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La tutela internazionale dei diritti contrattuali degli investitori esteri
Full text linkValeria Tonini
XXII Ciclo
International Protection of the Foreign Investors’ Contractual Rights
ABSTRACT
The aim of the research is to explore the possible ways under the general international law and international conventional law to protect the contractual rights that foreign investors alleged to be violated by the host States.
Because of the new treaty based arbitration, the multilateral and bilateral investment treaties of the last twenty years helped to cut down the role of the diplomatic protection.
The definition of investment played a prominent role in the research, in particular under the international conventional law: the wider is the meaning of the notion, the broader is the scope of the application of the treaties. International scholars and arbitral case-law tried to restrain the so called “asset based definitions” which are often included in the bilateral treaties; the several references to elements such as the risk and the contribution to economic development of the host State helped to limit the extension of the claims to performance pursuant to contract having an economic value.
Under the international conventional law, there are two different kinds of clauses included in the investment treaties which provide for the protection of the contractual rights, first of all the umbrella clauses. The restrictive interpretation is based on the fact that it is impossible to transform the infringement of an internal obligation in an international unlawful act. Though this interpretation prevailed, it still can be rebutted in case the Parties of the treaty expressed their proper consent. Hence the use of the “effet utile” as method of interpretation is decisive in order to recognise the protection of the investors.
Secondly, the evolution of the fair and equitable treatment has been interpreted as an obligation including the protection of the legitimate expectations, namely the ones concerning the continuity of the internal rules related to the investment which the individuals knew at the pre-investment stage. This triggers the natural reduction of the scope of application of the umbrella clauses, because it excludes the contractual obligations entered in by the State.
The protection under general international law seems to pull for fewer expectations.
On the one hand, though, it is possible to foreseen an evolution with regard to some very argued aspects: the state of necessity and the rule of prior exhaustion of the domestic remedies. The former concerns the extension of the notion of “essential interest”; the latter deals with the definitive erosion of the need of the prior exhaustion of remedies.
On the other hand the effect of the new stabilization clauses which are now adopted in the investment contracts (the so called “equilibrium clauses”) could be granted by the application whether of the bona fide principle or of minimum standard treatment broadly interpreted.
The relation between the minimum standard and the fair and equitable treatment is the key issue in order to foreseen a prominent position of the contractual obligation: the increased references to one of the criteria legitimating the investors’ expectations (the specificness of the obligation) allow to argue in favour of the extension of the scope of the fair and equitable treatment towards the contractual rights.Valeria Tonini
XXII Ciclo
LA TUTELA INTERNAZIONALE DEI DIRITTI CONTRATTUALI DEGLI INVESTITORI ESTERI
RIASSUNTO
Oggetto della presente ricerca è stata la possibile ricostruzione di ipotesi di tutela sul piano del diritto internazionale generale e pattizio a favore dei diritti contrattuali che gli investitori esteri assumono essere stati violati da parte dello Stato di accoglimento dell’investimento stesso.
Al ridimensionamento del ruolo della protezione diplomatica negli ultimi vent’anni ha contribuito fortemente il sistema creato dalla rete di appositi trattati bilaterali e multilaterali regionali, mediante l’introduzione del treaty based arbitration.
Un ruolo determinate nella ricerca è stato assunto dalla definizione di investimento, specialmente nell’ambito del diritto internazionale convenzionale: alla maggiore estensione della nozione di investimento si accompagna, infatti, l’allargamento del campo di applicazione dei trattati in materia. Dottrina e giurisprudenza arbitrale internazionale hanno tentato di contenere le cd. “asset based definitions” frequentemente adottate nei trattati bilaterali: la valorizzazione degli elementi del rischio e del contributo allo sviluppo dello Stato ospite ha contribuito a circoscrivere l’estesa categoria diritti contrattuali suscettibile di valutazione economica.
Dal punto di vista del diritto pattizio, le possibili forme di una tutela di tali diritti contrattuali oggetto dei trattati d’investimento sono rinvenibili sostanzialmente in due tipi di clausole in essi contenute: in primo luogo le umbrella clauses. L’interpretazione prevalentemente restrittiva, fondata sull’impossibilità di trasformare la violazione di un obbligo posto nel diritto interno in un illecito internazionale, può trovare un limite nel momento in cui si riconosce che gli Stati nei trattati d’investimento abbiano espressamente voluto convenire in tale senso. È qui che il criterio interpretativo dell’effetto utile risulta determinante al fine di ricostruire una forma di tutela azionabile dagli investitori.
