Compilation of the 'Kitab-i Kavanin-i Örfiyye-i Osmani' under the Reign of Bayazid II
No full text<Article>The Levy of Oarsman in the Seventeenth Century Ottoman Empire : Through the Case Study in the Bolu District
No full textThe levy of oarsman was one of the avarız (extraordinary) taxes in the Ottoman Empire. Therefore, reaya (ruled class) were levied. In the seventeenth century, sancak (sub-province) which was ordered most often it was the Bolu one with the Bolu kazası (district). It was performed under the supervisin of the kadi (judge in an Islamic court), as the responsibility of the district. Firstly, for setting the levy unit ordered by the government, villages were grouped according to the following original understanding, 1) to form a group in each area ― nefs-i Bolu, sazak and Gökçesu area ―, 2) to form a group in neighboring villages, 3) to permit to form a group beyond the area boundaries in regard to the villages near the area boundaries, 4) to avoid the fragmentation of the avarızhane (group of households liable for extraordinary tax) as much as possible, 5) to form a group around the large village of the number of the avarızhane, and after this work assignment register was prepared. Secondly, oarsmen and their guarantors were determined through the mutual consultation in each group described in the assignment register. But oarsmen were obtained from other groups in the almost half groups of the all ones. Az for their guarantors, almost were occupied by people from the same village as them. It seems that reayaʼs evasive tendency was considerably strong. Therefore, existence of a human network was indispensable for securing oarsman. By the way, the naib (assistant judge) generally came to perform the duties of the kadi in the second half of the seventeenth century. However, the term in his office was short, and besides he was busy. So, role played by ayan (local notables) more and more increased in importance. In addition, the system which was adapted in the levy of oarsman is considered a common system in the levy of the reaya, because it was adapted in the one of the nefir-i am (general call to arms) and the server of the wood transportation, too
Going Beyond Counting First Authors in Author Co-citation Analysis
Get PDFThe present study examines one of the fundamental aspects of author co-citation analysis (ACA) - the way co-citation
counts are defined. Co-citation counting provides the data on which all subsequent statistical analyses and mappings
are based, and we compare ACA results based on two different types of co-citation counting - the traditional type that
only counts the first one among a cited work's authors on the one hand and a non-traditional type that takes into
account the first 5 authors of a cited work on the other hand. Results indicate that the picture produced through this non-traditional author co-citation counting contains more coherent author groups and is therefore considerably clearer. However, this picture represents fewer specialties in the research field being studied than that produced through the traditional first-author co-citation counting when the same number of top-ranked authors is selected and analyzed. Reasons for these effects are discussed
Variations on the Author
Get PDF“Variations on the Author” discusses two of Eduardo Coutinho’s recent films (Um Dia na Vida, from 2010, and Últimas Conversas, posthumously released in 2015) and their contribution to the general question of documentary authorship. The director’s filmography is characterized by a consistent yet self-effacing form of authorial self-inscription: Coutinho often features as an interviewer that rather than express opinions propels discourses; an interviewer that is good at listening. This mode of self-inscription characterizes him as an author who is not expressive but who is nonetheless markedly present on the screen. In Um Dia na Vida, however, Coutinho is completely absent form the image, while Últimas Conversas, on the contrary, includes a confessional prologue that moves the director from the margins to the center of his films. This article examines the ways in which these works stand out in the filmography of a director who offers new insights into the notion of cinematic authorship
Appropriate Similarity Measures for Author Cocitation Analysis
Get PDFWe provide a number of new insights into the methodological discussion about author cocitation analysis. We first argue that the use of the Pearson correlation for measuring the similarity between authors’ cocitation profiles is not very satisfactory. We then discuss what kind of similarity measures may be used as an alternative to the Pearson correlation. We consider three similarity measures in particular. One is the well-known cosine. The other two similarity measures have not been used before in the bibliometric literature. Finally, we show by means of an example that our findings have a high practical relevance.information science;Pearson correlation;cosine;similarity measure;author cocitation analysis
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