In secondo luogo, l’evoluzione dell’obbligo di trattamento equo e giusto ha portato ad includervi la tutela delle legittime aspettative, ed in particolar modo quelle che hanno ad oggetto il mantenimento dell’apparato normativo e regolamentare che l’investitore è in grado di conoscere nel momento in cui si predispone ad avviare l’investimento nello Stato di accoglimento e che riguardano specificamente tale operazione economica. Da ciò si può trarre la naturale riduzione del campo di applicazione delle umbrella clauses in quanto ne vengono esclusi gli obblighi assunti dallo Stato ospite per contratto
Permangono ridotte le aspettative di tutela dal punto di vista del diritto internazionale generale. Da un lato, tuttavia, è possibile prevedere un’incidenza su almeno due aspetti ultimamente molto dibattuti: lo stato di necessità e la regola del previo esaurimento dei ricorsi interni. Nel primo caso nel senso di un ampliamento del concetto di interesse essenziale, nel secondo nella direzione di una definitiva erosione della esigenza del previo esaurimento.
Dall’altro si assiste all’adozione di nuove clausole di stabilizzazione nei contratti d’investimento (le c.d. clausole di rinegoziazione) la cui efficacia sul piano del diritto internazionale potrebbe essere garantita o mediante l’invocazione del principio di buona fede o attraverso un’applicazione estensiva del minimum standard treatment.
Proprio nel rapporto tra minimum standard treatment e obbligo di trattamento equo e giusto è possibile prospettare una maggiore valorizzazione del vincolo contrattuale: il rilievo assunto dal criterio di specificità quale parametro di legittimazione delle aspettative degli investitori permette di delineare un all’allargamento della tutela del trattamento equo e giusto proprio ai diritti contrattuali
Liver surgery for colorectal metastasis: New paths and new goals with the help of artificial intelligence
No full textColorectal cancer is one of the most common neoplasia with an high risk to metastatic spread. Improving medical and surgical treatment is moving along with improving the precision of diagnosis and patient's assessment, the latter two aided more and more with the use of artificial intelligence (AI). The management of colorectal liver metastasis is multidisciplinary, and surgery is the main option. After the diagnosis, a surgical assessment of the patient is fundamental. Reaching a R0 resection with a proper remnant liver volume can be done using new techniques involving also artificial intelligence. Considering the recent application of artificial intelligence as a valid substitute for liver biopsy in chronic liver diseases, several authors tried to apply similar techniques to pre-operative imaging of liver metastasis. Radiomics showed good results in identifying structural changes in a unhealthy liver and in evaluating the prognosis after a liver resection. Recently deep learning has been successfully applied in estimating the remnant liver volume before surgery. Moreover AI techniques can help surgeons to perform an early diagnosis of neoplastic relapse or a better differen- tiation between a colorectal metastasis and a benign lesion. AI could be applied also in the histopathological diagnostic tool. Although AI implementation is still partially automatized, it appears faster and more precise than the usual diagnostic tools and, in the short future, could become the new gold standard in liver surgery
Colonic stent for bridge to surgery for acute left-sided malignant colonic obstruction: A review of the literature after 2020
Full text linkIt has been found that 8%-29% of colorectal cancers are obstructive. The use of “stent as bridge to surgery” is one of the most debated topics in obstructive left-sided colorectal cancer management. The endoscopic placement of a self-expanding metallic stent as bridge to surgery (BTS) could turn an emergency surgery to an elective one, increasing the number of primary anastomoses instead of stoma and facilitating the laparoscopic approach instead of an open one. However, in recent years the possible risk of perforations and microperforations facilitating cancer spread related to the use of self-expanding metallic stent for BTS has been highlighted. Therefore, despite the useful short-term outcomes related to BTS, the recent literature has focused on long-term outcomes investigating the disease-free survival, the recurrence rate and the overall survival. Due to discordant data, international guidelines are still conflicting, and the debate is still open. There is not agreement about using self-expanding metallic stent for BTS as the gold standard
IDENTIFYING PATIENTS WITH RIGHT ILIAC FOSSA PAIN AT VERY LOW RISK OF APPENDICITIS: PROSPECTIVE, MULTICENTRE VALIDATION AND CALIBRATION OF RISK SCORES
No full textGiant abdominal metastasis from cardiac liposarcoma
No full textGiant abdominal metastasis from cardiac liposarcom
Acute pancreatitis due to a Bochdalek hernia in an adult patient
No full textAcute pancreatitis due to a Bochdalek hernia in an adult patien
Going Beyond Counting First Authors in Author Co-citation Analysis
Full text linkThe present study examines one of the fundamental aspects of author co-citation analysis (ACA) - the way co-citation
counts are defined. Co-citation counting provides the data on which all subsequent statistical analyses and mappings
are based, and we compare ACA results based on two different types of co-citation counting - the traditional type that
only counts the first one among a cited work's authors on the one hand and a non-traditional type that takes into
account the first 5 authors of a cited work on the other hand. Results indicate that the picture produced through this non-traditional author co-citation counting contains more coherent author groups and is therefore considerably clearer. However, this picture represents fewer specialties in the research field being studied than that produced through the traditional first-author co-citation counting when the same number of top-ranked authors is selected and analyzed. Reasons for these effects are discussed
RIGHT SIDED DIVERTICULITIS IN EMERGENCY AND ELECTIVE SETTINGS: A SINGLE CENTRE EXPERIENCE
No full textIntroduzione
Right sided colonic diverticulitis is a rare condition in Western countries while is common in Asian ones. In most cases, right colonic diverticulitis mimicks an acute appendicitis and it is often diagnosed when explorative laparoscopy excludes the presence of appendicits. We report our experience in the treatment of right-side diverticulitis.
Pazienti e metodi
From September 2011 to May 2015 170 patients underwent surgical intervention for diverticular disease in our unit, both in emergency or elective setting. Pre- intra- and postoperative data of patients were prospectively registered. Uni and multivariate analysis was performed both for factors associated with postoperative morbidity and conversion to laparotomy. Statistical analysys was performed with SPSS v. 13.0. Significance was considered for p value < 0.05.
Risultati
17 patients (10%) was affected by right colonic diverticulitis and only 3 of them (17.6%) came from Asian countries. Male/female ratio was 1:1 with mean age of 5115 years, statistically lower respect to our cohort of patients with left side diverticulitis (6714 years; P<0.001). In 16 cases (94,1%) a surgical exploration was performed due to clinical and laboratoristic diagnosis of acute appendicitis. Only one patient underwent elective surgery for recurrent episodes of acute diverticulitis that required two hospital admissions. In 9 cases (52.9%) the disease was localized in the ascending colon while in the other 8 patients there was a caecal diverticulitis. 12 patients (70.6%) had Hinchey 1-2, in one case there were a generalized purulent peritonitis and in one case we found hemoperitoneum from diverticular bleeding. 13 patients (76.5%) underwent colonic resection with anastomosis while in the other 4 cases a diverticulectomy was performed with no postoperative events. Surgical interventions were performed with mini-invasive approach in 13 patients (76.5%) with a conversion rate of 29.4% (5 patients). Mean postoperative stay was 9 11 days. Overall postoperative morbidity rate was 12.6% (3 patients) according Calvien Dindo Classification. There was no postoperative in-hospital mortality. We also performed multivariate analysis to identify factors predicting overall, surgical ad medical complications but we did not find any significant factor. Also the logistic regression to identify factor predicting conversion from laparoscopic to open approach failed to find an independent variable.
Conclusioni
In our experience, right side colonic diverticulitis is a rare but not irrelevant condition also in Caucasian young individuals. Clinical and laboratoristic features of right diverticulitis can mimick other pathological contidion as acute appendicitis and often is misdiagnosed. Patients with acute right colonic diverticulitis can be treated safely with colonic resection and anastomosis. In selected cases isolated diverticulectomy can be an adequate approach
Laparoscopic repair for perforated peptic ulcer: our experience, a comparison with the open approach and a review of the literature.
Full text linkBackgrounds:
The incidence of perforated peptic ulcers has decreased during the last decades but the optimal treatment for these patients remains controversial. At the same time, a laparoscopic approach to this condition has been adopted by an increased number of surgeons. Therefore, this study wants to evaluate the postoperative results of the laparoscopic treatment of perforated peptic ulcer performed in one Italian center with extensive experience in laparoscopic surgery.
Methods:
This retrospective study includes 94 patients who were operated for perforated peptic ulcer peritonitis at “St. Orsola Hospital - Emergency Surgery Unit - University of Bologna” from May 2014 to December 2019. The patients’ charts were reviewed for demographics, surgical procedure, complications, and short-term outcomes.
Results:
The diagnosis was made clinically and confirmed by the presence of gas under diaphragm on abdominal X-ray. All patients underwent primary suture repair with or without omentopexy. Boey score 0 or 1 was found in 66 (70%) patients, Boey 2 or 3 in 28 (30%) patients. The operative time was between 35 and 255 minutes, with a mean of 93 minutes. The overall median hospital stay was 9.5 (1-60) days. Post-operative complications occurred in 19 (20%) patients and 18 (19%) patients died.
Conclusions:Perforated peptic ulcer is a severe condition that requires early hospital admission and immediate surgery. Laparoscopy in experienced centers and for selected patients is safe, associated with optimal outcomes and should be the preferred approach
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